INTRODUCTION

The human population has experienced a

significant increase over the past century.
The increase in population has led to higher
demands for various commodities, such as food,
water, housing, electricity, transportation, and
more.
These demands have put immense pressure on
our natural resources.
The pressure has resulted in pollution of the air,
water, and soil.
Pollution is defined as an undesirable alteration
in the physical, chemical, and biological
properties of the environment that can directly
or indirectly affect humans.
Pollutants, such as automobile exhaust,
excessive use of pesticides and herbicides,
chemical waste from factories, an increase in
atmospheric CO2, and radioactive substances,
are major causes of pollution.
To prevent further degradation and depletion of
natural resources and curb pollution, it is
essential to find ways to continue development
sustainably.
The Indian government has passed the
Environmental Protection Act of 1986 to combat
environmental pollution.
The Environmental Protection Act of 1986
addresses guidelines for the management of
hazardous substances, prevention and control
of environmental pollution, and conservation of
natural resources.
The guidelines aim to protect and restore the
environment, maintain ecological balance, and
safeguard public health.
POLLUTION
Pollution can occur naturally or as a result of
human activities.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANTS ON THE BASIS OF
NATURE AND QUALITY
Quantitative pollutants are naturally occurring
substances that become pollutants when their
concentration exceeds a certain limit. These
pollutants include gases such as CO, CO2, and
NO2, which can reach harmful levels in the air.
Qualitative pollutants, on the other hand, do
not occur naturally in nature but are released
into the environment through human activities.
Examples of qualitative pollutants include
pesticides like DDT, which can have harmful
effects on the environment and living
organisms.

POLLUTANTS ON THE BASIS OF

DEGRADABILITY
POLLUTANTS ON THE BASIS OF
CONVERTIBILITY

16.1 AIR POLLUTION AND ITS

CONTROL

Air pollution can be defined as the introduction

of particles, gases, and chemicals into the
atmosphere, which can have negative impacts
on human health, animal health, vegetation,
natural resources, and environmental
processes.
The World Health Organization has defined air
pollution as the presence of substances in the
air that are harmful to both humans and their
environment.

16.1.1 CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

Causes of air pollution include both natural and
man-made sources
Natural ways: Pollen, spores, volcanic gas, marsh
gas, and harmful chemicals generated by electric
storms are some natural ways of air pollution.
Man-made ways: The release of particulate and
gaseous pollutants from factories and industries.
Automobiles are also a significant contributor to
atmospheric pollution, particularly in metropolitan
areas.
Toxic substances released into the air can be
classified as either primary or secondary
pollutants.

Table 16.1.1 : Primary pollutants, their sources and effects

Table 16.1.2 : Secondary pollutants, their sources and effects

SMOG
Smog is a dense or dark fog composed of
condensed water vapor, dust, smoke, and gases
(such as SO2, H2S, NO2, etc.). It can lead to plant
damage such as silvering/glazing and necrosis,
as well as respiratory problems like allergies and
asthma/bronchitis in humans. Some notable
examples of smog include the Los Angeles smog
of 1946, the London smog of 1952, and the Tokyo
smog of 1970, among others. Smog is of two types:

ACID RAIN
Acid rain is the precipitation, with a pH level of
less than 5, as opposed to normal rain which
typically has a pH level of 5.6 to 6.5.
This type of rain is caused by the release of
acidic gases into the atmosphere on a large
scale.
When oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react with
moisture, they can form sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) respectively, contributing
to the acidity of the rain.

Acid rain can negatively impact the rates of

photosynthesis and growth of plants, as well as
increase their susceptibility to drought and
disease. It can also corrode marble statues and
buildings, such as the Taj Mahal in India.
16.1.2 CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Numerous techniques and apparatus have been
implemented to manage and decrease the
discharge of air pollutants, including gaseous and
particulate matter.

APPARATUS OR DEVICES FOR

CONTROLLING POLLUTION
Electrostatic precipitators

Fig. 16.1.2 : Working of electrostatic precipitator

Electrostatic precipitators are highly effective

devices used to eliminate up to 99 percent of
particulate matter present in industrial and
thermal plant emissions (NEET 2022, 2023).
They consist of electrode wires and collecting
plates, with the latter being grounded. The
electrode wires are charged with several
thousand volts of electricity, creating a corona
that releases electrons (NEET 2023).
The suspended particles in the air become
 negatively charged within a fraction of a second
as the electrons attach to them. The air with
charged particles then moves slowly over
collecting plates where the particulate matter
settles and is subsequently removed.

Scrubbers

Fig. 16.1.3 : Scrubber

Scrubbers are specialized devices used to

separate dust and particulate matter and also
gases like SO2 (AIPMT 2014).
There are two main types of scrubbers available,
namely dry scrubbers and wet scrubbers.
Dry scrubbers utilize dry packing materials to
filter out particulate matter, whereas wet
scrubbers utilize wet packing materials to
achieve the same result.
In both cases, the particulate matter is
separated by passing the exhaust through the
designated packing material.
These devices cannot eliminate very small
particulate matter (NEET 2022).
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has
identified particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or
less (PM 2.5) as the most harmful to human
health. These fine particles can penetrate deep
into the lungs and cause respiratory problems,
lung damage, and early death.

TECHNIQUES TO CONTROL
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS

SOME SPECIFIC METHODS ARE AS

FOLLOWS:
In automobiles unleaded petrol and low-sulfur
diesel fuel should be used. The use of CNG can
also reduce exhaust emissions.
Catalytic converter
Catalytic converters contain expensive metals like
platinum, palladium, and rhodium that oxidize
unburnt hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
In catalytic converter:
1. Unburnt hydrocarbons → CO2 + water
2. Carbon monoxide → CO2
3. Nitric oxide → Nitrogen
Leaded petrol should not be used with catalytic
converters because it deactivates the catalyst.

Fig. 16.1.4 : Catalytic Converter

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act

was implemented in India in 1981, but it was
modified in 1987 to incorporate noise as a form of
air pollution (NEET 2013).

16.1.3 NOISE POLLUTION

Noise is defined as an excessive loud unwanted
level of sound.
Unit of sound level is deciBel (dB, after Graham
Bell). The term dB (decibels) is a standard
abbreviation for the quantitative expression of a
sound (AIPMT 2010).
Human hearing range reaching up to 120 dB.
While we can hear normal conversation at 50
dB, any sound above 80 dB can cause harm.
Moderate conversation produces 30-60 dB
sound (AIPMT 2001).

CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Different industries such as engineering
establishments, textile mills, and printing presses
are among the primary sources of noise
pollution.
Agricultural machinery like tube wells, tractors,
and harvesters also contribute significantly to
noise pollution.
Defense equipment such as tanks, artillery,
shooting practices, rocket launching, and
explosions are other significant sources of noise
pollution.
Entertainment equipment, including radios,
record players, television sets, and public
address systems like loudspeakers, also
contribute to noise pollution.
Transport vehicles such as buses, cars,
motorcycles, scooters, trucks, trains, and jet
planes are also major sources of noise pollution.
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
The impact of noise on both the physical and
psychological well-being of humans. It can lead
to various kind of disorders.
The constant exposure to even relatively lower
noise levels in cities can cause permanent
damage to human hearing abilities.
Noise pollution can cause sleeplessness,
increased heart rate, altered breathing patterns,
and significant stress on humans.
The sound intensity of a jet plane or rocket
taking off exceeds 150 dB, which might damage
the ear drums (AIPMT 1994).

METHODS FOR CONTROLLING NOISE

POLLUTION
The use of sound-absorbent materials or
muffling noise can help reduce noise levels in
industries.
Enforcing laws related to noise pollution, such as
designating horn-free zones around hospitals
and schools, setting permissible sound levels for
crackers and loudspeakers, and specifying the
times after which loudspeakers cannot be used,
can help protect humans from noise pollution.

The ambient noise level standards should be

followed:
Table 16.1.3 : Ambient noise level standards

Zones Day Night

Industrial Zone 75 dB 70 dB

Commercial Zone 65 dB 55 dB
 Residential Zone 55 dB 45 dB

Silence Zone 50 dB 40 dB

16.1.4 CONTROLLING VEHICULAR AIR

POLLUTION: A CASE STUDY OF DELHI

Delhi’s air pollution levels are the highest in the

country, with more cars than the states of
Gujarat and West Bengal combined.
During the 1990s, Delhi ranked fourth among the
world’s 41 most polluted cities.
The severity of air pollution in Delhi led to a
public interest litigation (PIL) in the Supreme
Court of India, which directed the government to
take appropriate measures within a specified
time frame.
One of the measures taken was to convert the
entire fleet of public transport, including buses,
from diesel to compressed natural gas (CNG).
By the end of 2002, all of Delhi’s buses had been
converted to run on CNG.
CNG is the most efficient fuel for automobiles,
burning almost entirely and leaving very little
unburnt material. It is also cheaper than petrol
or diesel and cannot be siphoned off by thieves
and adulterated like petrol or diesel (NEET 2022).
Switching to CNG as a fuel source presents
challenges, particularly with regard to the
 installation of pipelines for delivering CNG to
distribution points or pumps and ensuring a
constant supply.
In Delhi, additional measures to reduce
vehicular pollution were taken alongside the
adoption of CNG, such as the phasing out of old
vehicles, the use of unleaded petrol, low-sulphur
petrol and diesel, the use of catalytic converters
and the implementation of stringent pollution-
level standards for vehicles.
The Indian government has outlined a plan to
reduce vehicle pollution in Indian cities with a
new auto fuel regulation.
Fuel standards are being tightened, and the
amount of sulphur and aromatics in gasoline
and diesel is continuously decreasing.
Sulphur levels in diesel must be kept below 350
parts per million (ppm) and petrol must be kept
below 150 ppm, according to Euro III standards.
Aromatic hydrocarbons must make upto 42% of
the fuel used.
The goal is to reduce sulphur in gasoline and
diesel to 50 parts per million (ppm) and reduce
the amount to 35%.
In any of India’s cities, the mass emission
standards (Bharat Stage II, which is similar to
Euro-II norms) are no longer applicable.

Table 16.1.4 : Details on India’s recent mass emission standards

Type of Norms Cities of

Vehicles Implementation

4 Bharat Stage Across the country

Wheelers IV (BSIV) from April 2017

3 Bharat Stage Across the country

Wheelers IV (BSIV) from 1st April 2017
2 Bharat Stage Across the country
Wheelers IV (BSIV) from April 2017

The air quality in Delhi has shown marked

improvement, with a significant decrease in
levels of CO2 and SO2 between 1997 and 2005,
according to an estimate.
16.2 WATER POLLUTION AND
ITS CONTROL
Water pollution refers to the introduction or
existence of substances that are unwanted or
harmful and that diminish the quality of water.
Recognizing the significance of preserving the
cleanliness of water bodies, the Indian
government enacted the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974 to protect
our water resources.
Water pollution can occur from two sources:
natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources
include clay and silt from eroded soil, leaching
of minerals, and organic matter from river
banks. On the other hand, anthropogenic
sources refer to man-made sources of pollution,
such as household waste, sewage, industrial
waste, runoff from farms using fertilizers and
pesticides, heat, waste from animal pens and
slaughterhouses, oil spills, boats and ships, and
so on.

WATER POLLUTANTS

Sources of water pollution can be categorized into

two types based on the emission: point sources
and diffusion sources.
 Point sources of water pollution occur when
pollutants flow into water through regular
channels like municipal and industrial discharge
pipes.
Diffusion sources of water pollution occur when
pollutants scattered on the ground find their
way into water. It’s also called a non-point
source of pollution because the source cannot
be easily identified. Examples include
agricultural runoffs, fertilizers, and pesticides.

16.2.1 DOMESTIC SEWAGE AND

INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

Domestic sewage contains biodegradable

organic matter that can be decomposed by
bacteria and other microorganisms.
Solids and water are relatively easy to remove
but dissolved salts like nitrate phosphate and
sulphate are difficult to remove.
The quality of wastewater is tested by its
biological oxygen demand (BOD), which
indicates the amount of dissolved oxygen
needed by bacteria to break down the organic
wastes in water (AIPMT 2012).
BOD is expressed in milligrams of O2 per liter of
water and is used to assess the level of water
pollution.
A less polluted water body has a BOD less than
1500 mg/L, while a highly polluted one has a BOD
greater than 4000 mg/L.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
situated in Delhi has set a BOD limit of < 30 ppm
for industrial and municipal wastewater
discharge into natural water.
Pure drinking water should have a BOD of less
than 1 ppm.
A mare 0.1% of impurity make domestic sewage
unfit for human consumption.

COD or chemical oxygen demand measures

the amount of oxygen required to oxidize all the
substances that can be reduced in water,
including BOD and other oxygen-demanding
chemicals that may arise during putrefaction.
The consumption of oxygen during BOD or COD
reduction will decrease the dissolved oxygen
(DO) content in the water.
When domestic sewage is discharged into a
river, the BOD increases due to the consumption
of oxygen by decomposer organisms.
If the quantity of sewage is large, all of the
dissolved oxygen in the water may be
consumed, which can lead to the death of fish
and other organisms that rely on clean water for
respiration.
As the sewage is decomposed, the dissolved
oxygen gradually increases downstream, and
clean water organisms return, indicating the
recovery of the river from pollution.
The graph provided shows some of the changes
that occur after the discharge of sewage into a
river.
Fig. 16.2.2 : The impact of sewage discharge on several important
characteristics of a river

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) may

not be an effective indicator of pollution in water
bodies receiving petroleum industrial effluents
(NEET-II 2016).

ALGAL BLOOM

16.2.2 BIOMAGNIFICATION
Fig. 16.2.3 : Biomagnification of DDT in aquatic food chain [*ppm
(parts per million)]

If untreated sewage from households and

hospitals is disposed of in water, it may contain
harmful pathogenic microorganisms that can
cause serious diseases such as dysentery,
typhoid, jaundice, and cholera.
Industrial wastewater may contain toxic
substances that can undergo biological
magnification (or biomagnification) in the
aquatic food chain. This means that the
concentration of the toxicant increases at each
higher level of the food chain because the
organism accumulates the toxic substance and
cannot metabolize or excrete it, thus passing it
on to the next higher trophic level. This is
particularly observed with mercury and DDT.
The provided diagram depicts the
biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food
chain, where the concentration of DDT is
amplified at each successive trophic level. For
instance, if DDT concentration starts at 0.003
ppb (ppb = parts per billion) in water, it can
eventually escalate to 25 ppm (ppm = parts per
)
 million) in fish-eating birds through
biomagnification (AIPMT 2015).
Birds are severely affected by high levels of DDT,
which interfere with their calcium metabolism
and cause the eggshell to become thinner,
resulting in their premature breaking, leading to
a decline in bird populations (AIPMT 2012).
Seagulls have the highest DDT concentration in
the aquatic food chain (NEET-II 2016).

16.2.3 EUTROPHICATION
Eutrophication is the process by which lakes and
ponds become more productive due to increased
nutrient levels. There are two types of
eutrophication:
(i) Natural eutrophication occurs due to natural
ageing, where a water body gradually
accumulates nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, from runoff and streams draining
into it. Over time, this encourages the growth of
aquatic organisms, causes organic debris and
silt to pile up at the bottom, and results in
shallower, warmer water. Marsh plants and
floating plants begin to grow, and eventually the
water body fills up and becomes land.
(ii) Cultural or accelerated eutrophication occurs
due to human activities, such as sewage
discharge, industrial effluent, and agricultural
runoff containing nitrates and phosphates.
These nutrients lead to the dense growth of
plants and planktonic algae, which support a
variety of animal life.
 Fig. 16.2.4 : Cultural eutrophication
Table 16.2.1 : Metals and their harmful effects

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

To control water pollution, it is important to
avoid excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides.
Whenever possible, solid wastes should be
reused or recycled.
Before releasing domestic and farmyard
sewage as well as industrial waste into water, it
should be properly treated to minimize its
harmful effects.

A CASE STUDY OF INTEGRATED

WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Wastewater and sewage can be treated
through a combination of natural and artificial
processes.
p
The town of Arcata in California is an example of
a successful initiative in which biologists from
Humboldt State University collaborated with the
local community to create a waste water
treatment system within a natural environment.
The process involves two stages: first,
conventional treatments such as sedimentation,
filtration, and chlorination are used, but this still
leaves dangerous pollutants like heavy metals in
the water.

Arcata Marsh

Second, the biologists developed a series of six

interconnected marshes spread over 60
hectares of marshland. These marshes contain
plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria that absorb
and assimilate the remaining pollutants,
resulting in naturally purified water.
Additionally, the marshes now provide a habitat
for diverse fish, animals, and birds. A group
called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is
responsible for maintaining the project.
16.3 SOLID WASTES
Solid wastes include all the materials that are
discarded as trash. It originates from various
sources, such as households, industries, mines,
defunct ships, and electronic devices, and can be
classified as municipal, industrial, mining,
hazardous, or electronic waste

16.3.1 CONTROL OF SOLID WASTES

It involves collection and categorisation of wastes,
transport to disposal site and disposal of waste.
There are three types of waste: recyclable,
biodegradable, and non-biodegradable non-
recyclable. Disposal methods include recovery
and recycling, source reduction, burning, and
dumping.
1. Recovery and Recycling: It It is performed by
rag pickers and includes materials such as tins,
cans, glass, plastic, polyethylene, rags, paper,
and cardboard.
The state governments are promoting the use of
environmentally friendly packaging instead of
plastic bags.
2. Source Reduction: The organic waste from
urban areas is used for composting, biogas, and
manure.

3. Burning: Combusting solid waste, particularly

organic waste, in open areas is known as
burning. This method can result in strong and
unpleasant odors, as well as air pollution.
Incineration and pyrolysis are considered to be
better alternatives.
4. Dumping (Landfilling): Damping is the process
of piling waste on designated low-lying areas.
There are two types of landfilling, open and
sanitary.

16.3.2 CASE STUDY OF REMEDY FOR

PLASTIC WASTE

Ahmed Khan, a plastic sack manufacturer in

Bangalore, developed a solution to address the
problem of plastic waste accumulation.
Khan realized eight years ago that plastic waste
was becoming a significant issue and
developed Polyblend, a recycled modified
plastic powder mixed with bitumen, to lay roads
(NEET 2019).
Collaborating with R.V.College of Engineering
and the Bangalore City Corporation, Khan
proved that using Polyblend in road construction
improves the bitumen’s water-resistant
properties and increases the road’s lifespan by
three times.
The raw material used to create Polyblend is
plastic film waste, which Khan purchases for Rs.
6 per kg, a much higher price than the Rs. 0.40
per kg that rag pickers had been receiving.
By 2002, over 40 km of road had been laid using
Khan’s technique in Bangalore, and he is
expected to run out of plastic waste to produce
Polyblend shortly.
16.4 AGROCHEMICALS AND
THEIR EFFECTS

The usage of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides

has significantly increased to boost crop
production.
Pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides are in high
demand for enhancing the productivity.
The excessive use of inorganic fertilizers and
biocides can lead to contamination of soil,
surfaces, and groundwater resources.
Inorganic nutrients such as phosphate and
nitrate can be washed into aquatic ecosystems,
leading to eutrophication (AIPMT 2007).
Inorganic fertilizers and pesticide residues can
also alter soil chemistry and harm soil
organisms, which are vital components of the
soil ecosystem.
Furthermore, these chemicals are toxic to non-
target organisms and can cause harm to
aquatic ecosystems due to eutrophication from
the addition of increasing amounts of chemical
fertilizers.(AIPMT 2007).

16.4.1 CASE STUDY OF ORGANIC

FARMING
 Ramesh Chandra Dagar

Integrated organic farming is a closed-loop

process where waste from one process is reused
as nutrients for other processes. This maximizes
resource utilization and increases production
efficiency.
Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat,
Haryana, has adopted this method by
integrating beekeeping, dairy management,
water harvesting, composting, and agriculture.
These processes support each other and make
his venture highly sustainable and cost-
effective.
Dagar does not use chemical fertilizers for his
crops since he uses cattle excreta (dung) as
manure.
Crop waste is used to create compost, which
can be used as a natural fertilizer or can
generate natural gas for farm energy needs.
Dagar has founded the Haryana Kisan Welfare
Club, which has 5000 farmer members. The club
aims to promote and educate farmers about
integrated organic farming practices.
16.5 RADIOACTIVE WASTES

Radioactive waste is when radioactive materials

like radium, thorium, and uranium pollute the air,
water, and soil.
Radiations can be classified into two types: non-
ionizing radiations and ionizing radiations.

Non-ionizing radiations consist of

electromagnetic waves with longer wavelengths
such as near infrared rays and radio waves.
These waves are energetic enough to make
atoms and molecules vibrate faster, but not
strong enough to ionize them.
Ionizing radiations, on the other hand, can ionize
atoms and molecules of the medium they pass
through. This includes electromagnetic
radiations like X-rays, gamma rays, and short
wavelength ultraviolet radiations (UV), as well as
energetic particles produced in nuclear
processes, electrically charged particles like
alpha and beta particles produced in
radioactive decay, and neutrons produced in
nuclear fission. These types of radiation are
highly destructive to living organisms.

Radioactive pollution is caused by:

Radioactive waste is highly dangerous to living
beings, causing cancer and genetic mutations in
humans.

CONTROL MEASURES OF
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
To prevent radioactive pollution, the following
measures can be taken: enforcing strict safety
protocols to prevent leakage of radioactive
elements from nuclear reactors, laboratories,
industries, and other sources, ensuring that
people working in such industries wear protective
clothing and are shielded from radiation using
resistant materials.
16.6 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND
GLOBAL WARMING

The term “Greenhouse effect” is based on a

phenomenon observed in a greenhouse, a small
glass structure commonly used for plant
cultivation in colder seasons.
In a greenhouse, light is allowed to enter through
the glass panels, but heat is trapped inside and
prevented from escaping.
This causes the temperature inside the
greenhouse to rise, similar to the warming effect
experienced inside a car that has been parked
in the sun for some time.
The greenhouse effect occurs naturally and
causes the Earth’s surface and atmosphere to
heat up.
Some gases, such as carbon dioxide and
methane trap heat and are known as
greenhouse gases (AIPMT 2011).
Greenhouse gases are crucial in maintaining a
warm and livable environment on Earth by
preventing a significant amount of long wave
radiation from escaping into space.
The Earth’s surface re-emits heat in the form of
infrared radiation, but some of it is absorbed by
atmospheric gases, preventing it from escaping
into space. (NEET 2019).
The greenhouse flux is responsible for keeping
the Earth’s average annual temperature at
around 15°C; without it, the temperature would
drop to -18°C.
Roughly one-fourth of incoming solar radiation
is reflected by clouds and gases, while the rest
falls on the Earth’s surface and heats it up.
Only a small fraction of incoming solar radiation
is reflected back into space.
Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide
(60%), methane (20%), chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs 14%), and nitrous oxide (N2O, 6%), are
responsible for the greenhouse effect because
they trap and radiate some of the Earth’s heat
back towards the surface, contributing to the
warming of the planet.

Fig. 16.6.2 : Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere absorb heat emitted from Earth’s surface and then
radiate much of that heat back to Earth
EL NIÑO
The warming phase of water temperatures
around the pacific equator is known as El Niño.
The opposite of El Niño is La Niña, which is
characterised by an intensification of normal
weather patterns. As winds intensify and drive
warm water westward, ocean surface
temperatures cool. El Niño and La Niña have an
impact on not only ocean temperatures but also
the amount of rain that falls on land. Droughts or
flooding might result depending on which cycle
happens (and when).
There are various methods for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, including:

Replacing chlorofluorocarbons with alternative

substances that have minimal impact on both
ozone and global warming.
Increasing the amount of vegetation and forest
coverage to allow for greater photosynthetic
utilization of carbon dioxide.
Decreasing the use of nitrogen fertilizers.
Developing alternate sources of energy to
reduce reliance on fossil fuels.