ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (PC-EE-303) Electrostatic fieldIntroduction An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge distribution. A typical example of such a field is found in a cathode-ray tube, Application area of electrostatics: ¥ Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and lightning protection are associated with strong electric fields and ‘will require a knowledge of electrostatics to understand and design suitable equipment. ¥ The devices used in solid-state electronics are based on electrostatics. These include resistors, capacitors, and active devices such as bipolar and field effect transistors, which are based on control of electron motion by electrostatic fields. ¥ Almost all computer peripheral devices, with the exception of magnetic memory, are based on electrostatic fields. Touch pads, capacitance keyboards, cathode-ray tubes, liquid crystal displays, and electrostatic printers are typical examples. ¥ In medical work, diagnosis is often carried out with the aid of electrostatics, as incorporated in electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms, and other recordings of organs with electrical activity including eyes, ears, and stomachs ¥ Iniindustry, electrostatics is applied in a variety of forms such as paint spraying, electrodeposition, electrochemical machining, and separation of fine particles. Y Electrostaties is used in agriculture to sort seeds, direct sprays to plants, measure the moisture content of crops, spin cotton, and speed baking of bread and smoking of meat.We begin our study of electrostatics by investigating the two fundamental laws governing electrostatic fields: (2) Coulomb's law, and (2) (2) Gauss's law. Both of these laws are based on experimental studies and they are interdependent. Although Coulomb's law is applicable in finding the electric field due to any charge configuration, it is easier to use Gauss's law when charge distribution is symmetrical. Based on Coulomb's law, the concept of electric field intensity will be introduced and applied to cases involving point, line, surface, and volume charges. Special problems that can be solved with much effort using Coulomb's law will be solved with ease by applying Gauss's law. Coulomb’s Law Coulomb's law states that the force F between two point charges Q, and Q, is: 1, Along the line joining them 2. Direetly proportional to the product Q,Qz of the charges 3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them, Expressed mathematically, F =k (1) where k is the proportionality constant. In SI units, charges Q, and Q, are in coulombs (C), the distance R is in meters (2). and the force F is in newtons (N) so that k= 1/4m¢q . The constant ¢9 is known as the permittivity of free space (in farads per meter) and has the value 3 £9 = 8.854 x 1071? = > B/m k= = 9x10? m/F Q)2 Thus eq. (1) Becomes P= 47 hp @) IE point charges Q, and Qz are located at points having position vectors 7, and F, then the force Fy on Q due to Q, , shown in Figure 1, is given by AQ - 12 gregR? “Rix ® Origin Where Ras =A Ga) R=|Ral (5.b) «Ra an,. = bo) By substituting eq. (5) into eq. (4), we may write eq. (4) as. Fy pin It is worthwhile to note that ¥ As shown in Figure 1, the forceF, , on Q, due to Q» is given by =lFial(-ae,.) or (Since, dp, Figure 1 or Fy = —4p,,) QQ2(% —%) Ameglig —7/> ©) aMv Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other while unlike <3 ne — _— charges attract, This is illustrated in Figure 2. ® © rey Y The distance R between the charged bodies Q, and Q» must be large Figure 2 compared with the linear dimensions of the bodies; that is, Q, and Qy must be point charges. Y Q, and Q, must be static (at rest). The signs of Q, and Q must be taken into account in eq. (4). If we have more than two point charges, we can use the principle of superposition to determine the foree on a particular charge. The principle states that if there are N charges Q,, Qz,.-,Qq located, respectively, at points with position vectors 44,7, the resultant force # on a charge Q located at point # is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by each of the charges Qy, Q2, .., Qq. Hence QF - A) | OGalF—H) | OQwF— TH) © Ameo? —H/3 Aregir — 71° 4meql? — yl? " Q@- or Q u(t f) @ ey Laas | Tel®Electric Field Intensity The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the force per unit charge-when placed in the electric field. ‘Thus ° The electric field intensity £ is obviously in the direction of the force # and is measured in newtons/coulomb or volis/meter. The electric field intensity at point # due to a point charge located at is readily obtained from eqs. (6) and (9) as =~ @ 4. o-*) GrepR? “® = aregi@— 778 10) For N point charges Q,,Q2, (8) and (9) as Qy located at #4, 7% fy » the electric field intensity at point 7 is obtained from equation _ &-A) | QA) Ou? — fy) Zit) ~aneol —AI5 * 4replF— A/S Areg\F— tyl3 Ly’ O- A) 12 Fre oes [FHF ”Electric Fields Due To Continuous Charge Distributions So far we have only considered forces and electric fields due to point charges, which are essentially changes occupying very small physical space. It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along a line, on a surface, or in a volume as illustrated in Figure 3. It is customary to denote the line charge density, surface charge + - density, and volume charge density by p,(in C/m), pein SPs Se C/m?), p,(in C/m3), , respectively. These must not be confused a! tee ‘with p (vthout subscript) used for radial distance in cylindrical + coordinates. Figure 3 ‘The charge element dO and the total charge due to these charge distributions are obtained from Figure 3 as dQ = pydl > 0 = f, pra dQ = p.ds > Q = foxes dQ = pydv 3 Q = footw The electric field intensity due to each of the charge distributions p;, ps, and py may be regarded as the summation of the field contributed by the numerous point charges making up the charge distribution. Thus, by replacing Q in eq. (10) with charge element dQ = pydl, psds, or pydv and integrating, we get pot 5 B= f 24 ay (line charge) E = [2 Gy (surface charge) B= {Pay (volume charge) ame R? “rearApplications of Coulomb’s Law Consider a line charge with uniform charge density p, extending from A to B along the z-axis as shown in Figure 4. The charge element dQ associated with element dl = dz of the line is dQ = pydl = pydz and hence the total charge Q is Q= Sede The electric field intensity E at an arbitrary point P(x, y,2) can be found using the following equation E= Seiad @) It is customary to denote the field point-by (x, y, 2Jand the source point by (x y', 2"). Thus from Figure 4. d= dz R= (x,y,z) — (0,0,2") = x@y + yay + (2— 2’), R = pig + 2-2" 32 R= |B =x? ty? + (2-2? Gp RR pag + (z-2')a, RE RP [e? + za")? Figure 4 Substituting all this into eq, (2), we get xFa Pp Pata yg Batman? &) 00 T ‘To evaluate this, itis convenient that we define a, a, and ety a in Figure 4 R=[02 + (@—2}? =pseca 2 = OT ~ptana ae! —psectada Hence, eq. (2) becomes & x PL_{_ (sina — sine dp + (cos a — cos )az] @ Thus fora finite ine charge, B= TE As a special case, for an infinite line charge, point B is at (0,0,00) and A at (0,0,—c9) so thate =1/2,¢tg = —n/2 ; the z~ ‘component vanishes and eq, (4) becomesElectric Flux Density Suppose a new vector field B independent of the medium is defined by B= We define electric flux y in terms of D: yp [o-as In ST units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminates on - 1 C. Therefore, the electric flux is measured in coulombs. Hence, the vector field D is called the electric flux density and is measured in coulombs per square meter. The electric flux density is also called electric displacement.Gauss's Law - Maxwell's Equation Gauss's law stales that the total electric flux yp through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface. Thus Y= Qenctosea ie p= fav = fo- 8 =Total charge enclosed = | p,dv ‘Comparing the two volume integrals in eqs. (3) and (4) results in @ 2) 8) @ ©) Equation (5) is the first of the four Maxwell's equations to be detived. Equation (5) states that the volume charge density is the same as the divergence of the electric ffux densityProof of Gauss's Law Let a point charge *q C be placed at the origin O within the closed surface Let be the electric field strength at the point P on the surface due to charge 4 Let OP = # and £ makes an angle @ with the unit vector ft drawn normal to the surface element ds surrounding the point P. ‘The surface integral of the normal component of electric field £ over the closed surface sis given by p_, fe fds ‘ poy But the electric field intensity at point P, E Yat pes Srregr . Fe fd: or fE-nas pigs I, 4reql, 73 The quantity, “"“ represents the projection of the area ds on a plane perpendicular tothe #. This projected area divided by r? gives the solid angle dA. subtended by ds at the origin. q = f 2 =" since solid angle subtended by the closed surface s at the origin is 4. Hence, p E -fids ane, zo which is the Gauss’s law. Hence, fo dsApplications of Gauss’s Law The procedure for applying Gause's law to calculate the electric field involves first knowing whether symmetry exists. Once symmetric charge distribution exists, we construct a mathematical closed surface (known as a Gaussian surface). The surface is chosen such that D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian surface. When D is normal to the surface, D - d3 = Dds because D is constant on the surface. When D is tangential to the surface, D - d3 = 0. Thus we must choose a surface that has some of the symmetry exhibited by the charge distribution. We shall now apply these basic ideas to the following cases I. Point Charge ‘Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin, To determine D at a point P it is easy to see that choosing a spherical surface containing P will satisfy symmetry conditions. Thus, a spherical surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface in this case and is shown in Figure. Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D = Dréy, applying Gauss's law ( = Qenciosed) 8ives Q fB-as-o, fas where ds = 4rer? is the surface area of the Gaussian surface. DyAnr? 3 z= 4 Thus D a and B= ityIL. Infinite Line Charge Suppose the infinite fine of uniform charge p,¢/m lies along the z-axis, To determine tL Line charge Cin D at a point P we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy symmetry — ' condition as shown in the figure. D is constant on and normal to the cylindtical 1 caussian surtace Gaussian surface: that is, D = Dp@ly . If we apply Gauss's law to an arbitrary length of the line | Poy pl=Q [B-a- », fas = Dp2pl where [ds = 2npl is the surface area of the Gaussian surface. Note that §D - a3 evaluated on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder is zero since D has no z- component; that means that D is tangential to those surfaces. Thus b-f a, py 2negp ” mm or pe np BD £9Ill. Infinite Sheet of Charge Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge p,C/m? lying on the = = 0 plane. To determine D at point P. we choose a rectangular box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown in the figure. As D is normal to the sheet, D = D,@,, and applying Gauss's law gives Note that D- d¥ evaluated on the sides of the box is zero because D has no components along 4y and dy. If the top and bottom area of the box each has area 4, the above equation becomes psA=D,(A+ A) And thus, B= 6a, on D_ps, % 2e9 7 Infinite set of charge py Ci? \ + Gaussian suraceIV. Uniformly Charged Sphere Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge density p, cim?. To determine D anywhere, we construct Gaussian surface for cases r a separately. Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface is an appropriate Gaussian surface. Forr < a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius r, as shown in the fig. (a) is 4 ~ enclosed = | pydv = pv [av gp» and, y= 9D -ds = Dy § ds = Dy4er™ “ 4 Hence, = Qoncioea fives, DyAmr? = Srr3py ot =Tpvay|O< rsa Forr > a. the Gaussian surface is shown in fig. (b). ‘The charge enclosed by the surface is the entire charge in this case, ie. 4 = enctosea = | Prdv = pr [av = 370°, while, y= §,D -d3 = D, § ds = Dy Amr? Hence D-4nr? =*na%py or D = pyfiy| 7 = a _ 5 Pua, osr ©, the potential at any point (ry — r) due to a point charge Q located at the origin is Q ~ 4iegr Note that as Z points in the radial direction, any contribution from a displacement in the 0 or ditection is wiped out by the dot product # - dl = E cosa dl = Edr . Where a is the angle between E and di Hence the potential difference VAB is independent of the path The potential at any point is the potential difference between that point and a chosen point (or reference point) at wl potential is zero. h theIn other words, by assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a test charge from infinity to that point. Thus va-[ Beal If the point charge Q in eq, is not located at the origin but at a point whose position vector is # , the potential V7, y, =) or simply V(#) at ? becomes @ Ameg|F — 7"| VF) = We have considered the electric potential due to point charge. The same basic ideas apply to other types of charge distribution because any charge distribution can be regarded as consisting of point charges. The superposition principle, which ‘we applied to electric fields, applies to potentials also. For 1 point charges Q,, Q2, "+, Qn located at points with position vectors 9,7, %,, the potential at 7 is On tet etal orRelationship Between E and V - Maxwell's Equation As shown in the previous section, the potential difference between points 4 and B is independent of the path taken. Hence, Voa= Vaz that is, Vout Yaa = fE al I o,f -di=0 o i, This shows that the line integral of E along a closed path as shown in the figure must be zero. Physically, this implies that no net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field. Applying Stokes's theorem to the above equation gives fE-at= [ x2) -as om, i s a Any vector field that satisfies eq. (1) or (2) is said to be conservative, or irrotational. Thus an electrostatic field is a conservative field. Equation (1) or (2) is referred to as Maxwell's equation (the second Maxwell's equation to be derived) for static electric fields. Equation (1) is the integral form, and eq. (2) is the differential form; they both depict the conservative nature of an electrostatic field.‘From the way we defined potential, V=—[-dl, it follows that dv = -E- di =—E,dx — Eydy ~ E,dz But w=~a ee ray ta = id dy 4 Seeds Comparing the two expressions for dV; we obtain av wv =. that is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of / The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which ¥ increases; E is directed fiom higher to lower levels of Since the curl of the gradient of a scalar function is always zero eq. (2) obviously implies that £ must be a gradient of some scalar function.Example 4: Two point charges -4 j1C and 5 pC are located at (2, -1, 3) and (0, 4,-2), respectively. Find the potential at (1, 0, 1) assuming zero potential at infinity. Solution: Let Q, =-4 uC and Q, = 5 nC an a & VO = Feel A * Aregh? —Fl |? Al = 1.0.1) — 2,-1,3)| = |(-1,1,-2)| = V6 |? — #1 = 1.0.1) — (0,4, -2)| = |(1, -4,3)| = V26 He vG.0,1) as ai ence 04 + 6 26 | an x 307 lve | V26) = 9 x 10°(—1.633 + 0.9806) = 5.872 kVAn Electric Dipole and Flux Lines An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign are separated by a small distance. Consider the dipole shown in the figure. The potential at point P(r, @, @) is given by In “| ae -4-2 Gna | Ar Where 7, and r, are the distances between P and *Q and P and -Q, respectively. If > d, 1% ~ dcos0 , r2r; =r? , and the above equation becomes Q deosé Amen r? a Since d cos @ = d-@, . where d = day . if we define fj = Qd as the dipole moment, the potential may be written as _ Ba ~ 4negr? Note that the dipole moment j is directed from -Q to +Q if the dipole centre is not at the origin, but at 7", the above equation becomes a: @-7)‘The electric field due to the dipole with center at the origin, shown in the figure, can be obtained as E=-w a, _fav, ,1.) _Qdeos@, | Qdsind , 2aegr? far“ * 96%? “Aner? P a sin r or, Frege 200894 +5iN8G)| where p = [pl = Qa Notice that a point charge is a monopole and its electric field varies inversely as r? while its potential field varies inversely as r. From the above discussion, we notice that the electric field due to a dipole varies inversely as r? while its potential varies inversely as r?. The electric fields due to suecessive higher-order multipoles (such as a quadrupole consisting of two dipoles or an octupole consisting of two quadrupoles) vary inversely as r4, r, r°. . while their corresponding potentials vary inversely as 7°, 74,78,Example 5: Two dipoles with dipole moments -Sa, nC-m and 9a, nC-m are located at points (0,0.-2) and (0.0.3) respectively Find the potential at the origin. Solution: De where, py = —Sdz, 7 = (0,0,0) — (0,0,-2) = 242, 7 Bz = Gz, F = (0,0,0) — (0,0,3) = -34,, % = lial 27 oe x0 1 0 Hence, V = rl aa “36r anEnergy Density in Electrostatic Fields To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, we must first determine the amount of work necessary to assemble them, Suppose we wish to position three point charges Qj, Q2 and Q3 in an initially empty space shown in the figure. No work is required to transfer Q, from infinity to Py, because the space is initially charge free and there is no electric field. The work done in transferring Q fiom infinity to P, is equal to the product of Q> and the potential Vp at Pp due to Qy. Similarly, the work done in positioning Q, at Py is equal to P, (Vaz + Vaz), where Va and Vey are the potentials at P due to Q, and Q, respectively. Hence the total work done in positioning the three charges is We = Wy + Wo + Wa= 0 + Q,Vo3 + Qs (Vas + Va2) (1) Ifthe charges were positioned in reverse order, Wey = Ws + Wz + W, = 0 + QoVo3 + Q1(Vi2 + Vis) (2) where Vos is the potential at P, due to Qs, Viz and V;3 ate, respectively, the potentials at P, due to Q, and Qs. Adding eqs. (2) and @) gives 2We = Qi (Vaz + Vas) + Q2 Wo + Vos) + Qs (Var + V2) = QV + QaV2 + O5V5 1 Ot We = 5 (QV + Q2¥o + OsVs) e where V; . Vz and V3 are total potentials at P, , Prand P,, respectively. In general, if there are n point charges, eq. (3) becomes iy" We= 5D ig ee (in jules) wIf, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous charge distribution, the summation in eq. (4) becomes integration; that is, 1 We=35 f piVdl (line charge) ro) I 1 We=35 [psvas (surface charge) (6) f ‘pyWdv (volume charge) (7) Since py = F - D , eq. (7) can be further developed to yield We = [oe D)vav (8) But for any wanton A and scalar V, the identity ¥-vd=A4-W4+V(0- A) % ¥(¥-A)=0-vA-A- ® Applying the identity in eqs. (9) to (8), we get We=5[(@-vD)av-F[O-F)av co) By applying divergence theorem to the first term on the right hand side of eq, (10), we have We = 5 $00) as— 3 @- V)dv ay ‘We know that V varies as 1/r and D as 1/r? for point charges: V varies as 1/r? and and D as 1/r? for dipoles; and so on. Hence, VD in the first term on the right-hand side of eq. (11) must vary at least as 1/r® while dS varies as r®. Consequently. the first integral in eq. (11) must tend to zero as the surface 5 becomes large. Hence, eq. (11) reduces to We -5] 6-v) a 5[C-Dev a2) and since F = —UV and D = eof the electrostatic energy is Wp=5[ @-B)av=5 f egetav (3) From this, we can define electrostatic energy density we (in Jin ) as We D =—=— 14) WE oy 2e ay so eq, (14) may be written as We = | wedv (is)‘Example 6: Three point charges - 1 nC, 4 uC, aud 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), and (J, 0, 0), respectively. Find the energy in the system. Solution: W =W, + Wy + Ws = 0+ Q2Vor + Qa(Vai + Vaz) wea ee 2° 4r£9|(0,0,1) — (0,0,0)| + Gneo |G,0,0) — (0,0,0)| Tawa 1Z0.0)- @on1 -2 0s = aaa | te +0, +a)Boundary Conditions So far, we have considered the existence of the electric field in a homogeneous medium. If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions. These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on the other side is known. Obviously, the conditions will be dictated by the types of material the media are made of. We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating + dielectric (c,1) and dielectric (¢,2) + conductor and dielectric + conductor and firee space To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use Maxwell's equations: fe ai-o a i and {B-d5=Ornsaset ——@) Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity E into two orthogonal components: B=8, +E, @) where &, and E,, are, respectively. the tangential and normal components of & to the interface of interest. A similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux density D.I. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions 4 Consider the F field existing in a region consisting of two different dielectrics 5A Bs characterized by e,and ¢, as shown in fig. (a). E, and E, in media 1 and 2, = respectively, can be decomposed as % —> ~~ s “Ye 6) Ey = Eye + Ein (4a) @ a ee oe fie. @) E,= Exe + Bon (4b) ‘We apply eq, (1) to the closed path abeda of fig. (a) assuming that the path is very small with respect to the variation of E(this ‘means that the components of the vectors can be assumed constant along the corresponding seuments of the path. We obtain 4h. 4h 4h. 4h 0 = Ey,dw —~ Ein 3 — Bon — Boe w + Bona + Ein 9 () where E, =|B;| and By = [Bp] . The term "terms cancel, and eq, (5) becomes at | (6) Thus the tangential components of F are the same on the two sides of the boundary. In other words, Ey, undergoes no change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across the boundary. Since D = ef = D, + D,, eq. (6) can be written as Pac _ Dae a a that is, Dp, undergoes some change across the interface. Hence D,, is said to be discontinuous across the interface.Similarly, we apply eq, (2) to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) of fig. (b). Allowing 4h > 0 gives @ AQ = pcAs = DyyAs~ DzyAs rs 6 | Din — Dan = Ps @) a where p, is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary. It should be bore in fig. (b) mind that eq. (8) is based on the assumption that D is directed from region 2 to region 1 and eq. (8) must be applied accordingly. If no free charges exist at the interface (Le., charges are not deliberately placed there), p, = 0 and eq, (8) becomes Din = Dan o) Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface; that is, D,, undergoes no change at the boundary. Since D = cE, eq. (9) can be written as Bin = E26 on (a0) showing that the normal component of F is discontinuous at the boundary. Equations (6) and (8), or (9) are collectively referred to as boundary conditions; they must be satisfied by an electric field at the boundary separating two different dielectrics.As mentioned earlier, the boundary conditions are usually applied in finding the electric field on one side of the boundary given the field on the other side. Besides this, we can use the boundary conditions to determine the "refiaction" of the electric field across the interface. Consider D, or ,, and D, or £, making angles 6, and 9, with the normal to the interface as illustrated in Fig. (¢). Using eq. (6). we have By sin 8, = Eye = Bay = Bp sin 8, or, Ey sin6, = E2 sin6 ay Similarly, by applying eq. (9) or (10), we get 4B, 605 y = Dyy = Day = €282 C05 8 of, By cos 6, = Ecos 8, (12) Dividing eq. (11) by eq. (12) gives 2701 _ tan Oa 3) a 8 Since £1 = £9f;1 and &, = £98;2, eq. (13) becomes P21 _ Era as tan, Epp This is the law of reffaction of the electric field at a boundary free of charge (since p, = 0 is assumed at the interface). Thus. in general, an interface between two dielectrics produces bending of the flux lines as a result of unequal polarization charges that accumulate on the sides of the interface.IL Conductor - Dielectric Boundary Conditions This is the ease shown in fig. (4). The conductor is assumed to be perfect (ie., 6 + & or pc > 0). Although such a conductor is not practically realizable, we may regard conductors such as copper and silver as though they were perfect conductors. To determine the boundary conditions for a conductor-dielectrie interface, we follow the same procedure used for dielectric-dielectric interface except that we incorporate the fact Conducoe 0) that E 0 inside the conductor. Applying eq. (1) to the closed path abcd of fig. (4) gives fe @) ah ah 4h ah 0=0-4w 40-5 48,5" — B,aw—B, 0 as) Diner g z 2 z Waa t asdh>0, E=0 6) 7; at AQ =D,ds—0-as an Contntor (8-0) because D = e& = 0 inside the conductor. Equation (17) may be written as fz ©) AQ Du =F = Ps on Du =ps cs)‘Thus under statie conditions, the following conclusions can be made about a perfect conductor: 1. No electric field may exist within a conductor; that is, py = 0, B = 0 2. Since # = —PV = 0. there can be no potential difference between any two points in the conductor; that is, a conductor is ‘an equipotential body. 3. The electric field 2 must be external to the conductor and must be normal to its surface: that is De = 08; Ee = 0,Dn = &08-En = Ps (a9) III. Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions ‘This is a special case of the conductor-dielectric conditions and is illustrated in fig. (D) The boundary conditions at the interface between a conductor and free space can be obtained from eq. (19) by replacing <, by 1 (because fee space may be regarded as a special dielectric for which ¢, = 1), We expect the electric field £ to be external to the conductor and normal to its surface. Thus the boundary conditions are De = Eo = 0.Dn = €oEn = Ps (20) ontnctor C20) It should be noted again that eq. (20) implies that E field must approach a conducting surface normally. feoExample 6: A boundary exists at 2 = 0 between two dielectties ¢,, = 2.5 in the region z <0 and ¢,2 = 4 in the region z > 0. The field in the region of ¢,, is E, = 304, + 50@y + 704, V/m Find the electric field in the second medium. Also find the angle between electric field intensity in the second medium and the normal to the boundary surface. Solution Since z = 0 is the boundary, 4, is the normal to the boundary plane and the normal component of field is Ein = B,-@g=70 + Eyn = 700, Bir = By — Bin = -300, + 504, From the boundary conditions of dielectric ~ dielectric interface we have Boy = Eyp=—308, +504, and 2a = EraBim % Bon Xx 704, = 43.754, Therefore E, = Egy + Ey = —308, + 504, + 43.754, ‘The angle between the electric field intensity in the second medium and the normal to the boundary surface is given by. Bae tan 6, = = an wt Ex _, VG)? + G0)? Zz," 43.75 53.12°Poisson's and Laplace's equations The procedure for determining the electric field # is generally using either Coulomb's law or Gauss's law when the charge distribution is known, or using E = —¥V when the potential is known throughout the region. In most practical situations, however, neither the charge distribution nor the potential distribution is known, In most of the practical electrostatic problems only electrostatic conditions (charge and potential) at some boundaries are known and it is desired to find E and V thronghout the region. Such problems are usually tackled using Poisson's or Laplace's equation or the method of images, and they are usually referred to as boundary value problems, Poisson's and Laplace's equations are easily derived from Gauss's law (for a linear material medium) 9.5 =. eF and E=-WV ie. ¥-(—eWV) =p, for an inhomogeneous medium. So fora homogeneous medium, | y2y = —2 This is known as Poisson's equation. A special case of this equation oceurs when py = O(ie., for a charge-free region). The above equation then becomes V?V = 0 | which is known as Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation in Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates respectively is given by av av av 1 a 1av av 1a(,av) Lav ov x? tay? * an? pap\? ap) * pag? * az? nd 1a(,W 1 a (ww 1 av Par\” ar) *r2sine a0 \90) * r2sin@ 8 ag?Uniqueness Theorem Since there are several methods (analytical, graphical, numerical, experimental, etc.) of solving a given problem, we may wonder whether solving Laplace's equation in different ways gives different solutions. Therefore, before we begin to solve Laplace's equation, we should answer this question: If a solution of Laplace's equation satisfies a given set of boundary conditions, is this the only possible solution? The answer is yes: there is only one solution. We say that the solution is ‘unique. Thus any solution of Laplace's equation which satisfies the same boundary conditions must be the only solution regardless of the method used. This is known as the uniqueness theorem. The theorem applies to any solution of Poisson's or Laplace's equation in a given region or closed surface, Proof Uniqueness Theorem The theorem is proved by contradiction. We assume that there are two solutions V, and V; of Laplace's equation both of which satisfy the prescribed boundary conditions. Thus VV; = 0, V>Vp (La) V,=V) onthe boundary (1b) We consider their difference Vz = V,-V, 2) which obeys VVq = V?V; —V7¥, =0 Ga) Vq=0 onthe boundary (3b) according to eq. (1).From the divergence theorem [¥- adv = facas @ Welet A = Vi 7V, and use a vector identity ¥- A = V+ (Va¥Vq) = Va¥?Va + Wa Vg But V°Vq = 0 according to eq. (3), 80 V+ A = Wa: We () Substituting eq. (5) into eq. (4) gives [ (WV: Wa)av fiver as © From eqs. (1) and (3), itis evident that the right-hand side of eq, (6) vanishes. 2 Hence: I Vvq| dv =0 Since the integration is always positive. Wa =0 (7.a) or Vq=Vo-¥; =constant everywhere inv (7.b) But eq. (7) must be consistent with eq. (1.b). Hence, Vq = 0 or V, = Vp everywhere, showing that V, and V> cannot be different solutions of the same problem, ‘This is the uniqueness theorem: If a solution to Laplace's equation can be found that satisfies the boundary conditions, then the solution is uniqueGeneral Procedure for Solving Poisson’s or Laplace's Equation The following general procedure may be taken in solving a given boundary-value problem involving Poisson's or Laplace's equation: 1. Solve Laplace's (if py = 0 ) or Poisson's (if py # 0) equation using either (a) direct integration when V’is a function of one variable, or (b) separation of variables if Vis a function of more than one variable. The solution at this point is not ‘unique but expressed in terms of unknown integration constants to be determined. 2. Apply the boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for ¥ Imposing the given boundary conditions makes the solution unique. 3. Having obtained 7 find E using E = —PVand D from D = ef. 4, If desired, find the charge Q induced on a conductor using Q = J psds where, ps = Dy and Dy is the component of D normal to the conductor. If necessary, the capacitance between two conductors can be found using C= Q/F