Earth Materials and

Processes
MINERALS
What are Minerals?

 Naturally occurring. Minerals form by natural geologic processes.

Synthetic materials—that is, those produced in a laboratory or by
human intervention—are not considered minerals.
 Generally inorganic. Inorganic crystalline solids, such as ordinary
table salt (halite),that are found naturally in the ground are
considered minerals. (Organic compounds,on the other hand, are
generally not. Sugar, a crystalline solid that comes from sugarcane
or sugar beets, is a common example of such an organic
compound.)
 Solid substance. Only solid crystalline substances are considered
minerals. Ice (frozen water) fits this criterion and is considered a
mineral, whereas liquid water and water vapor do not.
What are Minerals?

 Orderly crystalline structure. Minerals are crystalline substances, which

means their atoms (ions) are arranged in an orderly, repetitive manner.
This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in regularly shaped objects
called crystals. Some naturally occurring solids, such as volcanic glass
(obsidian), lack a repetitive atomic structure and are not considered
minerals.
 Definite chemical composition that allows for some variation. Minerals
are chemical compounds having compositions that can be expressed
by a chemical formula.
 For example, the common mineral quartz has the formula SiO2, which indicates
that quartz consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms, in a ratio of one-to-two.
This proportion of silicon to oxygen is true for any sample of pure quartz, regardless
of its origin, size, or when it formed. However, the compositions of some minerals
vary within specific, well-defined limits. This occurs because certain elements can
substitute for others of similar size without changing the mineral’s internal structure.
Identification of Minerals

 There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish

minerals based on physical and chemical properties. Some minerals
can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments while
some can be assessed through their physical properties.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there
is usually no access to complex analytical techniques. Although a
particular mineral has different forms, the fundamental physical
properties are still the same. Useful physical properties to identify a
mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness,
cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the

crystal lattice – the arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a
specific pattern and with high symmetry. The reflection of certain
wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice results in the color
perceived by the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a
mineral as light is reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles'
of the mineral surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight
of the water with an equal volume.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions

or scratches. It is generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along

flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when
the mineral breaks into forms other than flat surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or
stress such as cutting, crushing, bending, or hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as
single or aggregated.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal

structure. They can be represented by a chemical formula, which
presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them. For example,
the mineral quartz has a chemical formula SiO2. Its crystal structure is
a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedral.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical
formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are
chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical

formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are
chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a
specified temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found
in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and base solutions. The
dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid.
Minerals composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal
structure have high melting points. For example, quartz melts above
1670°C.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals

can be analyzed through chemical and instrumental
analysis. Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are
performed to determine the crystal structure of the mineral.
Common Rock – Forming Minerals

 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica,

pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. All of the following silicate
minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of SiO2. It is a glassy-
looking hard substance with white streaks. Despite its
hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure
quartz is clear and transparent. Colored varieties of quartz
are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The grains
of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

Rose Quartz (top) and Smokey Quartz

(bottom)
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl(1−2)Si(3−2)O8,
where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard with a Mohs
hardness of 6. It is a light-colored material, usually white,
but they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a
glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals
that break along flat faces. Potassium Feldspar (Orthoclase)
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate
minerals. The most common examples are clear muscovite
and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging
from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage,
reducing it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the
flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.

Muscovite (top) and biotite (bottom)

are the two most abundant members
of the mica family.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition
of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X Ca or Mg and Y is either Mg,Fe,Al.
Augite is the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster
with streaks of white, light green, or light brown. It is generally
black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key
feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.
Augite.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness
ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most common
amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an opaque
characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin.

Hornblende.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical
composition of (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, but calcium, manganese, and
nickel can be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known
for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the
gemstone industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and
transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its
crystals have a granular shape.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Calcite
Calcite, a very abundant mineral, is the primary
constituent in the sedimentary rock limestone and the
metamorphic rock marble. A relatively soft mineral (3 on
the Mohs scale), calcite has three directions of cleavage
that meet at 75-degree angles.
ROCKS: It’s Three Main Categories
and Mineral Composition
What is rock?
 A rock is any solid mass of mineral,
or mineral-like matter (such as
volcanic glass), that occurs
naturally as part of our planet.
 Most rocks, like the sample of
granite shown in the Figure, occur
as aggregates of several different
minerals.
 The term aggregate implies that the
minerals are joined in such a way
that their individual properties are
retained.
 However, some rocks are
composed almost entirely of one
mineral. A common example is the
sedimentary rock limestone, which
occurs as an impure mass of the
mineral calcite.
Note that the different minerals that make up granite can be easily
identified.
Three Types of Rocks

 Rocks are classified according to how they are formed.

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or
lava.
2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to
extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process
called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of
sediments, a process called lithification.
The Rock Cycle
► One very useful device for
understanding rock groups and
the geologic processes that
transform one rock type into
another is the rock cycle
Identifying Rocks: Textures and
Composition
 The task of distinguishing among the three rock groups and naming
individual samples relies heavily on the ability to recognize their
textures and compositions. A rock’s mineral composition and
texture, in turn, are a reflection of the geologic processes that
created it.
 Texture - A rock’s texture refers to the size, shape, and/or the arrangement of
its mineral grains. The shape and arrangement of mineral grains has a
significant effect on a rock’s appearance and therefore provides clues to
whether a rock is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
 Composition - The composition of a rock refers to the abundance and type
of minerals it contains. Large mineral grains can often be identified by sight or
by their physical properties,while a hand lens or microscope may be needed
to identify small mineral grains. In addition, a few minerals can be identified
by a particular diagnostic property.
Classifying Igneous Rocks

 Igneous rocks are the solidified products of once-molten material

that was created by melting in the upper mantle or crust. Geologists
call molten rock magma when it is found at depth and lava when it
erupts at Earth’s surface. The distinguishing feature of most igneous
rocks is the interlocking arrangement of their mineral crystals that
develops as the molten material cools and solidifies. It further
classified into intrusive and extrusive.
 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath
the earth. They are coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma
allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the
surface of the earth. They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks
ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions. They are fine-
grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface.
Igneous Rock Textures

 Igneous rocks form when molten rock cools and crystallizes. The
interlocking assemblage of silicate minerals that develop as the
molten material cools gives most igneous rocks their distinctive
crystalline appearance. The rate at which magma cools determines
the size of the interlocking crystals found in igneous rocks. The slower
the cooling rate, the larger the mineral crystals.
Igneous Rock Textures

Coarse-Grained
(Phaneritic) Texture
 When a large mass of magma solidifies at
depth, it cools slowly and forms igneous rock
that exhibit a coarse-grained texture. These
rocks have intergrown crystal that are roughly
equal in size and large enough that the
individual minerals within can be identified
with the unaided eye. A hand lens or
binocular microscope can greatly assist in
mineral identification.
Igneous Rock Textures

Fine-Grained
(Aphanitic) Texture
 Igneous rocks that form when molten material
cools rapidly at the surface or as small masses
within the upper crust exhibit a fine-grained
texture. Fine-grained igneous rocks are
composed of individual crystals that are too
small to be identified without strong
magnification.
Igneous Rock Textures

Porphyritic Texture
 A porphyritic texture results when molten
rock cools in two different environments. The
resulting rock consists of larger crystals
embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals. The
larger crystals are termed phenocrysts, and
the smaller, surrounding crystals are called
groundmass, or matrix.
Igneous Rock Textures

Glassy Texture
 During explosive volcanic eruptions, molten
rock is ejected into the atmosphere, where it
is quenched (cooled to a solid state) very
quickly. When the material solidifies before
the atoms arrange themselves into an orderly
crystalline structure, the rocks exhibit a glassy
texture that may resemble manufactured
glass or fibers of spun glass.
Igneous Rock Textures

Vesicular Texture
 Common features of some fine-grained and
glassy extrusive igneous rocks are the voids
left by gas bubbles that escape as lava
solidifies.
 These somewhat spherical openings are
called vesicles, and the rocks that contain
them have a vesicular texture
Igneous Rock Textures

Fragmental (Pyroclastic)
Texture
 Volcanoes sometimes blast fine ash, molten
blobs, and/or angular blocks torn from the
walls of the vent into the air during eruptions.
Igneous rocks composed of these rock
fragments have a fragmental (pyroclastic)
texture
Composition of Igneous Rocks

 Despite their significant compositional diversity, igneous rocks (and

the magmas from which they form) can be divided into four groups,
based on the pro :portions of light and dark silicate minerals:
Felsic(or granitic), Intermediate(or andesitic), Mafic (or basaltic) and
Ultramafic.
Composition Rock Textures

Felsic (or granitic)

 Felsic (or granitic) igneous rocks are
composed mainly of the light-colored
minerals quartz and potassium feldspar, with
lesser amounts of plagioclase feldspar.
• Recall that feldspar crystals can be identified by
their rectangular shapes, flat surfaces, and
tendency to be pink, white, or dark gray in color.

• Quartz grains, on the other hand, are glassy and

somewhat rounded and tend to be light gray.

• Dark-colored minerals account for no more

than15 percent of the minerals in rocks in this
group.
Composition Rock Textures

Intermediate (or andesitic)

 Intermediate (or andesitic) rocks are mixtures
of both light-colored minerals (mainly
plagioclase feldspar) and dark-colored
minerals (mainly amphibole). Dark minerals
comprise between 15 percent and 45
percent of these rocks.
Composition Rock Textures

Mafic (or basaltic)

 Mafic (or basaltic) rocks contain abundant
dark-colored minerals (mainly pyroxene and
olivine) that account for between 45 percent
and 85 percent of their composition.
Plagioclase feldspar makes up the bulk of the
remainder.
Composition Rock Textures

Ultramafic
 Ultramafic rocks are composed almost
entirely of the dark silicate minerals pyroxene
and olivine and are seldom observed at
Earth’s surface. However, the ultramafic rock
peridotite is a major constituent of Earth’s
upper mantle.
Activity 1. Identifying Igneous Rock Textures
1. Identify the igneous rock texture of the following samples (A – H)
Activity 1. Identifying Igneous Rock Textures
 Answers:  Answers:

A. Coarse – Grained (Phanertic) Texture E. Porhyritic Texture

B. Coarse – Grained (Phaneritic) Texture F. Fine –Grained (Aphanitic) Texture

C. Fine – Grained (Aphanitic) Texture G. Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture

D. Vesicular Texture H. Glassy Texture

Identifying Igneous Rocks

 Use a Igneous Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock

samples and record them using a Igneous Rock Chart.
Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks form at or near Earth’s surface from the products

of weathering. This material, called sediment, is transported by
erosional agents (water, wind, or ice) as solid particles or ions in
solution to their site of deposition.
 The processes of lithification(meaning “to turn to stone”) transforms the
sediment into solid rock. Sedimentary rocks cover much of Earth’s
surface and may contain organic matter (oil, gas, and coal) and fossils.
The layering that develops when sediment is deposited is the most
recognizable feature of sedimentary rocks. These layers, called strata, or
beds, usually accumulate in nearly horizontal sheets that can be as thin
as a piece of paper or tens of meters thick. (see compaction and
cementation of sediments)
Sedimentary Rocks

 Materials that accumulate as sediment have two principal sources. First,

sediments may originate as solid particles from weathered rocks. These
particles are called detritus, and the rocks that they form are called
detrital sedimentary rocks. The second major source of sediment is
soluble material produced by chemical weathering.
 Detrital sedimentary rocks consist of mineral grains or rock fragments derived from
mechanical and chemical weathering that are transported and deposited as
solid particles. Clay minerals are the most abundant solid products of chemical
weathering. Quartz is abundant in detrital rocks because it is extremely durable.
Geologists use particle size to distinguish among detrital sedimentary rocks.
 Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are products of mineral matter that
were dissolved in water and later precipitated. Precipitation may occur as a result
of processes such as evaporation or temperature change or as a result of life
processes, such as those that result in the formation of shells. Sediment formed by
life processes has a biochemical origin. Limestone, which is composed of calcite
(CaCO ) is the most common mineral in chemical sedimentary rocks and may
3

originate either from chemical or biological processes.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Composition of Sedimentary Rocks

 Determining the mineral composition of sedimentary rocks is an

important step in their identification. Most sedimentary rocks contain a
high percentage of one of the following:
 Clay minerals ~ Rocks composed of clay minerals are very fine grained, soft, and
can be scratched with an iron nail.
 Quartz ~ Sedimentary rocks composed mainly of quartz usually consist of sand-size
particles that are hard and can scratch glass.
 Calcite ~ Rocks composed of calcite effervesce when a drop of dilute HCl is
applied. They can also be easily scratched with an iron nail.
 Evaporite minerals ~ These sedimentary rocks contain salts, usually halite or
gypsum,that are deposited when saltwater evaporates. They are crystalline and
can be scratched by an iron nail. Gypsum is soft enough to be scratched by a
fingernail.
 Altered plant fragments ~ Rocks composed of organic material are usually black
in color, have a low density, and are easily broken.
Identifying Sedimentary Rocks

 Use a Sedimentary Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock

samples and record them using a Sedimentary Rock Chart.
Sedimentary Environments
Metamorphic Rocks

 Metamorphic rocks are produced from preexisting igneous,

sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks that have been subjected
to conditions within Earth that are significantly different from those
under which the parent rock originally formed. Metamorphism, the
process that causes the transformation, generally occurs at depths
where both temperatures and pressures are much higher than at
Earth’s surface.
 Extensive areas of metamorphic rocks are exposed on every
continent in the relatively flat regions known as shields. They are also
located in the cores of mountains and buried beneath sedimentary
rocks on the continents.
Metamorphic Textures

 During metamorphism, new minerals often

form and/or existing minerals grow larger as
the intensity of metamorphism increases.
Frequently, mineral crystals that are elongated
(such as hornblende) or have a sheet structure
(for example, the micas—biotite and
muscovite) become oriented perpendicular to
compressional forces. The resulting parallel,
linear alignment of mineral crystals is called
foliation. Foliation is associated with many
metamorphic rocks and gives them a layered
or banded appearance.
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

 The mineral crystals in foliated metamorphic rocks are either

elongated or have thin, platy shapes and are arranged in a parallel
or layered manner. During metamorphism, increased heat and
pressure can cause mineral crystals to become larger and foliation
to become more obvious.
Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Textures

1. Slaty or rock cleavage refers to closely

spaced, flat surfaces along which rocks split
into thin slabs when struck with a hammer
(Figure A).
2. Phyllite texture develops when minute mica
crystals in slate begin to increase in size.
Phyllite surfaces have a shiny, somewhat
metallic sheen and often have a wavy
surface (Figure B).
3. Schisosity can be identified by a scaly
layering of glittery, platy minerals (mainly
micas) that are often found in association
with deformed quartz and feldspar grains
(Figure C).
4. Gneissic texture forms during high-grade
metamorphism when ion migration results in
the segregation of light and dark minerals
(Figure D).
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
 Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks
consist of intergrown crystals of
various size and are most often
identified by determining their
mineral composition (Figure E, F).
The minerals that comprise them
are most often quartz or calcite.
Therefore, the hardness test and/or
the acid test can be used.
Other Distinguishing Features
Some metamorphic rocks exhibit stretched or deformed pebbles (Figure A). Others contain
unusually large crystals called porphyroblasts that are surrounded by a finegrained matrix of other
minerals (Figure B). These large crystals tend to be minerals that are mainly associated with
metamorphic rocks, including garnet, staurolite, and andalusite. Another distinguishing
characteristic of some highly deformed metamorphic rocks is that their foliation becomes
contorted, as shown in Figure C.
Identifying Metamorphic Rocks

 Use a Metamorphic Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock

samples and record them using a Metamorphic Rock Chart.
Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface
 Geologic Process in the Surface of the Earth

Weathering
 Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called
weathering. Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into
smaller pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

 All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are
three different types of rock weathering: mechanical weathering,
chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Types of Weathering
 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into
smaller pieces without changing its chemical composition due to different
temperatures and water. Rocks in the highway develop cracks and small
fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This activity is an example of
mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into
other substances that have different physical and chemical compositions.
Some agents of chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and
oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks the minerals in the rocks through the
process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals to produce oxides while
acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering process.
One example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed
the feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.
 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots
of the trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example,
mosses and fungi that grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or
dissolve the rocks.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Erosion
 Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running
water or rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and
glaciers contribute to erosion.

Types of Erosion
1. Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the
sediments to different parts of the bodies of water such as rivers.
2. Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and
pebbles, are carried by wind to different places.
3. Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out
chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice and the rock.
Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other
landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
4. Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil
infertile. This is caused by wind or flood in an area.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Deposition
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional
environment or final destination. The depositional environment can
be continental, coastal, or marine.
 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.
 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal
zone.
Geologic Processes Inside the Earth
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core
to the crust. The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the
crust or near the boundary of the core. The principal contributors to the heat of the
core come from the decay of radioactive elements and from the heat of the molten
outer core which solidifies near the inner core.
 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures
the flow of thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and
up to the atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is
counteracted by the solar radiation.
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

Magmatism
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high
temperature and pressure melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock
mixture that can be found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
Depending on the temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the mantle, the
magma can be formed in different ways.

Plutonism
 On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation of intrusive
igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface.
These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface through the process of uplifting - a force that pulls the crust
apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.
 When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface through
uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool and
solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

Volcanism
 Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in the
Earth’s crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This process of
bringing up the magma is called volcanism.
Metamorphism of Rock
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can
make the rocks come together or make the plates rise. Mountains and hills could
be formed when two plates collide.
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away
from each other. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It
moved the oceanic crust away from each other that resulted in the rising of less
dense rocks coming from the mantle.
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the breaking of
the large parts of the crust into smaller sizes. This force always happens along the
plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates meet.
When the two plates rub each other and move in opposite directions, it creates
friction. This friction leads to the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.
Plate Tectonics:
Continental Drift
and Its Evidences
How the Continents Formed?
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 In 1912 German
meteorologist Alfred
Wegener proposed that in the
beginning, the Earth has only
one giant landmass
called Pangaea, which means
"all land." He hypothesized that
this giant landmass slowly broke
into smaller land pieces that
eventually drifted away from
each other which made the
seven continents that we now
know. This is known as
the Continental drift theory.
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 Alfred Wegener presented the
following pieces of evidence to
support his theory:
 The continents fit together like a
jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident
in the matching coastlines of
South America and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils
were found in different continents.
The fossils of the
reptile mesosaurus were found
along the coastlines of South
America and Africa which are
separated by the Atlantic Ocean.
Moreover, the fossil of a fernlike
plant glossopteris was found
distributed in all the continents.
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and
eastern Brazil, South America, the rocks are of the same
type and age.
 Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found
along matching coastlines like that of the Appalachian
Mountains
 Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from
organic matter like dead plants and animals. In a very cold
place like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most
organisms to survive. The presence of coal indicates that
the continent was once inhabited by many organisms. It
also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near
the equator where abundant animal and plant organisms
could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers,
were found in Africa, South America, India, and Australia.
They were of the same age and type. The presence of
tillites indicates that those places had glaciers in the past,
were once located near the South Pole, and had drifted
away from each other.
 How the Continents Formed?
Supporting study for Continental Drift Theory
 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection cells in the Earth’s
mantle. When the rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by radioactivity, they become less dense, and they
rise toward the surface of the Earth. When they cool down, they become denser and sink. The continuous
process of rising and sinking of rocks produces convection cells or convection currents. These currents cause
the tectonic plates, which include the crust, to move and drift.
The Formation of Faults and Folds
 The Formation of Faults and Folds

Tectonic Plates
The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move due to the convection currents in
the Earth’s interior.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Plate Movements
 The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries can be convergent,
divergent, or transform.
 In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move away from each other,
they are in a divergent boundary. Finally, when plates slide past each other, they are in a transform boundary.

 Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent boundaries, tensional
stress at divergent boundaries, or shear stress at transform boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks experience
changes in volume and shape.
Plate Boundaries (Convergence)
A. Oceanic – Continental Convergence
B. Oceanic – Oceanic Convergence
C. Continental – Continental Convergence
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Rock Deformation
 Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other. Tensional stress pulls rocks apart
and shear stress causes rocks to slide opposite each other.
 When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or bending (fold).

Fracture
 Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to
break or fracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses. This
means that the pressure exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal
strength.
 Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where there is
considerable movement on the fracture surface while a joint is a break where
there is no considerable movement.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Two Types of Fault
Dip-slips Fault
 Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These movements are described based
on the direction of the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging wall is the block
of rock that rests on the fault plane while a footwall is the one below the fault plane.
 Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress it is
characterized by the hanging wall moving downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse fault, wherein
the hanging wall moves upward, is formed by compressional stress

Strike-slips Fault
 Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused by shear stress.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds

Folds
 Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they
do not break but they tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they
become thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled apart.

Types of Fold
 When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when
blocks of rock bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers
forms monoclines.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Types of Fold
Seafloor Spreading
 Seafloor Spreading

Seafloor Spreading
 In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents in the Earth’s interior
make the seafloor spread. Convection currents carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core
towards the lithosphere. These currents ensure that the materials formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back
into the mantle. In this “recycling” process, which was later named as seafloor spreading, the molten materials
flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges, spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.
 Seafloor Spreading

Seafloor Spreading
 When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the seafloor
above it to be pulled apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge,
where the molten materials go out. New oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of the
molten materials, and as the process continues, oceanic ridges or underwater mountain
ranges are built. Oceanic ridges are composed of volcanic rocks.
 As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on
spreading forming a central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges. The
molten materials push the seafloor away from the ridges and towards the
trenches. Trenches are depressions on the ocean floor. When the molten materials are
brought near the trenches, they start to cool, become denser and sink back down into the
Earth where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the seafloor continues as a
“recycling” process. As new seafloor is created, it continues the process until it disappears
back into the deep ocean trenches. Records show that the oldest seafloor is relatively
younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks (about 3 billion years old) found
on land. This shows that the seafloor is constantly recycled.
 As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials. This
means that the nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to
the ones farther from the ridge.
 Seafloor Spreading

World Oceanic Ridges

 Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other; while trenches are formed at
subduction zones where plates collide with each other or at convergent boundaries.
 The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas depict where new oceanic crusts are formed
which would also show where the ocean floors spread, just like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at divergent
boundaries. On the other hand, the areas farther from the marks, located at convergent boundaries, are subduction zones, like the
Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.
Stratification of Rocks and How It Is
Used to Determine the Age of the
Earth
 The Age of the Earth

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

 Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks
that have been broken down by water or wind. The older rocks
become sedimentary particles such as gravel, sand, and mud.
These particles can also bury dead plants and animals. As time goes
by, the particles accumulate, and those that are at the bottom of
the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand
becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The
animals or plants buried with them become fossils. These series of
events form the different layers of rocks.
 The Age of the Earth
Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks
1. Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
2. Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating
 Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older
than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock is.

 In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions of
sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid.
The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any
slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation of layers
called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are
also called strata.
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Superposition
 The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the
top layer is younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the
Earth's history because it indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils.
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Original Horizontality

 The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down
horizontally. However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law
of original horizontality, the rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as
tilting episodes of mountain building
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship

 The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are
younger features that cut through older features of rocks.
 The Age of the Earth
Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks

Absolute Dating
 Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by
measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter
isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the sample could be determined.

Examples:
• Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.
• K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.
 The Age of the Earth
The Geologic Time Scale
► The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records, which describe
the relationships between the events that happened throughout the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is
based on the radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.
► A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated by
integrating results from relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time scale is
calibrated.

How the Geologic Time Scale is Calibrated

► Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.
► The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative
dating leading to a chronological order of events.
► Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric
methods. Absolute dating provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating provides
at least six strata with relative ages – first and last occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic
eruption events.
 The Age of the Earth
Calibrating the Geologic Time Scale