Processor technology
• Processors vary in their customization for the problem at
hand total = 0
for i = 1 to N loop
total += M[i]
end loop
Desired
functionality
General-purpose Application-specific Single-purpose
processor processor processor
21
General-purpose processors
• Programmable device used in a Controller Datapath
variety of applications Control Register
– Also known as “microprocessor” logic and
State
file
• Features register
General
– Program memory IR PC ALU
– General datapath with large
Program
register file and general ALU memory
Data
memory
• User benefits Assembly code
for:
– Low time-to-market and NRE
total = 0
costs for i =1 to …
– High flexibility
• “Pentium” the most well-known,
22
but there are hundreds of others
Single-purpose processors
• Digital circuit designed to execute exactly one Controller Datapath
program
Control index
– a.k.a. coprocessor, accelerator or peripheral logic
• Features total
State
– Contains only the components needed to register +
execute a single program
– No program memory Data
• Benefits memory
– Fast
– Low power
– Small size
23
Application-specific processors
• Programmable processor optimized for a Controller Datapath
particular class of applications having Control Registers
common characteristics logic and
State
– Compromise between general-purpose register
Custom
and single-purpose processors ALU
IR PC
• Features
Data
– Program memory Program memory
memory
– Optimized datapath
– Special functional units Assembly code
for:
• Benefits total = 0
– Some flexibility, good performance, size for i =1 to …
and power
24
IC technology
• The manner in which a digital (gate-level)
implementation is mapped onto an IC
– IC: Integrated circuit, or “chip”
– IC technologies differ in their customization to a
design
– IC’s consist of numerous layers (perhaps 10 or more)
• IC technologies differ with respect to who builds each layer
and when
gate
IC package IC oxide
source channel drain
Silicon substrate
25
IC technology
• Three types of IC technologies
– Full-custom/VLSI
– Semi-custom ASIC (gate array and standard
cell)
– PLD (Programmable Logic Device)
26
Full-custom/VLSI
• All layers are optimized for an embedded
system’s particular digital implementation
– Placing transistors
– Sizing transistors
– Routing wires
• Benefits
– Excellent performance, small size, low power
• Drawbacks
– High NRE cost (e.g., $300k), long time-to-
27
market
Semi-custom
• Lower layers are fully or partially built
– Designers are left with routing of wires and
maybe placing some blocks
• Benefits
– Good performance, good size, less NRE cost
than a full-custom implementation (perhaps
$10k to $100k)
• Drawbacks
– Still require weeks to months to develop
28
PLD (Programmable Logic
Device)
• All layers already exist
– Designers can purchase an IC
– Connections on the IC are either created or destroyed
to implement desired functionality
– Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) very popular
• Benefits
– Low NRE costs, almost instant IC availability
• Drawbacks
– Bigger, expensive (perhaps $30 per unit), power
hungry, slower
29
MICROCONTROLLER
• A microcontroller is a functional
computer system-on-a-chip. It contains a
processor, memory, and programmable
input/output peripherals.
• Microcontrollers include an integrated
CPU, memory (a small amount of RAM,
program memory, or both) and peripherals
capable of input and output.
30
