NRCCA Pest Management – Study Guide – 10/20/2008

PEST MANAGEMENT

Competency Areas

Competency Area 1: Integrated Pest Management (IPM)........................... 2

Competency Area 2: Weed Management ................................................. 20

Competency Area 3: Management of Infectious Plant Diseases .............. 28

Competency Area 4: Management of Arthropods ..................................... 37

Competency Area 5: Pesticide Formulations and Labels.......................... 80

Competency Area 6: Management of Pesticide Resistance ..................... 84

Competency Area 7: Using Pesticides in an Environmentally Sound

Manner - AEM ........................................................................................... 84

Competency Area 8: Protecting Humans from Pesticide Exposure .......... 86

Recommended Readings .......................................................................... 96

2008 Authors/Instructors for Pest Management

o Russ Hahn, Associate Professor Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell
University
o Elson Shields, Professor, Entomology, Cornell University
o Gary Bergstrom, Professor, Plant Pathology, Cornell University
o Keith Waldron, Senior Extension Associate, NY IPM Program, Cornell
University
o Ron Gardner, Senior Extension Associate, Pesticide Management
Education Program (PMEP), Cornell University
NRCCA board review by Janet Fallon, DairyOne.

Last Updated: 10-20-2008

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Competency Area 1: Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

1. Know the definition of IPM and the major IPM strategies.

“Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining

biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health, and
environmental risks”. (National IPM Network).

As defined in the National IPM Roadmap, Integrated Pest Management, or IPM, is a long-standing,
science-based, decision-making process that identifies and reduces risks from pests and pest
management related strategies. It coordinates the use of pest biology, environmental information, and
available technology to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means,
while posing the least possible risk to people, property, resources, and the environment. IPM provides
an effective strategy for managing pests in all arenas from developed residential and public areas to
wild lands. IPM serves as an umbrella to provide an effective, all encompassing, low-risk approach to
protect resources and people from pests.

Another definition: “Integrated pest management (IPM) is socially acceptable, environmentally

responsible and economically practical crop protection”.

Integrated means that a broad interdisciplinary approach is taken using scientific principles of crop
protection to fuse into a single system a variety of management strategies and tactics. Strategies are
overall plans to reduce a pest problem. Tactics are the actual methods used to implement the strategy,
including such things as chemical, biological, cultural, physical, genetic and regulatory procedures.

Pest traditionally defined as any organism that interferes with production of the crop. We generally think
of pests as insects, diseases and weeds, but there are many other types including nematodes,
arthropods other than insects, and vertebrates. We now also deal with pests in many non-crop
situations, such as human health and comfort, structures, etc.

Management is the decision making process to control pest populations in a planned, systematic way
by keeping their numbers or damage at economically acceptable levels.

Key Components of IPM include:

• Integrates management of all pests.
• A way of dealing with pest problems while minimizing risks to human health and the environment.
• Weighs the economic or quality risks of pests and pest control methods used.
• Knowledge-based pest management.
• Reduces pests to tolerable levels – does not emphasize pest eradication or elimination.
• Prevention vs. reactive pest control.
• Holistic approach, ecologically based.
• Uses a diversity of pest control measures.
• Pesticides are used only as a last resort.

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What does IPM integrate?

• Multiple pest management tactics (chemical, biological, cultural, mechanical).
• Management of multiple pests (insects, diseases, weeds, vertebrates, etc.).
• Pest Management tactics on an area-wide basis (many pest control situations are better handled
on a large-scale or regional basis).

General IPM Strategies (From: http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/AG_IPM_01.pdf).

• Do-nothing – Is the pest economically/aesthetically significant? Use sampling and knowledge of
economic/aesthetic thresholds to make a decision; if pest population is below the
economic/aesthetic threshold, the control is not justified.
• Reduce Numbers – Implement on a treat-as-needed basis when the economic injury level is
reached, or as a preventative tactic based on history of a pest problem. Examples of tactics
pesticides, release of natural enemies, cultural practices such as cultivation, sanitation, etc.
• Reduce-crop/host/ecosystem susceptibility – rely on changes made in the host (pan t or animal) or
ecosystem that make it less susceptible to the pest (i.e., raise the economic injury level).
Examples of tactics host plant (or animal) resistance r tolerance, cultural practices such as
fertilization (reduce stress) and altering the synchrony between pest and susceptible host, etc.
• Combined strategies – Diversification is often helpful in improving consistency of a pest
management program.
Examples of pest management
options are presented in the figure
on the left.

Another way of looking at selecting

pest management options is to
view them as a pyramid where
options are arranged as a
pyramid. The pyramid illustrates a
least toxic approach to pest
management. The foundation
contains practices such as crop
rotation that enhance crop health
and help prevent or avoid pest
population build up or reduce pest impacts. As one climbs the pyramid towards the top different options
are employed as necessary as interventions to
pest population buildup or impact.

IPM Summary.
Integrated pest management (IPM) helps reduce
management risks and optimize the economic
efficiency of pest control decisions through (1)
early detection of pests, (2) proper identification
of pests, (3) accurate assessment of potential for
economic impact, and (4) timely employment of
appropriate, economically efficient, and
environmentally sound management strategies.

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2. Know the relationship between the economic injury level, economic threshold, action
threshold and general equilibrium position of a pest population.

(Adapted from: Field Crop Integrated Pest Management Training and Reference Manual
http://paipm.cas.psu.edu/fldcrop/ and Pedigo 1989*).

In most crops, and most seasons, a

pest species that feed on or otherwise
affect the crop will be present at some
point in the plant life cycle. However,
just because the pest is present does
not necessarily mean that the farmer
needs to take action against the pest.

“In seeking to reduce a pest’s long

term average density, the general
equilibrium position (GEP), is low
compared with the economic
threshold (problems are not particularly severe), the best strategy would be to dampen pest population
peaks. This action would not change the GEP appreciably, yet would prevent economic damage from
occurring during outbreaks.” By contrast, “severe pest problems call for more drastic population
reductions. With these pest problems, the GEP lies very close to or is above the economic threshold.
What is required for these populations is a general lowering of the GEP so that highest population
peaks never reach the economic threshold.”* (Pedigo 1989).

How does the farmer know when the number of pests in his/her crop is too many? Is this number the
same every year in all fields? To help farmers decide when there are too many pests, the concept of
the "Economic Injury
Level (EIL)" is used.
The EIL allows the
farmer to compare
the value of the
damage the number
of pests in the field
might do to the crop
with the cost of
taking action against
the pest. In other
words, is the cost of
taking action (e.g
spray) more or less
than the value of
crop lost to the pest
if no action is taken?
The point where the
cost of control equals the value of loss is called the EIL. After Pedigo (1989).

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Economic Injury Level (EIL):

The pest population density
where the cost of control equals
the value of the damage
prevented if a control treatment is
applied. Or, according to Stern et
al. (1959): “The lowest population
density of a pest that will cause
economic damage; or the amount
of pest injury which will justify the
cost of control.”

Aesthetic-injury Level (AIL):

According to Stern et al. (1959):
“Analogous to the EIL, except
that aesthetic rather than economic considerations motivate the pest management decisions.”

Simplified equation for calculating an EIL (from Pedigo, L.P. 1989. Entomology and Pest Management.
MacMillan Pub., NY. 646 pp.):

The major components in a simplified equation

V = Market Value of per unit of produce (for example, $/acre)
I = Injury units per production unit (for example, % defoliation/insect/acre, expressed as a
proportion)
P = Density or intensity of pest population (for example insects/acre)
D = Damage per unit injury (for example, bushels lost/acre/percent defoliation)
C = Pest Management Costs ($/acre)

Economic Injury Level (EIL) = P

P= C
VxIxD

In instances where some loss from a pest is unavoidable, for example, if injury can be reduced only
80%, then the relationship becomes:

P= C
VxIxDxK

Where K = proportionate reduction in injury (for example, 0.8 for 80%)

There is one more concept that is important. Given that we can calculate the EIL, by the time that the
farmer determines that the pest population is getting to unacceptable levels and finds the time,
equipment and help he/she needs to take action, the pest population has had a chance to exceed the
EIL and eat into the farmer's profit. To account for this management 'lag' another measure, the
Economic Threshold sometimes called Action Threshold, has been calculated to account for the
farmer's reaction time.

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Economic Threshold (ET):

The level of pest infestation at which management action is justified.

At or above this level, the likely loss

from crop damage is greater than the
cost of control. Below this level, the
cost of control is greater than the
savings from crop protection.

These thresholds are pre-calculated by

researchers, so all the farmer has to do
is take a proper sample of the pest to
answer the question: Are we above or
below the Economic Threshold for pest
X?

To calculate Economic Threshold you must:

1. Know how to identify the pest
2. Know how to sample the crop environment to assess level of infestation
3. Know stage of crop development and how that relates to severity of damage
4. Know approximate economic threshold levels (available from your state University Extension)
5. Consider how action threshold may vary with stage of crop development, value of crop and cost of
control.

For more information see: Understanding the Economic Threshold Concept. In: Field Crop Integrated
Pest Management Training and Reference Manual, Penn State University,
http://paipm.cas.psu.edu/fldcrop/part3.htm.

3. Know the typical steps in the integrated pest management process. These include:
A. Proper identification of problems
B. Sampling to determine the extent of the
problem
C. Analysis to assess problem importance
D. Selection of appropriate management
alternative
E. Proper implementation of management
action
F. Evaluation of effectiveness of
management action

The IPM approach promotes “proactive” rather than “reactive” management. Careful use of these
principles in the order presented will maximize the advantages of using the IPM approach. This IPM
approach can be applied to a wide variety of pest management situations. With some modifications
these IPM steps can be effectively applied to better help manage pests of crops, turf and landscapes,
as well as pests of pets and livestock, stored products and pests in/around structures.
The following steps can help you to detect pest problems before they become significant, to
prevent losses, and to avoid unnecessary pest management actions:

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A. Preparation and Planning

Key Issues / Questions…
What should you expect?
Crop agronomy, growth and development?
Pest Management Needs, Options?
Previous field history? Common (annual) pest problems for the crop being produced?
When and how to look to the pest or signs of pest / damage?
Identification – what are key characteristics to correctly identify the pest?
New problems – Are there new, emerging, invasive pest species of potential concern?
Other factors to consider?
Field History – Is there a documented field history with information on previous crop and pest
management actions or concerns?
Farm Management – understand the farms resources, strengths, opportunities / constraints, etc.
Resources: Where can you find information?
Cornell Cooperative Extension, Certified Crop Advisors, Company Representatives, other Growers
Cornell Guide for Integrated Field Crop Management (www.fieldcrops.org)
Cornell / NYS Integrated Pest Management: http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu
Trade Journals, etc.

B. Proper identification of problems

Correct identification is the first and most important step in controlling a field problem. This first step is
critical to future success, since an incorrect diagnosis leads to mismanagement. What is causing the
problem? A pest? An environmental stress? A nutritional deficiency? Or some another factor or
combination of factors. Mistaking a disease problem for an insect problem, for example, can lead to an
unnecessary use of an insecticide or continued planting of disease-susceptible crop varieties.
Confusing a nutritional deficiency for herbicide injury or a disease ailment can likewise lead to incorrect
actions. Also, learn to identify parasites and predators that help keep harmful pests in check. Although
many insects and other organisms can be observed in fields, relatively few actually harm crops.
Obtain as much information about the problem as possible to determine its cause. Answering
several questions will help in this process. What type of damage is observed? Check field history
information if available to determine if it is a historical problem? Is the problem found only in particular
locations, rows, soil types, drainage patterns, or at certain times during the growing season? What part
or growth stage of the plant is affected?
Dig up plants showing symptoms. Check roots and the surrounding soil for evidence of pests. If in
doubt about correct identification of the problem collect representative samples and field information to
share with other knowledgeable persons or submit to a diagnostic clinic. There are many resources
available to provide helpful information on identification of common pest problems of crops. Some
suggested resources are listed in the resource section.

This scouting manual discusses the most commonly found pests in alfalfa in New York. A diagnostic
guide is included in Appendix A to help you to identify other less commonly observed problems.

Key Issues / Questions…

Mis-identification = mismanagement
Who is your enemy & who is your friend

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Be familiar with common, expected problems

Know where on/in the plant / in the field and when (growth stage of crop, time of the season) to
anticipate common pests
Know how to distinguish pest damage from other injury (soil compaction, nutrient deficiencies, frost)
Know vulnerable stages of crop and pest, compensation and yield capabilities, potential pest impacts
Know when and how pests can hurt you the most
Be proactive. What crop conditions might favor pest problems?
Wet soils = Phytophthora root rot
Continuous corn – corn root worm, foliar diseases
Poor weed control – armyworm, stalk borer
High crop residue - foliar diseases
Know key beneficial and indicator species, signs of crop health and stress

C. Sampling to determine the extent of the problem

Once the pest is correctly identified, the next question arises: Is there a risk of significant loss? Is the
problem occasionally seen? Localized? Or commonly found throughout the field? What is the extent of
the damage? Is the problem a growing threat? Scientific sampling / crop monitoring techniques have
been developed for assessing the damage potential of many pests. Correct sampling helps eliminate
the guesswork in pest control by providing a means to quantify an old problem or discover a new one.
Use sampling knowledge and information on pest and crop biology to make better management
decisions. For example, the alfalfa weevil, a common alfalfa pest in New York, pupates to the cocoon
stage about the time of first harvest, thus alleviating a potential problem naturally. Accurate sampling,
or scouting, is systematic and methodical. Examine and quantify all important field information needed
to make a sound pest management decision. Information on specific sampling strategies for specific
pests on crop of interest can be found in resources such as the Cornell Guide to Integrated Field Crop
Management or the New York State IPM website (www.nysipm.cornell.edu).

Pest Forecasting. Pest Forecasting. For some pests forecasting methods have been developed to
aide in determining when a pest is likely to be a problem. Weather data and other information help
predict when these specific pests will most likely occur. Weather-based pest forecast models for
diseases and insects of many crops have been developed in New York. For field crops, information on
an alfalfa weevil prediction model based on accumulated heat units is available in the alfalfa insect
section of the Cornell field crops guide http://www.fieldcrops.org. Actual growing degree calculations for
predicting estimated alfalfa weevil growth stage across NY during the growing season can be found at:
http://newa.nrcc.cornell.edu/newaDisease/alf_weev. Another forecasting model is available to help
predict critical times to manage Fusarium Head Blight of Winter Wheat at the Penn State
(http://www.wheatscab.psu.edu/riskTool.html).

Access to a computer network to obtain weather, regional insect, and disease forecasts, is useful but
not essential. The Northeast Weather Association provides automated local weather information and
the results of pest forecasts on a daily basis through computer or fax connection. The NEWA website
is: http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu/newa/. For subscription information, contact NEWA at 315-787-2206.
Simple weather-recording equipment such as thermometers, hygrometers, and rain gauges placed in
onion fields will assist the prediction of pest outbreaks. Information on the potential for pest outbreaks
can sometimes also be obtained from Cooperative Extension offices, newsletters, and crop advisors.

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Key Issues / Questions…

How many pests? General Crop Condition?
What is the extent of the damage in the field? Few plants or areas affected throughout the field?
Localized? General problem throughout field? Problem associated with any obvious field factor?
Quantifying an old problem or discovering a new one?
Are pests a “growing” threat? Large cutworms may soon pupate alleviating a problem naturally
Examine and quantify all parameters necessary to make a sound decision
Refer to IPM Guidelines for sampling recommendations and monitoring techniques

D. Analysis to assess problem importance

The third step in the pest management process is analyzing the identification and sampling information
and evaluating the need for a pest control action. Decide how bad the problem really is. Is the potential
control measure more costly than the damage potential? Weigh economic, environmental, and time
concerns. What impact will current pest control decision have on future crop management decisions?
Compare the observed frequency of a given pest to its “action threshold.” An action threshold is the
level at which action must be taken so that the pest will not significantly damage the crop. Action
thresholds are based on research and growers’ experiences with similar problems.

During the analysis stage, consider the relative vigor of the plants, plant populations, and value of the
crop and potential yield. Depending on the crop and pest type. light pest populations may actually
increase yields by causing the plant to compensate. Poor stands (less than 75% alfalfa) may not return
management dollars since thresholds are based on research with clear stands. For alfalfa stands,
crowns should have many lush stems, and little or no signs of root or crown injury, and clear stands
probably should have a minimum of five healthy crowns per square foot to justify pesticide application.
Clear seeded alfalfa is usually more economical to treat for a given pest problem than mixed stands,
and some pesticides cannot legally be applied to mixed stands.

Key Issues / Questions…

Evaluate risk. Is there a significant problem? If so, how bad?
Consult threshold guidelines that are built on research and experience with similar problems
Weigh economic, environmental, & time concerns.
Is damage potential more costly than the control?
What happens if you do nothing? What happens if you apply control(s)?
Which would cost more - damage or control?

Decision aides (See previous Performance Objective (2) and Resource Sections for more information):
o Economic Injury Level (EIL): Pest densities (number of pests per unit area) at which control
measures are economically justified.
o Cost of pest control = Savings from damage avoided / crop protected (break-even point).
o Economic Threshold: Pest density at which action must be taken to prevent an impending pest
outbreak.
o Action Threshold: The level of pest infestation at which management action is justified.
o At or above this level, the likely loss from crop damage is greater than the cost of control.
o Below this level, the cost of control is greater than the savings from crop protection.

E. Selection of appropriate management alternative

When an action is needed, choose a strategy that fits with the short- and long-term plans, labor force,

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capital, equipment, and finances of the farm. Evaluate the costs, benefits, and risks of employing
various management options. Look for opportunities to integrate different pest control strategies. What
are the cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical control options? Which is the most practical,
economical, effective choice?

Management tactic Example

Biological Parasites, predators, pest
Chemical Pesticides, pheromones, baits, attractants
Cultural Rotation, planting date, site selection, fertility, pH, plant populations, sanitation
Host Resistance Resistant Varieties, Transgenic Crops
Mechanical Cultivation, Tillage, Rotary Hoe, Fly Swatter, Traps, Screen, Fence
Physical Rain, Freezing, Solar Radiation

Information on short and longer term pest management strategies can be found in resources such as
the Cornell Guide to Integrated Field Crop Management (www.fieldcrops.org) or the New York State
IPM website (www.nysipm.cornell.edu).

Key Issues / Questions…

What can be done to control this pest problem?
Cultural, mechanical, biological, chemical control options? Economics?
Are there windows of opportunity to disrupt the pests life cycle or potential impact?
Does the total management system allow for some options? Such as: Will early alfalfa harvest to
control weevil interfere with crucial corn planting?
Given time and the farm’s resources what’s the optimum IPM option(s)?
Should option selected be reevaluated? - influence of weed size, insect age, crop growth stage, etc.

F. Proper implementation of management action

Implement the control carefully and at the right time. If pesticides are used, always follow label
recommendations. Cultivation or using herbicides on weeds must be done at the right stage of weed
and crop development for greatest impact. Pay close attention to the quality control of pest control
actions, such as correct calibration of the application equipment and label recommendations. If
appropriate, leave small, untreated areas to evaluate control effectiveness. Conduct management
action with precision and thoroughness.

Key Issues / Questions…

Timely application of management procedures. Such as using herbicides on weeds at the right stage
of development.
Use Quality control. Correct calibration of the sprayer
Integrated approach. Avoid the tendency to use chemicals when effective cultural controls or natural
enemies are present
Keep records of actions taken.
Once you have chosen your course of action: Be precise, Be thorough, Be timely, Use quality control.

G. Evaluation management action(s) effectiveness

After a pest control action is taken, review what went right—and equally as important, what went wrong
or could be improved. Did the control work? Scout the field again and compare pest activity before and

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after treatment. Was the problem identified properly? Was the field sampling unbiased? Was threshold
guideline used and was it used correctly? Was the choice of control based on sound judgment or
outside pressure? What changes to the system would make it better? Enter this information as part of
an updated field history. This evaluation step is a very important part of the IPM process since it
enables you to learn from experience and find ways to improve management skills and impact.

Key Issues / Questions…

Review what went wrong - what went right
Did you trip up the steps, or climb gracefully? Was the “problem” identified correctly?
Sampling unbiased? Threshold guideline followed?
Choice of control based on sound judgment or salesperson pressure?
Check (no treat) plots to evaluate the action
What changes to the system would make it better?

4. Recognize the importance of using appropriate sampling method to determine

presence or absence, and to estimate population density of a species. Know the
components of proper sampling including method, location, timing and sample size.

Scientific sampling techniques vary by crop and pest type. Methods to assess the damage potential of
important common pests can generally be found in state crop and IPM guides. Sampling techniques
and protocols strive to collect information representative of the whole field condition on which to make
management decisions. Correct sampling helps eliminate the guesswork in pest control by providing a
means to quantify the pest problem. Use sampling knowledge and information on pest and crop biology
to make better management decisions. Note: Local conditions may affect crop and pest biology. To
most effectively use IPM guidelines, use the sampling methods and threshold guidelines recommended
by your state. (For NY field crop IPM: www.fieldcrops.org or www.nysipm.cornell.edu/fieldcrops)

Common methods for sampling:

Visual Inspection for insects, diseases, weeds, vertebrate or other plant damage. Assessments made
while walking throughout the field. Data are generally recorded as the number of individuals per plant or
plant part or percentage of plants or area affected. Weed assessments include species identification,
type (annual, perennial, grass, broadleaf, etc.), and the relative abundance of important species in the
field. Weed populations can be evaluated using the rating scheme provided in the weed assessment
section.

Insects:
• Sweep net or beat cloths – For mobile insects such as potato leafhopper sampling protocols call for
using a 15 inch diameter sweep net. Samples are taken a numerous locations within the field.
Assessments are made by counting the number of individuals collected in the net per “X” number of
sweeps. Beat cloths are another method of collecting information on less mobile insects in row
crops, such as spider mites and aphids. The beat cloth is used as a means to collect insects shaken
from plants in a sample area such as a square foot. The number of individuals collected per unit
area is compared to recommended guidelines.

• Trapping – Several types of trapping devices are used in collection of insect information.
• Light traps – used to determine relative abundance of insects in a defined region. Information

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on the number of adults caught in the trap over time is used to help predict potential pest
outbreaks.
• Sticky traps – Used to collect small flying insects such as aphids, leafhoppers, flies, and
beetles. Relative abundance and type of insect collected is recorded.
• Pheromone traps – chemical attractant traps used to determine if a particular species is in the
area. Also used to detect initial flights of insects such as European corn borer and the relative
abundance of insects like western corn rootworm.

Identification, sampling and management guidelines for specific insects and their damage can be found
in state crop and IPM guidelines. Information on specific sampling strategies for specific pests on crop
of interest can be found in resources such as the Cornell Guide to Integrated Field Crop Management
or the New York State IPM website (www.nysipm.cornell.edu).

Disease Sampling
As different diseases are favored by different environmental conditions, scout for diseases throughout
the entire growing season in conjunction with other scouting activities. Diseases may become more
obvious during certain times of crop development such as crop emergence, or during times of stress
(e.g., drought or flood), and pre- or post-harvest. Look for areas of stunted, yellow, discolored, wilted,
contorted or dead plants.

Symptoms of different diseases often appear similar and can at times be confused with other ailments
such as nutritional deficiencies and abiotic problems. If a problem cannot be diagnosed in the field, dig
up several plants that show typical symptoms. For many diseases it is important to include above and
below ground plant parts when submitting samples for diagnosis. For example when submitting alfalfa
samples include as much of the crown and taproot as possible. Submit the samples to a diagnostic
laboratory (follow recommendations outlined in the Guidelines for Packaging and Sending Plant
Material to the Diagnostic Laboratory in the appendix).

Estimate the percentage of plants affected by the disease throughout the field. Record information
concerning particular problem areas, noting location, size of area affected, drainage pattern, etc.
Weed Sampling
Scout for weeds in the spring and fall. As always, take care to obtain a representative sample of weed
conditions throughout the field, although weed infestations may not be uniform across the entire field.
Document the weed type rather than taking detailed counts of weed species.
Observe at least five random areas of a forty acre field; divide larger fields into two equal parts for
scouting. Base these divisions on previous field history, soil type, topography, or other factors that
might affect weed populations.
Scout for weeds in conjunction with other monitoring activities. See the comments above for “Visual
Inspection”. Record weed type (annual, biennial, perennial, grass, sedge, and broadleaf) and relative
importance from all parts of the field. Note any areas with significant weed problems. Map weed
locations on the scouting form.
Check special terrain features such as droughty slopes, poorly drained areas, field borders, and fence
rows for weeds. These areas can be major sources of weed contamination and differ significantly from
the rest of the field.

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Specific economic thresholds have not been established for weeds in alfalfa in New York. Instead, use
the rating scale provided below and knowledge of the weed type (annual, biennial, perennial, grass,
sedge, or broadleaf) to design a weed management program.
Determine the presence of each weed species according to the following rating scheme:
None No weeds are present.
Few Weeds are present, but there are very few plants in the field. There are enough plants
to produce seed but not enough to cause significant loss.
Common Plants are dispersed throughout the field. There are
a) up to 5 grassy or 3 broadleaf annual weeds per square foot, or
b) 0.3 perennial or biennial weeds per square foot (3/sq. yd), or
c) scattered spots of severe infestation.
Abundant There are fairly uniform concentrations of:
a) 6 to 20 grassy or 4 to 10 broadleaf annual weeds per square foot, or
b) 0.5 to 1.0 perennial or biennial weeds per square ft (6-20/sq yd), or
c) scattered spots of severe infestation.
Extreme There are:
a) concentrations of more than 2 grassy or 1 perennial or biennial weeds per square foot
(20 grassy or 10 perennial or biennial/sq yd), or
b) large areas of severe infestations.
After rating the weeds, rank the most prevalent weed species in each field in order of severity.

5. List types of pest monitoring methods and the advantages and disadvantages of each.

From: http://ag.udel.edu/extension/iPM/cca/ipmoverview.html.

Monitoring techniques fall into three types: absolute methods, relative methods, and population indices.

Absolute methods: estimates of pest population density are expressed as a level per unit of crop area
or as a percentage of the sampling units affected. Examples are direct visual counts per plant or per
foot of row or per unit of area.
• Advantages: broad range of applicability, less influenced by spatial patterns and changes in
pest behavior and sampling efficiency, easier to predict potential crop damage.
• Disadvantages: More time consuming

Relative methods: Estimates of pest population activity per unit of effort or time but not expressed with
units of the crop area. Examples include visual searches, sweep net sampling, beating or shake cloth
estimates, blacklight traps, pheromone traps, visual sticky traps, and bait traps.
• Advantages: yield more data given the same effort, less time-consuming, easier to implement.
• Disadvantages: efficiency is affected by pest behavior, diurnal activity, weather conditions, the
crop habitat being sampled, and variations in the way the methods are deployed;
requires more information to relate relative estimates to potential crop damage.
Population Indices: estimates of crop damage or the frequency of pest infestations which indirectly
reflect the size of the pest population. Examples are percentage of plants infested or diseased,
percentage of defoliation, percentage of damaged fruits, visual ratings of root or foliage injury, etc.

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• Advantages: less time consuming and easy to implement, more directly related to crop yield
losses.
• Disadvantages: Cannot be used alone to make control decisions, may not allow enough time to
take management actions.

6. Define and distinguish between the following classes of plant response to injury:
resistance, tolerance, and susceptibility.

From Agrios, G. “Plant Pathology”, Academic press. See also: On-Line Glossary of Technical Terms in
Plant Pathology with pronunciation guide, accessible at:
http://ppathw3.cals.cornell.edu/glossary/Glossary.htm.

Resistance: The ability of an organism to overcome, completely or in some degree, the effect of a
pathogen or other damaging factor. (See also: Plant Resistance to Insects: A Fundamental Component
of IPM, G. L. Teetes, Ph.D., Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
77843-2475, http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/teetes.htm).
Tolerance: The ability of a plant to sustain the effects of a disease without dying or suffering serious
injury or crop loss. Also, the amount of toxic residue allowable in or on edible plant parts under the law.
Susceptibility: The inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor.

7. Recognize how variables including the following are used to calculate the economic
injury level (EIL), and how the EIL changes with a change in any of the variables:
A. Pest density/crop damage relationship C. Cost of control
B. Crop value D. Effectiveness of control action

A. Pest density/crop damage relationship.

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B. Crop value

Information needed:
Value ($) per bushel, ton, salable unit, etc. = $ _____
Expected yield (bu., ton, salable unit, etc.) per acre = _____
Calculation:
Value ($) per salable unit X Expected Yield / Acre = crop value ($) / acre

C. Cost of control

Estimate Control Cost (Primary + Secondary Costs)

Primary cost (Pesticide cost)

Information needed:
Pesticide use rate (lb., oz, etc.) / acre, i.e. ____(lb., oz, etc.)
Pesticide price / (lb., oz, etc.) $ _____
Calculation:
Pesticide use rate (lb., oz, etc.) / acre, i.e. ____(lb., oz, etc.)
Pesticide price / (lb., oz, etc.) $ _____ =
Pesticide cost / Acre, i.e. $_____ / Acre
Secondary cost
Information needed:
Pesticide Application cost $_____ / Acre

Primary Pesticide Cost + Secondary Cost = Total Pesticide Application Costs / acre
i.e. Total Control Cost $ _____ / Acre

Calculate Maximum Allowable Crop Loss (%)

Total Control cost $ ____ / Acre divided by Crop value $____ / Acre =
Maximum allowable crop loss ____%

D. Effectiveness of control action

For more information see: Performance Objective (2) and suggested reading in Resource Sections.

8. Outline methods for sampling plant and pest material.

Pest sampling should be based on an understanding of the pest biology. You will need to know pest
identification, what to sample (specific areas of the plant, % injury, numbers of insects, an assessment
of weed population, etc.), when to sample, how frequently to sample and what constitutes a sample
(such as 10 sweep net sweeps per sample site). Sampling for specific pests will often require use of
special techniques. Information on pests of concern and when to expect them during the growing
season (scouting calendar) for common pests of NY grown alfalfa, field corn, soybeans and wheat are
presented in the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Literature/Bulletin section. To obtain the latest
information on sampling techniques for a specific field crop pest, consult your local Cooperative
Extension educator, current Cornell Field Crop Guide to Integrated Field Crop Management, or the
NYSIPM website.

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Correct sampling is the key for obtaining useful field information. It is important to randomly select
plants for sampling. Do not examine only the "best" and "worst" plants. A random sample is taken by
walking to the general area to be sampled, and looking up to the sky, walk forward five paces. Begin
the inspection procedure with the plant nearest the toe of your right foot.

Selecting an appropriate subsample method will depend on the mobility of the pest being scouted. Two
subsample methods are recommended:

Consecutive plants are examined when the pest will not be disturbed by sampling procedures on
adjacent plants. This method is appropriate for scouting pests such as cutworms, stalk-boring insects,
weeds, and diseases.

Random plants are examined when mobile insects are being surveyed. In this case, the next plant
examined should be some distance away to remove any possibility of recounting insects that may have
moved from plants sampled earlier. Random sampling is the preferred sampling method for insects
such as corn rootworm adults.

Sampling Patterns
Pests can generally be found in one of
three distribution patterns in a field.
Scouting efforts for particular pests
should be selected accordingly.

Pattern I. Pests are expected to be

uniformly spread over the field. In
scouting for a pest with this distribution
pattern, sample sites are chosen so as
to be evenly distributed over the field,
obvious influencing factors such as
field borders being excluded. Pests
fitting this pattern would include European corn borer, corn rootworm adults, potato leafhopper, and
most foliar diseases.

Pattern II. Pests are expected to

be concentrated in particular
areas of the field. Pests fitting
this pattern would include black
cutworm, white grubs,
Phytopthora root rot, or other
diseases that may be associated
with wet areas within the field or
with areas with different soil
texture, drainage, pH, fertility, or
cropping history. If pests are
detected in one area and not in
another, efforts should be made
to subsample that region to determine the extent and severity of the pest infestation more accurately.

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Pattern III. Pests are expected to appear at field edges first. Pests fitting this pattern would include
common stalk borer in conventionally tilled corn, spider mites, armyworm, grass sawfly, grasshoppers,
and alfalfa snout beetle. Sample for these pests by walking fence rows, ditch banks, and field borders.
NOTE: More than one pest may be present in fields at the same time. For this reason, combinations of
the sampling procedures described may be necessary to accurately detect presence of all pests.
• Sampling for specific NY Field Crop Pests can be found in the Cornell Guide to Integrated Field
Crop Management (http://www.fieldcrops.org) and the New York State IPM field crop website
(http://nysipm.cornell.edu/fieldcrops/).
• Field Crops Pest Management Manual, Purdue University, Agricultural Communication, Media
Distribution Center, 231 S University St, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2094,
http://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/IPM-1.pdf (http://www.ces.purdue.edu/new), 1-888-
EXT-INFO (398-4636), Fax: (765) 496-1540.
• Cornell University Integrated Crop Management Guidelines: http://ipmguidelines.org/.
• Penn State Field Crop Integrated Pest Management Training and Reference Manual
http://paipm.cas.psu.edu/fldcrop/.
• Pest Sampling and Management Tactics, High Plains Integrated Pest Management Guide for
Colorado, Western Nebraska, Wyoming, Montana and Western South Dakota
(http://highplainsipm.org/).
• Concepts of IPM. Bechinski, E. and Bohl, W. University of Idaho.
http://www.ag.uidaho.edu/potato/production/files/Chapter%209_IPM.pdf.
• Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. The University of Minnesota's electronic textbook of Integrated
Pest Management (IPM) featuring contributed chapters by internationally recognized experts.
(http://ipmworld.umn.edu/).
• Northeast Region Integrated Pest Management Center. Links to IPM information and
resources from northeastern US states (CT, DE, MA, MD, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT,
WV) and throughout the United States. http://neipmc.org/index.cfm.

9. Outline methods for submitting plant and pest material for diagnosis and laboratory
analysis.

Entomology: http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/Extension/DiagnosticLab/

Cornell University's Insect Diagnostic Lab will help identify the pest and provide pest management
suggestions. In addition, check out Cornell University entomology factsheets posted on-line at:
http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/Extension/DiagnosticLab/IDLFS/index.html.

Guidelines for sending specimens:

• Collect and send 10 or more insects, if possible, and all life stages present.
• HOUSEHOLD/STRUCTURAL PESTS: Describe the problem: where found, in what room,
approximately how many, extent and type of damage or concern, and history of past infestation.
• PLANT PESTS: Collect progression of symptoms and pests. Include or identify the plant material
on which the insects were found -- this is useful and sometimes necessary for pest identification.
• For plant material, collect a fresh sample, wrap it in paper towels, and then in a plastic bag with a
few holes. Place in a padded envelope/box. Send early in the week to avoid weekend delays.
• For small plants, you may want to ship the entire plant. Package it so the soil doesn't spill out --

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wrap pot with soil in a plastic bag tied about the base of the stem.
• Dead, HARD-BODIED INSECTS such as beetles, wasps, flies, moths, and butterflies should be
placed in layers of tissue paper and packaged in a sturdy container for shipping.
• SOFT BODIED INSECTS (Aphids, spiders, mites, grubs, and caterpillars) will break down quickly,
so should be prepared and mailed as quickly as possible. It would be best to choose next day
delivery if shipping these insects. To kill the insects, small insects such as aphids can be placed
directly in a freezer in a bag with a bit of tissue paper to absorb moisture when they defrost. Larger
ones such as grubs or caterpillars require preparation to prevent discoloration. They should be
dropped into gently boiling water for about 30 seconds; then they may be wrapped in tissue paper
and sent. Please indicate original color of specimen.
• Securely wrap the sample and package in a container acceptable to the post office.
• Provide complete collection data: When collected, where collected (town or city or nearest post
office), and by whom.
• Send sample early in the week to avoid weekend delays. Mail samples to: Insect Diagnostic
Laboratory, 4140 Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2601. Telephone
Consultations: (607) 255-4777.

To have the laboratory identify a pest: Download, print, and fill out a Diagnostic Lab Information Sheet
available in Adobe Acrobat PDF format.
• Collect and package a few of the insects following the guidelines listed below.
• Send the sample, information sheet, and check or money order for $25.00 payable to Cornell
University to the address listed at the bottom of this web page. We also accept Mastercard, Visa,
and Discover credit cards. If you're paying by credit card, we need your card number, expiration
date, and the name on the card.
• Optionally, we also provide phone consultations on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 9:00 am to
12:00 noon and 1:00 pm to 4:00 pm eastern time at $10.00 per call. The telephone number is:
(607) 255-4777. Please have a credit card ready -- we accept Mastercard, Visa and Discover.
• Insects are identified as quickly as possible. You should have a response within one to three days
by e-mail or fax, or one to two weeks by regular mail.

Questions? Contact Carol Hunter at [email protected] or Carolyn Klass at [email protected] for

more information about the Insect Diagnostic Lab.

Collection and Submission of Plant Disease Samples

The Plant Disease Diagnostic Clinic at Cornell University is designed to provide you with diagnostic
services. The clinic can provide you with the fast, accurate, professional service that you need and
demand. Plant Pathology: http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/. When submitting samples for analysis, please
keep a few things in mind:
• Please use the "Submission Form" whenever submitting samples.
• Provide as much information as possible to help ensure an accurate diagnosis of the problem.
• Make sure you include the form with your sample. You may also want to keep one copy of the form
for your records. For faster response, include your fax number or email address and indicate how
you would prefer to receive the results.
• Please include a check for the appropriate fee made out to Cornell University. We can not process
samples until we have received full payment.
• The sample to be submitted should contain all parts of the plant when possible. Wrap the sample

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loosely in an unsealed plastic bag and package it in a sturdy box. Pack roots separate from
branches, shoots, or foliage.
• Mail the sample as quickly as possible. However: there is no mail delivery at Cornell on weekends
or holidays. To make sure your sample will get processed as soon as it arrives, collect and ship so
that we receive it no later than Friday morning during a regular week. During weeks with major
holidays, please call ahead to find out the best time to ship. If the sample cannot be mailed
immediately, keep it refrigerated or out of direct sunlight.
• It is important that you try to collect the sample prior to any pesticide applications - once pesticides
have been applied it may be difficult to obtain an accurate diagnosis.
• It is helpful if the sample is taken from an area that has early symptoms of the problem. Areas that
are completely dead often contain a number of secondary organisms that may hinder the detection
of the primary pathogen.

The procedure for collecting samples for nematode analysis varies slightly. Please check the
appropriate web page for detailed instructions on collecting and shipping nematode samples. Please
feel free to call the clinic with any questions prior to your sample submission. The clinic staff works hard
to provide you with fast, accurate results. Providing answers prior to sample submission may enable us
to get you the answers you need on a more timely basis. You can contact the clinic by telephone (607-
255-7850), fax (607-255-4471), or by email [email protected] or [email protected].

For Factsheets: http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/fieldcrop/index.htm. They list useful information about a

specific plant disease and provide symptom descriptions and any available control recommendations.

How to Submit a Field Crop Sample: (See above section)

Most samples If you know you are submitting a nematode sample
- The sample to be submitted should contain all - The best time of year for nematode analyses is
parts of the plant when possible. during the active growing season.
- Wrap the sample in a paper bag and package - A minimum of 6 soil subsamples, approximately
it in a sturdy box. 1" in diameter and 4" in depth, should be
- Try to mail the sample as quickly as possible. collected from an area that is approximately one
- If the sample can not be mailed immediately, acre in size.
keep it refrigerated or out of direct sunlight. - The sub-samples should be collected randomly
- It is important that you try to collect the throughout the area.
sample prior to any pesticide applications. - The subsamples should be mixed together
Once pesticides have been applied it may be thoroughly and about a pint of soil transferred to
difficult to obtain an accurate diagnosis. a plastic bag.
- It is helpful if the sample is taken from an area - Samples should be shipped as soon as
that has early symptoms of the problem. possible. If the sample cannot be mailed
Areas that are completely dead often contain immediately, keep it refrigerated or out of direct
a number of secondary organisms that may sunlight.
hinder the detection of the primary pathogen.

When submitting samples for analysis, please keep a few things in mind: Always fill out the
"Submission Form". Providing as much information on the form as possible will help in ensuring an
accurate diagnosis of the problem. Make sure you include the form with your sample.
• You may want to keep a copy of the form for your own records.

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• Please feel free to call the clinic with any questions prior to your sample submission.
• For faster response, include your fax number or email address and indicate how you would prefer
to receive the results.
• Please include a check for the appropriate fee made out to Cornell University.
For more information see the Cornell University Plant Pathology Diagnostic Clinic Homepage:
http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/.

Competency Area 2: Weed Management

Weed Biology

10. Demonstrate familiarity with life cycles and growth habits (dicotyledons and
monocotyledons) of weeds and how these characteristics affect weed management.

Life cycles
Annuals - complete life cycle in one year:
o Summer annuals - germinate from seed in spring or early summer then flower and set seed before
the end of the growing season, i.e. common ragweed and large crabgrass.
o Winter annuals - germinate from seed in late summer or fall, then flower and set seed the following
spring or early summer, i.e. corn chamomile, shepherd’s-purse and purple deadnettle.
Biennials - take two years to complete life cycle:
o They make vegetative growth the first year. Then after additional vegetative growth in the second
year, they flower and set seed, i.e. common burdock and bull thistle.
Perennials - live for more than two years
o Perennials reproduce from seed only or from seed and vegetative organs.
o Perennial plant forms include:
- Simple - from seed only, i.e. dandelion and curly dock.
- Bulbous - from seed, aerial and underground bulblets, i.e. wild garlic.
- Tuberous - from seed and tubers at tips of rhizomes, i.e. yellow nutsedge.
- Creeping - from seed and either stolons (prostrate stems or runners that root at the nodes) or
rhizomes (underground creeping stems). Rhizomes may be either shallow “rooted”
(quackgrass and wirestem muhly) or deep “rooted” (common milkweed and horsenettle).

Growth habits are important because of herbicide selectivity and type/location of growing points
(meristems).

o Dicotyledons or broadleaf weeds have two seed leaves and apical/axial meristems so stem
elongation is from tip(s).
o Monocotyledons have one seed leaf and basal or intercalary meristems so stem
elongation is from the lower portion of internodes.
o Grasses have hollow round or flattened stems. The parts of grass leaves are:
ƒ Blade - part of a leaf above the sheath
ƒ Sheath - lower part of grass leaf that encloses the stem/younger leaves
ƒ Collar - outer side of a grass leaf at the junction of the blade and sheath

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ƒ Ligule - thin membranous appendage or ring of hairs on the inside of a leaf at the junction
of the blade and sheath
ƒ Auricle - a small projecting lobe or appendage found where the blade meets the sheath
o Rushes have solid, round stems
o Sedges have solid, triangular stems

11. Understand the survival mechanisms of weeds, i.e. how they reproduce, spread, and the
role seed dormancy plays in survival.

• Reproductive capacity:
o Sexual - weeds are prolific seed producers and average about 20,000 seeds/plant (250 from
wild oat and 6 million from tumble pigweed).
o Asexual - vegetative means of reproduction, i.e. bulbs, tubers, stolons, rhizomes, rootstocks.
• Dissemination of propagules is by wind, water, and animal, especially humans
• Dormancy or extended viability is the inability of propagules (seeds or vegetative reproductive
structures) to germinate when provided with proper conditions:
o Innate - inherent in mature seed, i.e. mechanically restricted seed coats, impermeable seed
coats, germination inhibitors, immature embryos, etc.
o Induced - become dormant after exposure to environment
o Enforced - limitations of environment prevent germination

12. Demonstrate the ability to identify the following weeds by common name in seedling
and mature stages, and be able to classify each by life cycle and growth habit.

A. Velvetleaf M. Eastern black nightshade

B. Barnyardgrass N. Quackgrass
C. Pigweed, redroot/smooth O. Corn chamomile
D. Large crabgrass P. Wirestem muhly
E. Common ragweed Q. Common burdock
F. Giant foxtail R. Johnsongrass
G. Wild mustard S. Bull thistle
H. Green foxtail T. Yellow nutsedge
I. Common lambsquarters U. Horsenettle
J. Yellow foxtail V. Hedge bindweed
K. Hairy galinsoga W. Canada thistle
L. Fall panicum

Summer Annuals Winter Annuals Perennials

Velvetleaf Corn chamomile Quackgrass
Redroot/smooth pigweed Shepherd’s-purse Wirestem muhly
Common ragweed Purple deadnettle Johnsongrass
Common lambsquarters Yellow nutsedge
Hairy galinsoga Biennials Horsenettle
Wild mustard Common burdock Field bindweed
Eastern black nightshade Bull thistle Hedge bindweed
Barnyardgrass Canada thistle

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Summer Annuals Winter Annuals Perennials

Large crabgrass
Giant foxtail
Green foxtail
Yellow foxtail
Fall panicum

13. Be familiar with use of a dichotomous key to identify weeds.

Keys for identifying weeds are outlines of alternative statements or choices about plant parts or
appearance. From each pair of statements, you choose the one that applies to the plant you are
identifying. After you have made that choice, you choose from the next pair subordinate to the first, and
so on, until you come to the name of the plant. (From “Weeds of the North Central States”, North
Central Regional Research Publication No. 281). Simple keys can be found in “Broadleaf & Grass and
Grasslike Weed Vegetative Identification Keys” in the bulletins section of this CCA Handbook.

14. Recognize how weed life cycle and growth habit impact choice and timing of control
measures.

(See also details under No. 20, especially for postemergence applications.) Weed control measures
(methods) limit weed infestations so that crops can be grown profitably or other operations conducted
efficiently. Control efforts should exploit biological differences between crops and weeds and should
increase competitiveness of crops in comparison with weeds. A successful control program should
involve two or more methods of control since relying on only one often results in failure.

15. Mechanical – Understand the advantages and limitations of mechanical control

measures, especially those associated with tillage and cultivation.

Mechanical control forms:

1. Mowing 4. Tillage - seedbed preparation and
2. Burning cultivation
3. Smothering
Advantages
1. Reduce or eliminate herbicides
2. Control weeds that escape herbicide applications, i.e. delay or prevent development of herbicide-
resistant weed populations.
3. Sometimes there is a “cultivation effect” that is not related to weed control, i.e. cultivation may
improve soil aeration, water infiltration, etc.
Limitations
1. Timeliness is critical. Weather/soil moisture conditions may prevent timely cultivation.
2. In-row weed control is difficult with many cultivators.
3. Increased labor costs.

16. Cultural or managerial – Understand the advantages and limitations of cultural

practices that influence the competitive relationship between crops and weeds
including the role of the following in weed management:

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A. Choice of crop and variety/hybrid selection including the advantages and

disadvantages of herbicide-resistant crops.
B. Crop rotation
C. Soil management – pH, fertility, soil water
D. Planting date
E. Seeding rate/plant populations/row spacing
F. Nurse crops/cover crops

Cultural or managerial - includes a variety of practices that favor the crop over the weeds - i.e. best
management practices

1. Choice of crop and variety or hybrid, including herbicide-resistant crops (HRCs)

- Advantages or potential benefits of HRCs
o New control options for hard-to-control weeds (i.e. perennials)
o Increase success and adoption of conservation tillage
o Encourage use of thresholds for weed management decisions
o Aid resistance management
o Use of environmentally and toxicologically friendly herbicides
o Minimize herbicide carryover problems
o Options for limited acreage crops
- Disadvantages or potential risks of HRCs
o Unintentional application to, and/or spray drift on susceptible crops
o HRCs could become weeds in rotational crops
o Increase selection pressure for herbicide-resistant weeds
o HRC pollen movement to organically grown crops
o Invasive potential of HRCs into natural ecosystems
o HRCs could outcross with closely related weedy relatives
2. Crop rotation
3. Soil management
o Soil water - drainage/irrigation o Soil pH
o Soil fertility
4. Planting date
5. Seeding rate/plant populations
6. Row spacing

17. Biological – Understand why biological control measures do not work as well with
intensively managed crops as in extensively managed production systems/natural areas.

Biological control involves use of natural enemies such as insects, diseases, animals, and other plants.
Understand why biological control measures do not work as well with intensively managed crops as
with extensively managed production systems or natural areas where you are targeting one weed.

18. Chemical – Familiarity with the ways herbicides are classified, i.e. how they are used
and by herbicide family/site of action classification.

Chemical control, as we know it, had its’ start in the 1940s with development of 2,4-D. The rapid
development of herbicides since then has led producers to think of herbicides as a panacea for their

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weed problems. They are not a panacea. They are a two-edged sword and should be used as part of
an integrated weed management program.

How they are used - selective vs. nonselective

ƒ Foliar applied herbicides
o Contact - act mainly by touching weeds rather than by being absorbed and moved to the site
of action.
o Translocated - moved from point of entry to site of action within the plant.
ƒ Soil applied herbicides

Site of action classification.

Mode of action refers to the sequence of events from herbicide absorption into a plant to its’ final effect
at the site of action. Herbicides with similar chemical structures and herbicidal activity are grouped into
families. Two or more herbicide families may have the same site of action within plants and express
similar herbicidal activity and injury symptoms. The Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) has
approved a numbering system to classify herbicides by their site of action. A Group Number is given
to all herbicides with the same site of action.

19. Chemical – Know example herbicides (product names), types of weeds they control, and
weed/crop injury symptoms caused by each of the following herbicide site of action
groups:
A. Growth regulators (synthetic D. Seedling root and shoot inhibitors
auxins) E. Photosynthesis inhibitors
B. Amino acid synthesis inhibitors F. Cell membrane disrupters
C. Lipid synthesis inhibitors G. Pigment inhibitors

Lipid synthesis inhibitors or ACCase inhibitors (GROUP 1) - affect grasses only by preventing formation
of fatty acids essential for plant lipids which are vital to integrity of cell membranes and growth.
- Aryloxyphenoxypropionates - fluazifop (Fusilade), quizalofop (Assure II, Targa)
- Cyclohexanediones - sethoxydim (Poast Plus), clethodim (Select)

Amino acid synthesis inhibitors - act on enzymes to prevent amino acid production.

ALS (acetolactate synthase) inhibitors (GROUP 2)

- Imidazolinones – imazethapyr (Pursuit), imazamox (Raptor)
- Sulfonylureas – halosulfuron (Permit), nicosulfuron (Accent), primisulfuron (Beacon),
rimsulfuron (Matrix), etc.
- Triazolopyrimidines – chloransulam-methyl (FirstRate), flumetsulam (Python)
EPSP synthase inhibitors (GROUP 9)
- Glycines (amino acid derivatives) – glyphosate (Roundup, Touchdown, etc.)

Seedling growth inhibitors – inhibit root and/or shoot growth in developing seedlings.

Root inhibitors or microtubule assembly inhibitors (GROUP 3) interfere with cell division.
- Dinitroanilines – pendimethalin (Prowl, Pendimax), trifluralin (Treflan)
Shoot inhibitors – interfere with lipid and protein synthesis.
- Thiocarbamates or lipid synthesis inhibitors – not ACCase (GROUP 8) – EPTC (Eptam)

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- Acetamides or long–chain fatty acid inhibitors (GROUP 15) – acetochlor (Surpass,

Harness, etc.), alachlor (Micro-Tech), dimethenamid-P (Outlook), S-Metolachlor (Dual II
Magnum, Cinch)

Growth regulators or synthetic auxins (GROUP 4) – act at multiple sites in plants to disrupt hormone
balance and protein synthesis resulting in growth abnormalities.
- Phenoxy acetic acids – 2,4-D, MCPA, 2,4-DB (Butyrac 200)
- Benzoic acids – dicamba (Banvel, Clarity, Distinct, Status)
- Carboxylic acids – clopyralid (Stinger), triclopyr (Garlon)

Photosynthesis inhibitors – bind to specific sites within plant chloroplasts and stop carbohydrate
production.

Mobile (translocated) photosynthesis inhibitors

- Photo System II – site A (GROUP 5)
- Triazines – atrazine (AAtrex), simazine (Princep), prometone (Pramitol)
- Triazinones – hexazinone (Velpar), metribuzin (Sencor)
- Uracils – bromacil (Hyvar X)
- Photo System II – site A, but different binding (GROUP 7)
- Ureas – linuron (Lorox), tebuthiuron (Spike)
Nonmobile photosynthesis inhibitors at Photo System II – site B (GROUP 6)
- Nitriles – bromoxynil (Buctril)
- Benzothiadiazoles – Bentazon (Basagran)

Cell membrane disrupters – are activated by sunlight to form oxygen compounds such as hydrogen
peroxide which rupture plant cell membranes

PPO inhibitors (GROUP 14)

- Diphenylethers – fomesafen (Reflex), lactofen (Cobra)
- N-phenylphthalimides – flumiclorac (Resource)
- Triazolinones – carfentrazone (Aim), sulfentrazone (Authority)
Photosystem I – electron diversion (GROUP 22)
- Bipyridiliums – paraquat (Gramoxone Inteon)

Pigment inhibitors – prevent formation of photosynthetic pigments

DOXP synthase inhibitors (GROUP 13)

- Isoxazolidinones – clomazone (Command)
4-HPPD inhibitors (GROUP 27)
- Triketones – mesotrione (Callisto)
- Pyrazoles - topramezone (Impact)

Glutamine synthetase inhibitors (GROUP 10) – inhibit the enzyme that converts glutamate plus
ammonia to glutamine. The accumulation of ammonia in plants destroys cell walls and directly inhibits
Photosystem I and Photosystem II reactions.

No accepted chemical family, however sometimes referred to as phosphorylated amino acids or amino

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acid derivatives – glufosinate (Liberty, Ignite, etc.) causes chlorosis and wilting within a few days after
application. Translocation in plants is quite limited.

20. Chemical – Know time(s) of application for different types of herbicides and how soil
(texture, organic matter, pH) and weather (rainfall/soil moisture, temperature, etc.)
affect herbicide performance.

o Preplant - applied before crop is planted

- Early preplant - surface applied before crop is planted
- Preplant incorporated
- Some herbicides require mechanical mixing with soil because they are volatile or subject to
photodecomposition.
- Used to place herbicide near germinating propagules
- Improve dependability of control
o Preemergence applied to soil surface prior to emergence of crop and weeds; depend on rainfall or
irrigation for incorporation and activation.
Factors affecting performance:
- Amount of rainfall or irrigation
- Herbicide solubility
- Amount of herbicide adsorbed on soil affects application rates
- Herbicide chemistry
- Soil texture
- Organic matter
- Soil pH
o Postemergence - applied after emergence of crop and weeds.
Factors affecting performance:
- Time of application - should be applied when weeds are young and/or actively growing
- Summer annuals - young plants in spring or early summer
- Winter annuals - rosettes in fall or early spring
- Biennials - fall growth or rosettes in fall or spring
- Perennials - bud stage in spring or summer or vigorous fall growth
- Application factors
- Spray volume
- Pressure
- Spray adjuvants - additives that aid or modify the action of the active ingredient(s)
- Environmental factors
- Light - Wind
- Temperature - Rain
- Relative humidity

21. Chemical – Be familiar with problems associated with herbicide use

A. Herbicide resistant weeds – Know weeds that have developed herbicide resistant
populations in the NE and practices involved in herbicide resistance management.
B. Be familiar with problems of off-site movement of herbicides.
C. Causes of herbicide crop injury

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D. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of herbicide persistence as it relates

to weed control, crop rotation, and water quality.

A. Herbicide resistance - has been defined by WSSA as “the inherited ability of a species to survive
and reproduce following exposure to a dose of herbicide normally lethal to the wild type. In a plant,
resistance may be naturally occurring or induced by such techniques as genetic engineering or
selection of variants produced by tissue culture or mutagenesis“.

B. http://www.weedscience.org/summary/MOASummary.asp.
Related definitions include:
o Cross resistance is resistance to other herbicides within a similar chemical group such as to
atrazine and to other triazines.
o Multiple resistance is the evolution of populations resistant to herbicides not chemically related and
having different sites of action.

Factors that increase the potential for herbicide resistant weed populations include:
o Weed characteristics that favor resistance
- Annual weeds - Germinate over a long period of time
- High germination rates - Very susceptible to a herbicide
- Produce large numbers of seed

o Herbicide characteristics that favor resistance

- Single site of action in weeds - High use rate compared to amount needed
- Highly effective on a species - Long residual activity in soil with noted
- High frequency of use exceptions

o Cultural practices that favor resistance

- Continuous cropping with one crop or type of crop, i.e. RR crops
- No cultivation or tillage for weed control
- Using a single herbicide to control specific weeds
- Continuous or repeated use of a herbicide or group of herbicides that have the same site of action

o Triazine-resistant weeds in New York State

- Common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) - 1977
- Smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus) - 1980
- Common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) - 1989
- Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) - 1993
o Herbicide resistance management
- Rotate crops or type of crop, i.e. RR or LL crops
- Cultivate to control weeds that escape other measures
- Use herbicides with little soil activity and/or short residual
- Rotate herbicide sites-of-action, especially in continuous cropping rotations
- Use tank mixtures or sequential application with different sites-of-action

C. Be familiar with problems of off-site movement of herbicides.

o Spray drift - physical movement of spray particles to non-target areas.
o Vapor drift - volatilization of herbicides from plant and soil surfaces with subsequent vapor
movement and injury of non-target species.

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D. Causes of herbicide crop injury

o Excessive application rates applications
o Improper application methods o Susceptible hybrids/varieties
o Synergistic mixtures or sequential o Abnormal soil/climatic conditions

E. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of herbicide persistence as it relates to weed

control, crop rotation, and water quality.

Carryover affecting rotational crops depends on:

Herbicide decomposition
o Microbial o Photodecomposition
o Chemical o Plant metabolism
Availability for breakdown altered by
o Volatilization o Leaching or movement of water through a
o Plant uptake soil profile may move herbicides
o Adsorption on soil colloids
Avoid herbicide carryover
o Read and follow label o Rotate herbicides
o Use minimum dose o Use short residual herbicides
o Calibration and application o Integrate with other control measures

F. Pesticides are potential sources of non-point pollution of surface and groundwater.

o Pesticide data base - provides pesticide surface runoff and leaching potential based on:
o Half-life - days for concentration to decrease by one-half.
o Soil sorption index – Koc is measure of tendency to be attached to soil particles.
- Pesticide chemistry - Clay content of soil
- Organic matter content of soil
o Water solubility – ppm that will dissolve in water at room temperature
o Soils data base - soils are ranked according to their potential for pesticide loss through
leaching or surface runoff.
o Soil-pesticide interactions determine leaching and/or surface loss potentials.
o Potential 1 - has a high probability of being lost to leaching or runoff.
o Potential 2 - has the possibility of being lost to leaching or runoff.
o Potential 3 - has a low probability of being lost to leaching or runoff.

Competency Area 3: Management of Infectious Plant Diseases

Biology of infectious plant diseases

22. For each of the following field crop diseases:

A. Classify by type of pathogen
B. Know the type of symptoms produced and plant parts affected
C. Know what conditions favor disease development

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D. Know how the pathogen survives between crop seasons

E. Know other crop species attacked by the pathogen
F. Know how the pathogen is spread
Answers to performance objectives 22 and 23 are contained in the following tables.
Alfalfa Wheat
Anthracnose - F Fusarium head blight (scab) - F
Brown root rot - F Leaf rust - F
Leaf and stem blight complex including spring Leaf and glume blotch complex including
black stem and leaf spot, lepto leaf spot, and Septoria tritici blotch, Stagonospora nodorum
common leaf spot - F blotch, and tan spot - F
Fusarium crown and root rot - F Loose smut - F
Phytophthora root rot - O Powdery mildew - F
Pythium damping-off - O Soilborne wheat mosaic - V
Verticillium wilt - F Wheat spindle streak mosaic - V
Yellow dwarf - V
Corn
Anthracnose leaf blight and stalk rot - F Soybean
Common rust - F Asian soybean rust - F
Common smut - F Bacterial blight - B
Eyespot - F Bacterial pustule - B
Gibberella stalk and (red) ear rot - F Downy mildew - F
Gray leaf spot - F Pod and stem blight - F
Northern leaf blight - F Sclerotinia stem rot - F
Northern (carbonum) leaf spot - F Septoria brown spot - F
Seed decay/seedling blights – F, O, B Soybean cyst nematode - N
Stewart’s leaf blight - B Soybean mosaic - V

Oats
Crown rust - F
Yellow dwarf (red leaf) - V
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus

Diseases of Alfalfa
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus
Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and
Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Anthracnose - F Rain-splashed Warm, moist Resistant varieties (1)
Stem lesions, wilt; spores (from weather Remove debris from equipment
Alflalfa, clover debris/plants) (2)
Brown root rot - F In soil Stresses that Reduce plant injury/stress (3)
Root/crown rot; Legumes, weaken plants
grasses

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Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and

Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Leaf and stem blight Rain-splashed Moist conditions Harvest early to reduce leaf loss
complex - Fungi or airborne (3)
Leaf, stem lesions; spores from
Small-seeded legumes infected debris
or plants
Fusarium crown and root In soil Stressed plants; Reduce plant injury/stress (3)
rot - F clover root
Root/crown rot; curculio; injured
Many hosts crowns
Phytophthora root rot - O In soil Wet soils Resistant varieties (1)
Root rot; Anti-oomycete seed fungicides
Alfalfa (2)
Soil drainage (2)
Pythium damping-off - O In soil Cool, moist soil Anti-oomycete seed treatments
Root/shoot rot (1) Good seedbed preparation
Many hosts (2)
Soil drainage (2)
Verticillium wilt - F Soilborne, Cool, wet Resistant varieties (1)
Systemic wilt; contaminated weather Rotation with cereals/grasses (3)
Many dicot plants harvest
equipment
Compiled by Gary C. Bergstrom, Cornell University.

Diseases of Corn
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus
Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and
Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Anthracnose – F Rain-splashed Mild, wet; Resistant hybrids (1-2)
Leaf blight, stalk rot; spores (local) reduced-till, Crop rotation (2)
Corn from corn debris continuous corn; Clean plowing (2)
European corn Corn borer-resistant (Bt) hybrids
borer injury to (1-2)
stems
Common rust – F Airborne spores Humid; Resistant hybrids (1)
Leaf rust; Corn (long distance) thunderstorms Timely planting (2)
Common smut – F Airborne and Injuries; dry Resistant hybrids (1) Fertilize
Galls on ears, tassel, rain-splashed conditions based on soil test (2)
leaves; Corn spores (in soil)
Eyespot – F Rain-splashed Cool, wet; Resistant hybrids (1)
Leaf lesions; spores (local) reduced-till, Crop rotation (2)
Corn from corn debris continuous corn Clean plowing (2)

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Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and

Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Gibberella (red) ear rot – F Airborne spores Moisture at silk Adapted, less susceptible
Ear rot, mycotoxins; (regional) from emergence hybrids (2) Timely planting +
Cereals, grasses corn debris harvest (3) Fertilize based on
soil test (3) Reduce stresses (3)
Gibberella stalk rot – F Invasion through Stressed plants Adapted, tolerant hybrids (2)
Stalk rot roots (soil) or Timely planting and harvest (3)
Cereals, grasses wounds Fertilize based on soil test (3)
Reduce stresses (3)
Gray leaf spot – F Airborne spores Persistent dew, Partially resistant hybrids (2)
Leaf lesions; (regional) from fog; reduced-till, Crop rotation (2)
Corn corn debris continuous corn Clean plowing (2)
Northern leaf blight – F Airborne spores Humid, wet Resistant hybrids (1-2)
Leaf lesions; (long distance) Timely planting (2)
Corn from corn debris
Northern leaf spot – F Airborne spores Humid, wet Resistant hybrids (1)
Leaf lesions; (long distance) Timely planting (2)
Corn
Seed decay/ seedling In soil; seed Cool , moist soil; Protectant seed fungicides (1)
blight – F, O, B poor quality seed Good seedbed preparation (2)
Seeds and seedlings; Timely planting (2)
Many hosts
Stewart’s leaf blight – B Corn flea beetle Mild winter Resistant hybrids (1)
Leaf blight, systemic; preceding
Corn crop season
Compiled by Gary C. Bergstrom, Cornell University.
Diseases of Wheat
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus
Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and
Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Fusarium head blight Airborne Moisture at crop Follow a non-cereal crop (3)
(scab) – F spores flowering Plant less susceptible varieties
Head, kernel blight, (regional) and through early (2) Stagger planting dates (3)
mycotoxin contamination; rain-splashed grain filling Systemic foliar fungicides at
Cereals and grasses spores (local) flowering (2)
from corn and
cereal debris
Leaf rust – F Airborne Warm, humid; Timely planting (2)
Leaf rust; spores (long thunderstorms in Foliar fungicides (2)
Wheat only distance) June
Loose smut - F In seed Bin-run seed Certified seed (1)
Kernel replacement by (embryo) Systemic seed fungicides (1)
spores;
Wheat only

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Powdery mildew – F Airborne Humid; Systemic seed fungicides (2)

Mildew on all plant spores moderate Systemic foliar fungicides (1)
surfaces; (regional) temperatures Resistant varieties (2)
Wheat only
Septoria tritici blotch – F Wheat debris; Splashing rain; Foliar fungicides (1)
Leaf blotch windborne extended leaf
Wheat wetness
Stagonospora nodorum In seed; wheat Splashing rain; Seed fungicides (3)
blotch – F debris; extended leaf Foliar fungicides (1)
Leaf/glume blotch; windborne wetness
Wheat
Tan spot – F Wheat debris; Wheat after Seed fungicides (2)
Leaf spot; in seed; wheat; humid, Partially resistant varieties (2)
Wheat windborne moderate Foliar fungicides (1)
spores temperatures;
rainfall
Soilborne wheat mosaic Transmitted by Soil moisture at Resistant varieties (1)
–V protozoan; per- seedling stages;
Foliar mosaic, stunting; sists in soil for cool spring
Wheat, triticale many years; temperatures
limited distribu-
tion in the NE
Wheat spindle streak Transmitted by Soil moisture at Resistant varieties (1)
mosaic – V protozoan; per- seedling stages;
Spindle-shaped yellow sists in soil for extended cool
streaks on leaves in spring; years; wide- spring
Wheat pread in the NE temperatures
Yellow dwarf - V Transmitted by Early planting; Plant after Hessian fly free date
Yellowing of leaves, aphids (short high aphid (2)
stunting of plants; and long populations; Systemic seed insecticides (2)
Many cereals and grasses distance) nearby infected
grasses
Compiled by Gary C. Bergstrom, Cornell University.

Diseases of Soybean
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus
Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and
Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Asian soybean rust – F Windborne Early arrival of Application of protectant
Rust on leaves; spores (long- windborne fungicides prior to infection (1-
Soybean, kudzu, perhaps distance) spores; moderate 2) Timely application of
other legumes temperatures; fungicides with systemic,
rain curative activity (1)

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Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and

Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Bacterial blight – B Rain-splashed Cool, wet High quality seeds (2)
Lesions on leaves and bacteria from weather Crop rotation (2)
pods; soybean debris; Avoid highly susceptible
Soybean cultivation in varieties (2)
wet conditions
Bacterial pustule – B Rain-splashed Wet conditions High quality seeds (2)
Lesions on leaves and bacteria from Crop rotation (2)
pods debris or soil; Avoid highly susceptible
Soybean cultivation in varieties (2)
wet conditions
Downy mildew – O Windborne High humidity; Crop rotation (2)
Mildew on leaves, pods, sporangia; moderate Anti-oomycete seed treatments
seeds; systemic temperatures (2)
Soybean infection from
infected seeds
Pod and stem blight – F Rain-splashed Prolonged moist Crop rotation (2)
Pods and stem lesions; spores from periods during pod Adapted varieties (2)
Soybean infected maturation Timely harvest (2)
soybean debris Late season foliar fungicide
application if warranted by
disease pressure (1)
Sclerotinia stem rot Windborne Dense canopy; Tolerant/resistant varieties (2)
(white mold) - F spores from moisture at Crop rotation (2)
Rot of stems; sclerotia on soil flowering; disease Wide row spacing (2)
Many dicot plants surface in previous crop Foliar fungicides (2)
Septoria brown spot - F Infected Splashing rain; Crop rotation (2)
soybean moist conditions; Foliar fungicides, if warranted
debris; soybean after by disease pressure (1)
seedborne soybean
Soybean cyst nematode In soil; Infested local soil Avoid introduction (1)
–N movement on from which Resistant varieties (1)
Colonizes roots, stunts equipment, nematode may be Crop rotation (2)
plants; Soybean only unclean seeds introduced into
new fields
Soybean mosaic – V Aphid- High aphid Plant virus-free seed (1)
Mosaic on leaves, stunts transmitted populations when Timely planting (2)
plants; (non-persistent) plants are young Resistant varieties (strain
Soybean from infected specific) (2)
live hosts; seed-
transmitted
Compiled by Gary C. Bergstrom, Cornell University.

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Diseases of Oat
Pathogen type: B = bacterium; F = fungus; N = nematode; O = oomycete; V = virus
Disease, type Survival & Favored by Control measures and
Symptoms; Host plants Spread effectiveness (1=high to
3=slight)
Yellow dwarf – V By aphids Late planting of Resistant/tolerant varieties (virus
Reddened leaves, stunting; (short & long spring oat; large strain-specific) (1-2)
Many cereals and grasses distance) aphid populations Plant early in spring (2)
Crown rust – F Airborne Warm, humid; Resistant varieties (race-
Leaf rust; spores from thunderstorms in specific) (1-2)
Oat, buckthorn infected oat or June/July Plant early in spring (2)
buckthorn
Compiled by Gary C. Bergstrom, Cornell University.
Control of infectious plant diseases

23. For the field crop diseases listed under (22) above, know the availability and relative
usefulness in disease management under Northeast conditions of:
A. Seed-, foliar-, and soil-applied fungicides
B. Resistant or tolerant crop varieties
C. Use of certified seed
D. Other cultural practices such as rotation, tillage, site selection, soil drainage,
planting time, harvest time, fertility, weed and insect control

See tables under 22.

Biology, detection, and prevention of mycotoxins

24. Define ‘mycotoxin’ and be acquainted with specific mycotoxins: aflatoxins,

deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxin.

Mycotoxin is a general term for a poison produced by a fungus that is harmful to humans and/or
animals. Only certain strains of certain fungi produce mycotoxins, and only under certain
environmental conditions. Corn and small grain cereals are especially prone to accumulate mycotoxins
in their seed tissues, although the stem (stover) fraction of these crops may also be invaded by toxin-
producing molds. Molds may continue to grow and produce toxins in stored commodities under
aerobic, high moisture conditions. However our most prevalent problems in the Northeast have been
with mycotoxins produced in standing crops prior to harvest. Mycotoxins are only problematic when
they occur in commodities and feeds above levels of concern established for individual animal species.
Mycotoxin contamination is measured in parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb).

Aflatoxins:
Produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus, a golden-colored mold; cause liver damage and cancer;
tolerances set by U.S. Food and Drug Administration for levels of contamination allowed in milk and
other food commodities. Not commonly found in commodities produced in the Northeast but are found
in commodities produced in warmer growing regions and shipped to the Northeast.

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Deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin):
Produced by certain species of the fungus Fusarium (Gibberella), a pink to red-colored mold; cause
feed refusal, vomiting, and digestive disorders in swine, dogs, and other species with simple stomachs;
chronic symptoms include loss of productivity and lowered immunity; poultry and ruminant animals are
less sensitive. USDA recommends less than 1 ppm deoxynivalenol in finished food products and less
than 2 ppm in unmilled grain destined for human consumption. Occurs commonly in wheat, barley, and
corn grain and silage produced in the Northeast.
Zearalenone:
Produced by certain species of the fungus Fusarium (Gibberella), a pink to red-colored mold; an
estrogenic compound that causes reproductive disorders in swine and other species. Occurs
commonly in corn grain and silage in the Northeast.
Fumonisins:
Produced by certain species of the fungus Fusarium, a whitish-colored mold, and differing from the
species that produce deoxynivalenol and zearalenone; cause a fatal brain disease in horses, lung
damage in swine, liver damage in several animals, and linked to human esophageal cancer. Occur
commonly in corn grain in the Northeast but at fairly low levels. Occur at higher levels in corn produced
in warmer regions.
Ochratoxins:
Produced mainly by the fungus Penicillium, a blue to green-colored mold, and produced mainly under
poor storage conditions rather than in a standing crop; cause damage to the liver and kidneys. Found
occasionally in stored commodities in the Northeast.

25. Know the mycotoxins found in Northeast grain and silage, the fungus genera they are
produced by, and how they are detected.
Main Mycotoxins occurring in corn hrain and silage produced in the Northeastern United States.
Mycotoxin: Predominant toxigenic mold: Lowest Common effects on animals:
level of
concern:
Deoxynivalenol Fusarium graminearum 1-3 ppm Feed refusal and gastrointestinal upset
(vomitoxin) (Gibberella zeae) and vomiting in animals with simple
Causal fungus of Gibberella stomachs; severity increases with level.
ear rot and stalk rot of corn; Swine and dogs are most sensitive; adult
and Fusarium head blight of cattle and poultry tolerate >10 ppm.
wheat and barley <1 ppm USDA guideline for human food product
Zearalenone Fusarium graminearum 1-5 ppm Hyperestrogenism and infertility. Swine
(Gibberella zeae) (gilts) are most sensitive; adult cattle
Causal fungus of Gibberella tolerate 50 ppm.
ear rot and stalk rot of corn;
and Fusarium head blight of
wheat and barley
Fumonisins Fusarium verticilloides; 5-10 ppm Brain deterioration, death (horses); liver
F. proliferatum. damage (horses, swine, cattle, poultry).
Causal fungi of Fusarium
ear rot and stalk rot of corn >100 ppm Lung damage in swine

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26. Know strategies for minimizing contamination of commodities by mycotoxins.

Greatest mycotoxin risk factors in corn production:
ƒ Moist weather at silk emergence (Gibberella ear rot; deoxynivalenol and zearalenone)
ƒ Drought, high temperatures during grain maturation (Fusarium and Gibberella stalk rots; Fusarium
ear rot; fumonisins)
ƒ Insect or other mechanical damage to ears or stalks
ƒ Delayed maturation/delayed harvest
ƒ Contaminated storage structures
ƒ Failure to adequately dry grain or poor ventilation of dried grain storage
ƒ Failure to exclude air from high moisture, anaerobic storage

Field practices that reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination in corn:

ƒ Timely planting of locally adapted hybrids of appropriate maturity with partial resistance to
Gibberella ear rot
ƒ Avoiding continuous planting of corn under conservation tillage, especially where
Gibberella/Fusarium stalk rot is prevalent
ƒ Fertilizing based on soil test and avoiding excessive nitrogen
ƒ Avoiding stress from insects, weeds, and excessively high plant populations
ƒ Planning ahead for harvest and subsequent grain handling:
o Clean grain bins before putting in the new crop
o Harvest fields with delayed maturity or high lodging potential as silage or grain for anaerobic
storage; or be prepared to rapidly dry grain down to 13.5% moisture content
o Aerate grain bins to prevent moisture migration caused by colder temperatures
o Harvest silage at recommended plant maturity, and pack well to eliminate air pockets

Testing for mycotoxins

On-site test or laboratory test?

On-site test kits are available through commercial firms. Most are antibody-based and indicate
contamination by a color change; other tests utilize thin layer chromatography (TLC) or minicolumns.
On-site tests are quick and relatively inexpensive (depends on the number of samples run). They
generally give accurate and reproducible results when used on dry grain samples; they are not as
reliable for high moisture grain or silage. Specific mycotoxins can be quantified relative to standards
that are supplied with the kits. On-site tests are often used as diagnostic tests prior to confirming
laboratory tests. Commercial and government/university labs offer mycotoxin testing. Lab tests are
expensive, comprehensive, and quantitative for many toxins, and are useful for wet and dry samples.
Methods include high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS).

Sample collection and handling.

Samples must be representative of grain in a truck or bin or silo. Obtain many small samples at
periodic intervals from a moving stream of grain or by probing all levels and areas of a stationary grain
mass to make a composite 10 lb sample, that should be further mixed and subsampled to produce a 2
lb sample for shipping to a lab. Ship dry samples in breathable cloth or stout paper bags. Wet samples
should be in sealed containers and be frozen or refrigerated during transit.

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More information on on-site tests and/or laboratory analyses is available from:

• Cumberland Valley Analytical Services, Hagerstown, MD. 800-282-7522 (www.foragelab.com)
• DairyOne Forage Lab, Ithaca, NY. Phone 607-257-1272, extension 2172 (www.dairyone.com)
• Neogen Corporation. Phone 800-234-5333 (www.neogen.com)
• Romer Labs, Inc. Phone 636-583-8600 (www.romerlabs.com)
• Trilogy Analytical Laboratory. Phone 636-239-1521 (www.trilogylab.com)

Competency Area 4: Management of Arthropods

Biology of Arthropods
27. For each of the following:
A. Be able to sight identify.
B. Classify as an important economic pest or a sub-economic/occasional pest.
C. Classify by feeding habit, host range, injury mechanism, symptoms and damaging
stage(s).
D. Understand how biology influences management
E. Know how environmental conditions influence population dynamics.
F. Know how the environment influences potential for crop damage.
Corn Small Grains
Western/Northern corn rootworm Cereal leafbeetle
European Corn Borer Wireworm
True armyworm
Fall armyworm Alfalfa
Black cutworm Alfalfa snout beetle
White grub Alfalfa weevil
Wireworm Alfalfa blotch leafminer
Corn leaf aphid Clover root curculio
Grasshopper Pea aphid
Seedcorn maggot Potato leafhopper

Soybeans Arthropods
Soybean aphid
Spider mites

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Insects, mites and spiders are members of the group (Phylum) of organisms known as Arthropods
(Jointed Legs). The other members of the Plylum (group) are listed in the table above.
The Class of Insecta is separated from the Class of Arachnida (mites, spiders) by the number of body
parts, number of legs and the presence/lack of antenna. Examples are shown below of the different
orders of Arachnida. Agricultural important groups of Arachnida are the mites (plant feeding and
beneficial) and spiders (beneficial).

Scorpionida – scorpions Pseudoscorpionida – false scorpions

Opiliones - daddy-long-legs or harvestmen Araneida – spiders

Acari - mites & ticks

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In contrast, members of Class Insecta all have one pair of antennae, three body parts (head, thorax,
abdomen), three pair of legs, adults usually have wings and breathing takes place using trachea.

Insect development
is divided into two life
cycle groups. In the Incomplete Life Cycle Example
Incomplete lifecycle (hairy chinch bug)
group, the stages are
egg, nymph and
adult. In this group,
the nymph looks very
similar to the adult,
however smaller and
without wings. In
addition, the feeding
methods are often
identical to the adults.
egg 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th shortwing normal wing
instar instar instar instar instar adult adult
In the complete life
cycle group, the
Egg Nymphal Adult
stages are egg, Stage Stage Stage
larvae, pupa and
adult. In this group,
the larva appears
distinctly different than the adult life stage.

Complete Life Cycle Example

(northern masked chafer)

egg 1st 2nd 3rd pupa adult

instar instar instar

Egg Larval Pupal Adult

Stage Stage Stage Stage

Insect Feeding is also divided into two distinct types and entire groups of related insects (Orders)
have similar mouth parts. The two feeding types are 1) Chewing mouth parts and 2) Piercing and
sucking mouth parts.

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Chewing mouth parts remove solid tissue from the host and the tissue is ingested and utilized. A
series of examples are shown below.

Armyworm
Chewing Mouth
Parts

Feeding Lice

Corn Rootworm

Alfalfa Weevil

Mosquitoes

Piercing &
Piercing and sucking Sucking
mouth parts remove fluid Mouth Parts
from the host in modified Bedbugs
mouth parts which operate
like a hollow needle. Often Potato leafhopper Aphids
saliva is injected prior to
feeding to breakdown cell
walls and to start the
digestion process before
the fluid is ingested by the
insect. The saliva left
behind is frequently the
cause of the feeding
symptoms from the insect.

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Insects important to field crop production in New York and the Northeastern US.

Western/ Northern Corn Rootworm:

Pest Type: Primary

pest

Feeding Habit, Host

Range, Injury Type,
Symptom, Damaging
Stage:

Lifecycle:
Adults lay eggs in soil
cracks in existing corn
fields during August
and early September.
Eggs over winter in
the soil until mid-May Corn Rootworm
the following spring.
Eggs hatch over
about a 4 week period
from mid-May until
early June depending
on the soil Corn Rootworm-Lifecycle
temperatures. Newly Overwinter as eggs
hatched larvae must
find a corn root within
24-48 hours in order
to survive. Newly
hatched larvae are
also prone to Larva hatch in spring
drowning if heavy Eggs laid in
existing (late May)
rains waterlog the soil
Photos from Iowa State U niversity
during this time corn fields.
period. Larvae feed
on corn roots until
mid-July in most
locations. Mature
Pupa
larvae pupate in the
soil and emerge as Adult
Pupate just before pollination
beetles in synchrony Emerge about pollination
with pollination. Adults
feed on pollen and leaf tissue during the 3-week period required for mating and egg production. Eggs
are laid in the soil cracks around the base of corn plants during August and September until the killing
frost with most of the eggs laid prior to September 1.

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The primary host range of this insect

is corn, including both field corn and
sweet corn. The primary damaging Corn Rootworm Damage
stage is the larvae in the soil, feeding
on the roots of the corn plant.
Feeding larvae with their chewing
mouth parts consume and clip off
roots, interfering with the uptake of
water and nutrients. Brace roots are
also fed upon, causing the plant to tip
over and lodge. Maximum larval
damage and plant lodging usually
occurs around or shortly after
pollination when the plant is
undergoing grain fill. Economic
losses from this insect are both
reduced yield from plant stress Corn Rootworm Damage
during grain fill and harvest losses
from lodged plants failing to be
harvested by the silage chopper or
combine.

Corn Rootworm
1 Damage
2 3

4 5 6

Root Ratings (Iowa 1–6 scale)

Since eggs are laid

in August in
existing corn fields,
the risk of an
economic rootworm
Corn Rootworm Damage population
increases the
Year of % Acreage over
Corn Production
longer a field is
Threshold
planted to
1 0 continuous corn.
2 25-
25-35% Based on the insect lifecycle, first year corn is
3 50-
50-70% seldom at risk under the current situation in NY
and the NE US. In the Midwest corn belt,
4 80-
80-100% where annual rotation of corn and non-host
+ crops have been the widespread agricultural
practice, rootworm has adapted with extended diapause (hibernation) crossing more than one year and

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a behavioral adaptation where eggs are laid in soybean fields rather than in corn fields. These strains
are not currently found east of Ohio and pose little risk under the current agricultural production
practices. As noted below, second year corn has increased risk over first year corn and the risk
increases as the years of continuous corn rise.

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Since this insect has only one generation per year, environmental impacts are focused sole on the
effect on the single generation, not the impact on the number of generations per year as with other
insect pests. Water saturated soils during the larval hatching period (late May-early June) causes a
high level of mortality to the young larvae, often resulting in a sub-economic population. Droughty
soils, during the hatching period, can also cause high larval mortality to the newly hatched larvae in
search for the first corn root. Once a root has been located, dry soil conditions have little impact on the
larvae. High soil temperatures can speed up larval development, resulting in an earlier adult
emergence in July.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Since the larval feeding removes roots critical to the pollination and grain filling phase of corn
production, dry soil conditions increase the impact of root removal through increased water stress to
the plant. The increased water stress is often reflected in reduced grain yields. In growing seasons with
adequate soil moisture during the grain filling phase, the impact of root removal is lessened because
the plant is able to regenerate roots and recover from the rootworm feeding damage.

Management:
Corn rootworm populations are managed by managing the larval populations. This is accomplished by
removing the food source (rotation) or killing the larvae before damage with a soil insecticide (granular
or seed treatment) or a genetically modified corn plant where the rootworm active toxin is incorporated
into the genome of the corn plant and expressed in the root tissue. Since this insect has a documented
ability to adapt to toxins by developing resistance, attention needs to be paid to resistance
management strategies to preserve the effective technologies and reduce the probability of resistance
development.

Insects important to field crop production in New York and the Northeastern US.

European Corn Borer

Pest Type: Secondary Pest Status in NY, Primary Pest Status in portions of the Midwestern Corn Belt.

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

There are three different bio-types of European Corn Borer in New York. Biotype 1 has only a single
generation per year and primarily attacks either field or sweet corn. Biotype 2 has two generations per
year and primarily attacks either field or sweet corn. Biotype 3 has two generations per year and
attacks a wide array of plants including corn, wheat and peppers.

Lifecycle:
Mature larvae overwinter in the corn stalks left in the field after harvest. During the early spring, these
larvae pupate and become moths which chew out of the stem and emerge during late May and early

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June. After mating, the females lay eggs in masses on the underside of corn leaves (1st generation)
near the midrib. After
hatching, larvae feed for a
short period on the corn
leaves before migrating into
the whorl where they bore into
the stem where the remainder
of larval development is
Corn Borer Adults Late instar Corn Borer larvae
completed. in the stalk
In the single generation
biotype, these larvae remain
in the corn stalk until the
following spring when they
emerge as moths. In the two
generation per year biotypes,
the first generation larvae 1st Instar larvae
pupate and emerge as moths Feeds on leaves before boring
into the stalk Corn Borer larval exit hole
in late-July. After mating, the
female moths lay eggs around the developing ear. After hatching, the newly emerged larvae bore into
the ear and ear shank where they develop. After maturity, the second generation larvae remain in the
corn plant throughout the winter and emerge the following spring.

All economic feeding damage is caused by the larval stage feeding on the plant and fruiting structures.
Since the larvae have chewing mouth parts, the feeding damage is direct tissue removal of the leaves,

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boring into the stem of the plant and feeding on the reproductive portions of the plant. Economic
losses result from reduced yield, damaged fruits and the introduction of fungal rots into the feeding
wounds and entry holes into the plant stems.

European Corn Borer Damage

Creates Tunnels

Photo from Iowa State University

Photo from Iowa State University

Anthracnose Stalk
Rot may result
egg mass
Photo from Iowa State University

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Since eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves and the young larvae feed on the leaf surfaces
before boring into the plant, hot dry conditions cause a high larval mortality among small larvae before
they bore into the stem of the plant. Since these small larvae move into the corn whorl to bore into the
plant, a timely rain storm which fills up the corn whorl also causes mortality to the individuals located in
the whorl. Higher temperatures during the growing season will accelerate insect development but the
insect will not add an additional generation during the hot years because overwintering diapause
(hibernation) is triggered by the decreasing day-length during August when the second generation is
developing in the stalk.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Stalk feeding and ear feeding by corn borer larvae weaken the stalks and the ear shanks causing stalk
breakage and ear drop prior to harvest. Damage is increased by strong winds in late summer and early
fall before harvest. Yield can be impacted by the severing of the vascular bundles within the stalk
during boring and feeding, interfering with the movement of water and photosynthesis. Crop yield and
standability is also impacted with the introduction of stalk rot organisms into the corn stalk through the
feeding wounds caused by the larvae entering and exiting the stalks.

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Management:
The only effective management of corn borer is the use of corn varieties where the corn borer effective
toxin is incorporated into the plant genome and expressed into the above ground portions of the plant.
Since corn borer is a localized and sporadic problem in NY, widespread and prophylactic use of the
technology is not recommended. It is recommended in situations where producers suspect a high
probability of an economic problem based on historical evidence.

True Armyworm:

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:
Armyworm is a long-ranged migrant with the overwintering area in the southern states. Migrant moths
invade the northern ranges in the spring aided by the fast moving southerly winds along storm fronts.
Spring migrants typically arrive between mid-April and mid-May. The magnitude of the migration into
New York and the Northern Eastern US variable and is dependent on population buildup in the
southern states and the direction of the southern winds during the time of peak moth migration. In the

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late summer-early fall, newly emerged moths return to the southern states in a long-ranged migration
utilizing the northern winds immediately following the passage of a weather low pressure front to aid
their migration.
Newly arrived spring migrant moths lay their eggs in grass hay fields, grass waterways or weedy
patches in last year’s corn fields. Eggs hatch in 7-10 days and the newly hatched larvae feed on the
grassy plants. During the larval stage, the larvae pass through 6-7 molts with each larval stage a
significant increase in size. Eighty percent of the foliage consumed by the growing larvae occurs during
the final larval stages. In areas where large numbers of migrant moths arrived, entire grass fields are
frequently consumed and the mid-sized to large larvae start migrating to find new food sources. These
mass larval movements are the source of the name of armyworm. Invading larval marches will move
into adjacent corn fields, grass hay fields or other areas, feeding as they go, causing significant
economic damage. These large larvae which are migrating will usually finish their larval stage within 7-
10 days and enter the soil where they pupate and change into moths. The entire lifecycle during the
warmer months require approximately 30 days from egg to moth.
Armyworms have 3-4
generations in the northern
regions of the US, but are a
significant economic problem
only during the first
generation in areas of
concentrated migrant moth
arrival and associated egg
laying. Subsequent
generations are low in
concentration due to the
migrant behavior of the
newly emerged moths and
the vast grassy habitats
throughout the northern
regions (grassy hay fields,
grassy roadsides,
waterways, lawns). In the
fall, newly emerged moths return to the southern states for overwintering on the weather fronts with
winds from the north. Armyworm does not overwinter in the northern states.
Feeding damage is caused by the larvae equipped with chewing mouth parts. Feeding damage is
therefore tissue removal and defoliation. Armyworm larvae feed primarily on a wide array of grasses
which include all pasture species and corn. The main symptom of feeding damage is the defoliation
and loss of leaf tissue. In pasture grasses, the entire blade is consumed. In the larger leaves of corn,
the main leaf rib is frequently left after the remainder of the leaf has been consumed.

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

This insect is a long-ranged migrant which does not overwinter in NY. Adults (moths) arrive on the
spring thunderstorms during May and June and are deposited in large numbers in localized areas
where eggs are laid in a wide range of grasses including corn. Large numbers of eggs usually result in
a large number of larvae which strip grass hay fields or corn fields and move in mass to new food
sources. Hence the name of armyworm. This is only a one generation early summer pest because the

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second generation moths disperse into the widespread grass habitats to lay the next generation of
eggs and the resulting larval generation is disperse in nature.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage: None

Management:
Effective management of armyworm problems require early detection of the armyworm larval
population before large larvae are present and the armyworms begin to march due to widespread
defoliation of the primary field of infestation. Typically, armyworm infestations are only detected when
large larvae are present and widespread defoliation is occurring. At this point, larval feed will only
continue for an additional 7 days or so and by the time insecticide is applied, the economic losses have
already occurred. The total economic loss then includes the loss of crop and the cost of the insecticide
with application which has limited effectiveness.

Black Cutworm:
Early Larval Feeding Damage

Black Cutworm

Black Cutworm

Cut Plant

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:
Black cutworm is a long-ranged migrant with the overwintering area in the southern states. Migrant
moths invade the northern ranges in the spring aided by the fast moving southerly winds along storm
fronts. Spring migrants typically arrive between mid-April and mid-May. The picture below is a radar
image of migrating moths in the center of the picture and the clouds of a storm front along the left side
of the picture.

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The magnitude of the migration into New York and the Northern Eastern US variable and is
dependent on population buildup in the southern states and the direction of the southern winds during
the time of peak moth migration. In the late summer-early fall, newly emerged moths return to the
southern states in a long-ranged migration utilizing the northern winds immediately following the
passage of a weather low pressure front to aid their migration. Black cutworm does not overwinter
successfully in the northern tier of states.

Migrating Black Cutworm

Newly arrived spring migrant moths lay their eggs in grass hay fields, grass waterways or weedy
patches in last year’s corn fields. Eggs hatch in 7-10 days and the newly hatched larvae feed on the
grassy plants. When the field is spring plowed for corn production, the small larvae continue to survive
on the dying grass plants until the corn begins to emerge. The black cutworm larvae then move over to
the young corn plants and begin feeding. The next chart shows the relationship between the
development of black cutworm larvae and corn, both driven by temperature. It shows that if black
cutworm eggs were laid on newly emerged corn plants, the corn would develop past V4 where corn is
difficult to cut before black cutworm larvae would develop into the cutting larval stages (L4-L7). A more
typical relationship between cutting larvae and plant stage is shown in the pictures with corn and
larvae. The plant is V3 to V4 and the larvae is L6. According to the chart, the larvae would have been
in the field as small larvae (L3-L4) when the corn plants emerged. These small larvae were surviving
on dying grassy weeds when the field was plowed or killed with herbicide until the newly planted corn
emerged.
During the first half of the black cutworm larval stages (instars 1-3), the larvae remain on the plant
and feed on the leaf margins. This feeding damage looks very similar to feeding damage by

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armyworm. However, when the larvae molt into the fourth larval instar, the larvae leave the plant
during the daylight hours and hide around the base of the plant. At this time, plant cutting begins and
continues for the remainder of the larval instars (instars 4-7) (about 2 weeks depending on the
temperature).

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics and Crop Damage:

Insect development is driven by temperature. Black cutworm being a spring pest, the temperatures
during spring have a direct impact on the speed of both larval development and corn development.
Warm springs will have a shorter period of black cutworm damage than cooler springs. The severity of
damage is directly related to the relationship of larval size (when the larvae begin to cut) and the
growth stage of the surrounding corn.

Management:
Effective management requires the early detection of the smaller larval instars of the cutworm, before
the larvae become large enough to begin cutting. Once cutting begins, economic losses can quickly
accumulate from the damaged or killed plants. Corn has an ability to compensate for stand losses but
the pattern of plant losses in important in the ability of the plant stand to compensate. If the stand
losses are in patches, the surround plants are not able to completely compensate for the missing
plants. In the situation of an occasional missing plant within a row, the adjacent plants have an
excellent ability to compensate for the missing plant. Damaged plants pose a larger problem than
missing plants since they continue to compete for sunlight, nutrients and moisture. Severely damaged
plants are delayed in maturity sufficiently that maturity may not be completed by killing frost in the fall,
causing economic yield and quality losses.

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White Grub:

White Grubs

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:
There are many species of white grubs (June beetles) which are found in NY and the North Eastern
US which feed on grass roots and can become a pest of both corn and grass pastures. The array of
native white grubs have a 2-7 year lifecycle where the larvae feed underground for several years. In
established grass fields, a wide array of larval sizes indicate that the white grub population is of the
native species variety. In contrast, if all of the larval stages are very similar in size, it suggests that the
white grub population is mainly comprised of the imported annual white grub species (Japanese
Beetle, European Chafer).

Annual White Grub Lifecycle:

Adult beetles emerge in June (thus the name of June Beetle), mate and begin laying eggs during July
in existing grassy environments. These areas range from lawns and grassy areas along roads to
grassy hay fields. Eggs hatch in late July and the small larvae begin feeding on grass roots. Root
feeding continues until fall when the cooling soil temperatures trigger the grubs to move deeper in the
soil to below the frost line for overwintering. The larvae at this point are 0.5-0.75 grown. After passing
the winter months deep in the soil, the larvae move back up to the top soil layers in the following spring
to resume their feeding. It is the spring feeding by large larvae which cause the most significant feeding
damage on the grass roots. Larval development is completed in late May to early June when the larvae
pupate and the adult beetles emerge in mid-late June.

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Multi-year White Grub Lifecycle:

The lifecycle of the multi-year white grub species is very similar but more protracted and less
synchronized. Summer adult emergence and egg laying extends over a longer period and the larval
stage requires multiple years to develop in the soil.

Importance of Lifecycle on Crop Damage:

Identification of the white grubs present in the field is important because the type of white grub present
impacts the severity and longevity of the crop damage. For example, if the majority of the population of
the white grubs is of the annual lifecycle variety, the damage will tend to be more severe but will usually
be a single year event. In contrast, if a multi-year white grub dominates the population, the damage will
tend to be less severe due to the lack of all larvae being at the most damaging stage at the same point
in time but the problem will persist for a number years until the white grub population matures into adult
and departs. Corn fields usually have a white grub problem when directly following a long term grassy
sod. If the white grub population is of the annual variety, severe damage will occur to the corn roots
when the plants are small in May-June but all feeding will disappear by late June. Second year corn in
the same field will not have problems with white grub feeding. If the white grub population is the multi-
year variety, root damage will occur to the corn for the entire growing season and second and third
year corn in the same field will also suffer root feeding from white grubs but usually at a lower level.

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Since white grubs spend most of their life in the soil, severe problems usually occur in fields where
good drainage is present. Field with down drainage seldom develop a significant white grub problem
because the insects drown or suffocate when the soils become water-logged.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

White grub feeding damage is the removal of roots from the plant, reducing the plant’s ability to uptake
water and minerals. Therefore, crop damage from root feeding is more pronounced during times of
drought and low levels of soil moisture.

Management:
Effective management of white grubs requires the anticipation of a grub problem before it occurs and
the deployment of an effective insecticide to prevent damage to the crop. Rescue treatments are
expensive and rarely effective. With the currently available technology of soil active seed treatments,
the use of these seed treatments on a regular basis effectively minimizes damage in most cases
except where the white grub pressure is extremely high.

Wireworm:

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:
Wireworms are native to North America and there are a number of species present throughout NY and
the NE US. These species have a multi-year lifecycle with the larvae living in the soil for more than one
year developing on plant roots, primarily grass roots. The adults (click beetles) typically emerge in early
summer to mate and lay eggs in grassy areas such as lawns, grassy hay fields and roadsides. These

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eggs hatch and larvae feed on primarily grass roots for 2-7 years depending on the species. Immature
larvae move down in the soil profile in the fall, below the frost line to overwinter. As soils warm in the
spring, these overwintering larvae move back into the plant root zone to resume feeding. Problems in
corn are usually noted after rotating land into corn after long-term sod and wireworm problems are
more prevalent in well drained fields compared to down-drainage fields. Wireworms can also become a
problem in crops such as wheat which are grown in a non-rotational system.

Wireworm

Adult Larvae in small corn plants

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Since wireworms spend most of their life in the soil, severe problems usually occur in fields where good
drainage is present. Field with down drainage seldom develop a significant white grub problem
because the insects drown or suffocate when the soils become water-logged.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Wireworm feeding damage is the removal of roots from the plant, reducing the plant’s ability to uptake
water and minerals. Therefore, crop damage from root feeding is more pronounced during times of
drought and low levels of soil moisture.

Management:
Effective management of wireworms requires the anticipation of a wireworm problem before it occurs
and the deployment of an effective insecticide to prevent damage to the crop. Rescue treatments are

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expensive and rarely effective. With the currently available technology of soil active seed treatments,
the use of these seed treatments on a regular basis effectively minimizes damage in most cases
except where the wireworm pressure is extremely high.

Corn Leaf Aphid:

Corn leaf aphid is not generally a problem on corn grown in NY or the NE US.

Grasshopper:
Grasshoppers are generally not an economic problem in agriculture in NY and the NE.

Fall Armyworm:
Fall armyworm is generally not a problem in NY and NE field crop production. It can be present and
invade late season sweet corn. It is a long-range migrant similar to true armyworm except the moths
tend to migrate northward in mid summer.

Slugs:

Gray garden Slug

Common Slugs

Marsh Slug

Spotted garden Slug

Banded Slug

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

While slugs are not insects, being invertebrates they become the domain of entomologists. Slugs are
related most closely to snails. They feed by rasping off leaf tissue with mouth parts. There are a
number of slug species throughout the northern US and they feed on a wide range of plants. Slugs
become an economic pest in fields with enough trash on the soil surface to provide hiding places during
the daylight hours. In addition, populations increase during periods of high moisture and cloudy days. In
corn fields, problems are usually noted during cool springs when the corn is small, large amounts of
trash are left on the soil surface and weather conditions are cool and damp. In most cases, corn will
grow out of slug damage when weather changes to the more typical warmer, dryer conditions.

Management:
There is no economically effective management tool for slug problems once they develop. In fields with
chronic slug problems, soil management practices which minimize the amount of crop debris on the soil
surface will minimize any slug problems in most springs.

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Seedcorn Maggot:

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Seed corn maggot is an introduced

insect and a pest of seedlings.
The larval feeding from this insect
causes a reduction in plant stand.
Although this insect attacks all
germinating seeds and young
plants, the impact is most
significant on large seeded crops
such as corn, soybeans and beans
of all types. This insect has
multiple generations per year but
is only economically important in
agriculture during the months of
May and June when crops are
being planted and germinating.

Lifecycle:
Adult seed corn maggots (flies)
emerge in late April-early June
from overwintering puparia in the
soil. After mating, the female flies ?
fly close to the surface and lay ?
eggs in areas of decaying organic
matter, dying plants and/or
germinating seedlings. After ?
hatching, the larvae feed on the
organic matter, plant seedlings ?
and germinating seeds. Damage
to agricultural crops is expressed
as skips in the plant stand where
seedlings were killed before
emerging and damaged seedlings
which may die after emergence.
Damaged emerged corn seedlings typically have numerous holes in the leaves after the leaves have
unrolled. Damaged soybean seedlings (and other beans) typically have just the stem with no leaves
(snake heads). These headless stems die after emergence due to the destruction of the growing point.
After maturing, the larvae pupate in the soil and emerge as flies to continue the next generation. This
insect has multiple generations per year but is only economically important in agriculture during the
months of May and June when crops are being planted and germinating.

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Seed Corn Maggot

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Insect development is driven by temperature. Seed corn maggot being a spring pest, the temperatures
during spring have a direct impact on the speed of both larval development and crop development.
Warm springs will have a shorter period of seed corn maggot damage than cooler springs.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Cool springs which delay the emergence of seedlings increase the window of potential risk and
damage to this insect. The longer the seedling takes to emerge, the greater chance that the seedling
will be damaged by seed corn maggot. Risk is increased when planting in fields with high organic
content or after recently plowed crops such as alfalfa or grass hay. A typical example of a high risk field
is the field closest to the barn which receives a large dose of manure. During mid season, the missing
corn plants from seed corn maggot attack in these fields can be spotted at highway speeds.

Management:
Seed corn maggot problems are difficult to anticipate and therefore all large seeded crop seeds need to
be treated with a seed treatment insecticide to prevent stand losses from this insect. In corn, almost all
available commercial corn seed is treated with the low rate of soil active seed applied soil insecticide
which is applied for the control of seed corn maggot and other secondary pests like wireworm.

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Small Grains:

Cereal Leaf beetle:

Pest Type: Primary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:
Cereal leaf beetle is a pest of small grains. The adults overwinter in the field edges and enter the fields
in the spring. Eggs are laid on the leaves of the small grain plants. The larvae which hatch from these
eggs defoliate the plant and it is the defoliation which causes any yield losses. In most years, the
introduced biological control agents hold the cereal leaf beetle populations at sub-economic levels.
However, each year there localized fields reported where the cereal leaf beetle population reaches
levels where the application of an insecticide may be justified to reduce the economic impact of the
insect.

Management:
In most years and in most fields, the established biocontrol agents prevent the cereal leaf beetle
populations from increasing to economically damaging levels. Occasionally, localized populations can
exceed these levels and the application of an insecticide may be justified. However, caution should be
used because insecticides effective on cereal leaf beetle also have a negative impact on the biological
control agents.

Wireworm:

See corn discussion.

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Soybeans:

Soybean Aphid:

Soybean Aphid

Pest Type: Primary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Soybean aphid is a recently introduced pest from the far eastern parts of the world. In some years,
populations can rise to economic levels and in other years, the populations remain sub-economic.
Typically in NY, aphid populations are found in localized hot spots within fields and in localized fields
within an area. Widespread infestations across a large number of fields within a region are seldom
observed.

Lifecycle:
Soybean aphids overwinter on buckthorn located on field edges and on the edges of forested tracts. In
the spring, overwintering eggs hatch and the first generation of aphids develop on the overwintering
host. After maturity, the winged aphids leave the buckthorn and migrate into surrounding soybean
fields. This first migration event is usually during mid-late May. This is local movement from local
overwintering hosts and is usually a small magnitude event. A second flush of aphids usually arrive in
late June-early July in correlation with summer thunderstorm activity. These aphids are long-range
migrants, usually from the upper Midwestern states and can be deposited in large numbers within a

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localized area. In most years, economically important aphid populations in individual fields are a result
of these long-ranged migration events. Once a field is infested with the migratory winged aphids,
wingless aphids are produced and the population cycles every 7-10 days, until very large numbers
cause the decline of the plant quality. At this point, winged aphids are produced and the winged aphids
move to other plants. In late August-early September, winged aphids are produced and these aphids
leave the soybean fields and fly to the overwintering host and lay eggs. These eggs then overwinter
and initiate the next year’s aphid population.

SBA Biology and Identification

™Pale yellow aphid less than 1/16" long
™ Only aphid that forms colonies on soybeans
™ Black cornicles (tail pipes)
™ Parthenogenic
™ Populations may increase 10X /wk
™ 15 - 18 generations per season
™ Overwinter on Buckthorn
(Rhamnus spp),
Pueraria phaseoloides (a kudzu)
™ Wild hosts: Glycine spp

SBA Damage / Loss Assessment

™ Vulnerable Soybean Stages
– Early season infestations (V2) that peak in early
reproductive growth stages (R1-R2, early - full
flowering) can reduce yields by 3 - 50% depending on
pest density
– Late season infestation losses minor to undetectable,
unless virus is present
™ Yield impact data from US very limited
– Economic infestations in US 2000-2002 ltd to Midwest
areas
• 13-15% yield reductions have been measured in
replicated field plots in Wisconsin and Minnesota.
• Virus potential raises concern about seed certification
• Aphid feeding may reduce protein content restricting
access to some markets

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In many years, biological control agents are effective in reducing the aphid population so it remains at
sub-economic levels. These biological control pressures include predation by lady bugs, lacewing
larvae and widespread epidemics of the entomopathogenic fungi.

Biological Control

Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Aphids are very sensitive to local environmental conditions. Hard rain storms wash the aphids off the
plant and reduce the populations. Humid conditions encourage the outbreak of entomopathogenic fungi
epidemics which quickly move through the aphid population and dramatically reduce the population.
Dry periods encourage the predation by insect predators such as lady bugs.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Aphid feed removes plant fluids from the plant in significant quantities. During periods of low rain fall
and droughty conditions, plant infested with aphids suffer water stress quicker than non-infested plants.
The presence of long term or frequent water stress has a negative impact on plant yield.

Management:
Scouting fields for aphid economic numbers is an important step before any spraying. Early spraying
for sub-economic populations of soybean aphids kill off the effective biological control insect predators
and allow the surviving aphids to rebound quickly. In addition, these early treatments with insecticide
often trigger spider mite outbreaks in hot dry years. Controlling spider mites is a difficult tasks and the
yield losses from a widespread spider mite infestation is often greater than yield losses from aphids.
This scenario can be avoided by first scouting the field and only treating when the populations exceed

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economic levels and the plant is approaching the plant stages where aphid feeding has been
documented to reduce yields.

Spider Mites:

Spider mites are not generally a problem on field crops grown in NY or the NE US. In soybeans, early
insecticide applications for soybean aphid, coupled with hot dry summer conditions have been
responsible for localized spider mite outbreaks. If insecticide applications are delayed until actual
economically important populations of soybean aphid, spider mite infestations seldom occur regardless
of the summer conditions.

Seed Corn Maggot:

See discussion under corn.

Alfalfa:

Alfalfa snout beetle:

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Pest Type: Primary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:
This insect has a 2-year
lifecycle with most of its
lifecycle spend in the soil.
All development occurs
during the first year and the
insect remains deep in the
soil in hibernation for the
second year before
emerging the third spring.
Offspring from odd-year
emerging adults will emerge
as adults the following odd
year (2007-2009).

Adult: All adults are females

and there are no known

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males in the North American population. Adults emerge from deep in the soil during the first week of
May and feed on the foliage of a wide array of plants. Host plants include alfalfa, clover, rhubarb,
grapes and roses. After about 3 weeks of feeding, the adults begin to lay eggs around the base of host
plants. Economically, the most important plants are alfalfa and clover. Oviposition continues for about
4-6 weeks with each female laying between 150-300 eggs.

Alfalfa Snout Beetle is flightless

and all females (parthenogenetic)

Larvae: The major economic damage to alfalfa and clover is caused by larval feeding on the roots of
the plant. Small larvae feed on the secondary roots causing root pruning and reduction of the root
system. As the larvae grow larger, they move to the main tap root where they girdle the tap root with
longitudinal spiral feeding. As the larvae enter the last two larval instars, they sever the tap root and
often feed up into the interior of the tap root. Larval feeding starts in early June with the feeding on the
secondary roots and the larger larvae finish their feeding with sever root damage in the fall during
October and November. Plant death from root feeding damage started in late summer and continues
throughout the winter. Farmers are greeted in the spring with large areas of their alfalfa fields dead and
devoid of plants (pure stands) or in mixed stands with grass, a hay field composed completely of grass
without alfalfa.

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Fall above ground symptoms of snout beetle larval root feeding

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Stand loss in the spring due to the previous year’s snout beetle larval feeding.

ASB Larval Feeding Damage

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Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

Since all of the extended larval stage is spent in the soil, the larval stages have difficulty surviving in
fields with high water tables and poor drainage. This insect survives best in fields with excellent
drainage (natural or tiled) and will build to very high populations under these conditions. In fields with
poor drainage, this insect is not the leading cause of death of alfalfa stands.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Dry soil periods during the periods of heavy root feeding increase the occurrence of plant death under
droughty soil conditions. Plants surviving insect attack the previous year will often die the following year
from water stress due to the severely pruned root system.

Management:
There are currently no effective management strategies for alfalfa snout beetle. For the past decade,
intense research efforts have been focused on the biological control of this insect with persistent
entomopathogenic nematodes and the development of resistant alfalfa varieties. Field studies are
currently being conducted focused on the effectiveness of these two strategies.

Alfalfa Weevil:

Pest Type: Primary in first harvest (cutting).

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

Lifecycle:

Alfalfa Weevil Life

Stages

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Adults overwinter in the field edges and other protected locations until the warming temperatures of
early to mid April. Adults then enter the field and begin feeding on the new emerging alfalfa foliage.
After a period of feeding, the females begin laying eggs in a cavity chewed in the stems of the alfalfa
plant. Upon hatching, the young larvae move to the growing tip of the plant where they develop on the
leaves around the
growing point. As
weevil larvae increase
in size, their leaf
consumption rate
increases to the point
where 80% of leaf loss
occurs during the final
larval stage. With
moderate to high
populations, the field
can turn brown from
this late larval feeding
in a few days. This is
usually called
“frosting”.
Upon completion of
the larval stage, the
larvae pupate in
cocoons on the plant
and then emerge as
adults. The adults then
leave the field for a
summer hibernation
until fall when the re-
enter the fields for
feeding prior to
overwintering. There is
one generation of
insects per year and
the majority of the
damage is limited to
the first harvest of
alfalfa.
The release of
effective biological
Alfalfa Weevil Feeding Damage
control agents in North
America has reduced
this insect to secondary pest status. A few localized hot spots are reported each year, but the biological
control agents usually respond and insecticide applications are usually unwarranted. Often an early
harvest of the alfalfa prevents an economic loss from this insect. Alfalfa stands with less than 50% are
not economic to treat with an insecticide.

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Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics and Crop Damage:

Cool wet springs are favorable to pathogenic fungi outbreaks which hold the insect in check. In
addition, alfalfa has a lower temperature threshold for development than alfalfa weevil and the crop will
usually be ready for harvest before alfalfa weevil reaches the economically damaging late larval instar.
In these cases, early harvest is the best solution to prevent economic losses. In years when the spring
conditions are warm and dry, alfalfa weevil can be an economically important pest in localized
situations.

Management:
In most areas and in most springs, the current array of biological control organisms prevents this insect
from resuming its past role as a major insect pest of alfalfa. Each year, reports of localized outbreaks
surface but early harvest of the crop usually prevents the economic loss from this insect. In subsequent
years, the biological control agents re-exert their pressure on the population and the alfalfa weevil
returns to its sub-economic level. If necessary, effective insecticides are available for alfalfa weevil
larval control.

Alfalfa Blotch Leafminer:

Alfalfa Blotch Leafminer is not an economic pest of alfalfa. This insect is being held at sub-economic
levels by biological control which was accidentally introduced shortly after the insect was introduced
into North America. It has never exploded into an economic pest since it was first introduced.

Pea Aphid:
Pea aphid, though often numerous in alfalfa fields, is seldom an economic pests. The cutting cycle of
alfalfa reduces the population on a regular basis and the population does not have time to rebound to
economic levels before the next alfalfa harvest.

Clover Root Curculio:

Pest Type: Secondary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:

While the adults feed on the foliage, the economic damage from this insect is the larval feeding on the
plant root system. The larvae chew grooves in the roots which may girdle the roots. In addition, the
larval feeding wounds provide entrance for soil pathogens to enter the root. Most plant death is from
the attack by soil pathogens. The major impact of this insect is a loss of plants in the alfalfa stand and
the reduction of alfalfa stand life.

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CRC

CRC Root
Feeding Injury

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Clover Root Curculio

Lifecycle:
The adult beetles overwinter in the field edges and in close by wooded areas. In the early spring, the
overwinter adults break diapause
(hibernation) and enter the alfalfa or
clover fields. Usually, the adults
cannot fly at this time because of CRC
the low temperatures and low
energy reserves. Upon entering the
field, the adults begin feeding on
the foliage to build fat reserves in
order to begin oviposition (egg
laying). In the NE US, oviposition
occurs during May. Eggs are laid on
the leaves of alfalfa and clover.
After hatching, the small larvae fall
to the ground where they enter the
soil and begin feeding on the clover
or alfalfa roots. Young larvae must
find a nitrogen-fixing nodule in order to survive. Larval development is completed in about 30 days and
the new adults emerge from the soil. Newly emerged adults leave the field and spend the summer in
protected locations in summer aestivation (hibernation). In the fall, the adults re-enter the field to feed
on the foliage and lay a few eggs. Most of these eggs do not survive the winter. Adults exit the field to
protected locations for overwintering.

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Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

This insect has a single generation per year. Water logged soils during the larval stage will cause
significant mortality to the larvae feeding on the roots. Otherwise, there is little known additional impact
of the environment on the population dynamics.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Loss of roots reduces the plant’s ability to extract water from the soil. During times of dry soils, CRC
damaged plants become water stressed much sooner than undamaged plants. Persistent water stress
results in loss of yield and plant death.

Management:
Currently, there are no effective strategies to manage CRC in NY and NE alfalfa. Research is
underway to develop a line of resistant alfalfa, but deployment of any resistance is years away.

Potato Leafhopper:
Potato Leafhopper in Alfalfa
Pest Type: Primary

Feeding Habit, Host Range, Injury

Type, Symptom, Damaging Stage:
Potato leafhopper has a host range of
over 200 plant species, including alfalfa,
and potatoes. Hosts also include tree
species such as willows, maples and
hickories. This is a migratory insect
which overwinters in the southern US
and arrives in the Northeastern US in
the spring around Memorial Day on
thunderstorms.
Lifecycle:
In the southern US, females which have overwintered on southern yellow pines move off the pine trees
around the first of March and begin laying eggs on a wide array of hosts from legumes to trees like
willows and hickories. After 1-2 generations on the local hosts, the newly emerged adults migrate north
on the warm southern winds during late April and early May. Spring migrants typically arrive in the
upper Midwestern states around May 1 and typically arrive in Upstate NY around Memorial Day.
Arriving migrant females begin laying eggs immediately on the wide array of hosts with alfalfa being the
most important host to field crop production. During the growing season in NY and the NE, there are 3-
4 generations. All life stages are damaging to the host with the nymphs having a greater impact
because they are flightless and feed within a localized area. Plant damage is a result of the injection of
a salivary toxin into the leaf tissue during feeding from the insect’s piercing/sucking mouth parts. Low
levels of the toxin in the leaf causes the restriction of the vascular tissue in the leaf and causes
photosynthesis to shut down. A higher toxin level results in leaf yellowing, burning of the leaf margins
and leaf death. Over wintering adults start departing from the NE US for their return trip to the
overwintering area in the southern US in mid-August and all of the fall migrants have departed by
September 10 in most years.

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Potato Leafhopper

PLH Injury

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Impact of Environment on Population Dynamics:

With insects being cold blooded, temperature drives the speed of all body functions. A warmer growing
season will shorten the duration of each life cycle and a greater number of generations will occur during
the growing season. A cooler growing season will lengthen the duration of each life cycle and reduce
the number of generations during the growing season.

Impact of Environment on Crop Damage:

Water stress conditions increase the impact of potato leafhopper damage on the yield of alfalfa.
Increased transpiration and decreased photosynthesis from potato leafhopper feeding magnifies the
impact of water stress on the plant and decreases the yield to a lower level than would be expected
with the water stress alone.

Management:
With the current effective array of PLH resistant alfalfa varieties, all new alfalfa stands should be
planted to one of the new resistant varieties, regardless if the planting is clear seeded alfalfa or an
alfalfa-grass mixture. With the yield impact of potato leafhopper on susceptible alfalfa, the cost of
scouting and the cost of insecticide treatment, the planting of susceptible variety makes no business or
pest management sense.

Potato Leafhopper Scouting

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PLH Resistant Alfalfa

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PLH resistance in alfalfa is due to the

presence of glandular hairs on the stem
and leaves. These hairs inhibit feeding Potato Leafhopper Scouting
and the laying of eggs in the stems of
the plant. The resistance is most Stem length leafhopper/sweep
effective on the small leafhopper Less than 3 inches 0.2
nymphs. 3 to 7 inches 0.5
8-10 inches 1.0
Effective management of PLH in 11-14 inches 2.0
susceptible alfalfa stands requires
15 inches or taller if PLH exceed 2.0
weekly scouting with a sweep net and
per sweep then
the use of the treatment guidelines listed
harvest the field.
below and in the current version of the
Cornell Guidelines for Field Crop
Production. When properly applied,
insecticides are very effective in the control of PLH.

28. Be able to discuss how ecological factors such as temperature, photoperiod, competition and
moisture influences insect population growth and decline.

All arthropods are cold blooded and their rate of development is dependent on the surrounding
temperatures. Arthropods develop faster as the temperature increases until the temperature becomes
too hot for development. Generally, insect development is very slow at temperatures below 50
degrees F and insect development is inhibited when temperatures rise above 90-95 degrees F. An
example of the influence on insect development is shown in the figure below.

Impact of Temperature on House

Fly Development Rate
Constant Hours to Days to Days to Total
Temp. Hatch Pupation adult Days
68 23 8 - 10 10 - 11 18 - 21
77 14 7-8 7-9 14 - 17
86 10 5-6 4-5 9 - 11
95 8 3-4 3-4 6-8
temperature fluctuations
NOTE: Actual fly development varies with normal daily temperature
House fly females can lay 4–
4–6 batches of 100–
100–150 eggs over their lifetime.

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Insects also have a very large

reproductive potential. Usually only Potential Population Growth - 60 days
a very small percent of the
population survive to continue the QuickTime™ and a
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next generation, but each species
usually has a large reproductive
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its wide array of natural enemies,

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released, allowing the invasive 1 fertile

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insect to become a widespread pest. June 1 August 1

Control – Chemical

29. Know the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides to control arthropod crop
pests.

The use of chemical pesticides has long been viewed as the “line of first attack” when the use of
pesticides should be viewed as a “strategy of last defense”. The past widespread use of pesticides has
created as many problems as it has solved. The development of insecticide resistance in insects,
herbicide resistance in some weed species and fungicide resistance in an array of plant disease
pathogens was predicted by scientists, ignored by the agribusiness industry and has created a number
of difficult pest management problems. These situations have led to the development of “resistance
management strategies”.

o Resistance Management: Resistance management is the adoption of agricultural practices which

delay, reduce or prevent the development of resistance to a specific pest management strategy.
Initially, the genetics for resistance in a population is extremely rare and resistance only becomes a
problem when the selection pressure on the population is intense enough that only the resistant
individuals survive, interbreed and concentrate the genes for resistance in the population. An
effective resistance management program utilizes a wide array of pest management practices
which allows enough susceptible individuals to survive to interbreed with the resistant individuals to
prevent the concentration of the genetic resistance in the majority of the population.

o Pesticides: Widespread use of insecticides since the 1940’s has promoted the development of
insecticide resistance in numerous insect species. For a time, the insecticide industry could
develop new insecticides as fast as insecticide resistance developed and the issue of resistance
management was ignored. With the slowing of insecticide development in the late 1980’s, the issue
of preserving the various insecticides by managing the exposure of the target insects to the
insecticide and reducing the development of insecticide resistance became a key issue. Currently,
the use of insecticides only when economic losses are expected and the rotation of different
insecticide classes reduces the selection pressure on the insect population to develop insecticide
resistance. An additional strategy which helps to prevent the rapid development of insecticide
resistance is the deployment of refuges as described in the above described section.

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o GMO crops: Many GMO crops have an insect active toxin incorporated into the plant genome.
The presence of this toxin in plant tissue has a significantly more potent genetic selection pressure
on the insect to develop resistance than the use of a topically applied or systemic insecticide. The
plant based toxin is present in the plant at all time where the external insecticide concentration
degrades with time, allowing some insects to reduce exposure and survive without mechanisms of
genetic resistance. Currently, the EPA requires the planting of GMO-toxin free refuges in
coordination with the planting of the insect active GMO crops. For example, the planting of GMO-
Rootworm resistant corn varieties requires a 20% refuge plant within the field or immediately
adjacent to the field with a corn variety of the same maturity rating where the plant incorporated
toxin is absent in the plant. This allows rootworm larvae to survive, emerge as adults and mate with
any potential resistant individuals that have successfully survived exposure to the plant based
toxin.

30. Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of target specificity of pesticides used to
control arthropod crop pests.

See 29

31. Understand the concepts of resistance management as it pertains to pesticides and

genetically modified crops.

See 29

Control – Cultural

32. Know examples of and understand the advantages and limitations of cultural controls
for arthropod crop pests.
A. Resistant varieties D. Rotation
B. Sanitation E. Tillage
C. Planting date F. Harvest date

Cultural control is the generalized term for the use of agricultural practices to reduce the pest pressure
on the crop. These tactics include 1) Resistant Varieties, 2) Planting Date Adjustment, 3) Crop
Rotation, 4) Tillage Practices, 5) Harvest Date Adjustment, and 6) Sanitation.
o Resistant Varieties: Most disease resistance in field crops is incorporated into the varieties
through conventional breeding techniques. Selection of the best adapted varieties to a local set of
pest pressures is not only a good pest management practice but good agribusiness practice.
Examples of disease resistance in corn are Northern Corn Leaf Blight and stalk resistance. An
example of insect resistance is the new array of Potato Leafhopper resistant alfalfa which has
become available in the past decade.
o Plant Date Adjustment: This tactic involves the adjustment of the planting date to minimize pest
attack. One classical example is the delay of winter wheat plant date in the fall until the threat of
Hessian Fly attack is minimized. In organic production systems, the plant date of corn and
soybeans can be adjusted to minimize the attack of seed corn maggot in the spring.

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o Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is a good agronomic practice which has benefits beyond pest
management. In the scope of pest management, systems with continual single crop production
build up pest pressure over time. For example, 1st year corn in NY never suffers economic damage
from corn rootworm. In contrast, 3rd and 4th year continuous corn builds up an 85-100% probability
of economically damaging levels of rootworm larval populations. Similar examples can be cited
from the plant disease world. A planned rotation can reduce the pest problems in most crops.
o Tillage Practices: A couple of tillage practices which reduce pest pressure include the use of
cultivation to reduce weed pressure and the shredding of corn stalks in corn grain production to
reduce the overwintering population of European Corn Borer.

o Harvest Date Adjustment: The adjustment of harvest can be an effective tool to reduce pest
pressure. For example, in alfalfa production, the accelerated harvest of first cutting alfalfa during
time of alfalfa weevil feeding can prevent the economic losses from the insect feeding and prevent
the cost of an insecticide treatment. Timely harvest, drying and storage can prevent the buildup of
fungi molds and associated mycotoxins in grain corn.

o Sanitation: Many stored grain insect infestations can be directly linked to the lack of sanitation
around the grain storage facility. The simple practice of completely cleaning the grain bin of leftover
grain (with associated insects) before the bin is refilled with a new load of grain eliminates many of
the stored grain insect problems. In addition, the use of screening on all grain bin openings
prevents the insects from entering the facility after the bin is refilled.

Control – Biological

33. Recognize the three major classes of beneficial organisms and know at least two
examples of each (parasites, predators and pathogens).

See 34

34. For each example, be able to discuss its importance in pest population regulation.
Examples include:
A. Spiders H. Big-eyed bug
B. Parasitic wasps I. Lady-bird beetle
C. Parasitic flies J. Ground beetles
D. Predaceous insects K. Predaceous mites
E. Damsel bug L. Entomopathogenic nematodes
F. Minute pirate bug M. Entomopathogenic fungi
G. Lacewings

All insects within their native homes are held in check with their own array of biological control
organisms. These organisms include diseases, parasites and predators. In addition, adverse weather
conditions also have a negative impact on insect populations. Insects (and other arthropods) become
economic pests when conditions change which negatively impact the biological control organisms and
allow the populations of the insect pest to increase to economically damaging levels. These changes
can include the introduction of the insect to a new region without the introduction of the natural
enemies/diseases or a change in the cropping system which inhibits the biological control activities of

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the natural enemies and encourages the population buildup of the crop pest. A large number of the
current economically important crop pests in field crops are introduced insects into North America from
other parts of the world. A couple of examples are European Corn Borer, Alfalfa Weevil, and Cereal
Leaf Beetle. Alfalfa weevil and Cereal leaf beetle are generally not considered a widespread economic
pest because of successful efforts to establish the biological control organisms from their native
homeland which held them in check throughout their native range. Similar efforts for European Corn
Borer have not been successful.

In contrast, Western and Northern Corn Rootworm are native to the US and have shifted from their
native plants onto cultivated corn. The change of life style and habitat has released these insects from
their natural enemies and the enhanced food source (cultivated corn) has allowed the insect to rise
closer to their reproductive potential. As a result, corn rootworm is a very significant agricultural pest.

Types of Biological Organisms: Biological control organism fall into three different categories. There
are insect diseases (viral, fungal, bacterial), internal parasites (parasitoids) and external predators.

o Insect diseases (Insect pathology): Each insect species has an array of disease which keep the
species in check within its native habitat. When an insect species in introduced into a new
environment (usually through human assisted movement), the array of diseases are not usually
moved with the insect and the insect population explodes in the new relatively disease free
environment. The reintroduction of effective disease organisms into the new area and invasive
population has been very effective in controlling invasive insects which become economically
important in the new outbreak area. Examples of effective biological control with the use of insect
disease organisms are Alfalfa Weevil and Gypsy Moth. Insect attacking nematodes
(entomopathogenic) are also considered in the area of insect pathology. Entomopathogenic
nematodes are most effective on soil insects.

o Parasitoids (internal parasites): Whole groups of insects have adapted their lifestyles as internal
parasites of other insect species. Insect parasitoids fall into two groups. The first group are
parasitic wasps and the second group are parasitic flies. In both cases, eggs are either laid
internally or externally on the insect host. The parasite egg hatches and feeds internally within the
host insect. In the process of feeding, the host is killed. After development is completed, the
parasitic insect pupates to an adult and emerges from the host insect cadaver. The newly emerged
adult then searches for other suitable hosts in which to lay eggs (oviposit). The effectiveness of
parasitoids as a biological control agent is determined by the adaptation of the parasitoid species to
the new environment in which they are released and the matching of the parasitoid searching
behavior to the new environment to which the host insect has adapted to. Examples of effective
parasitoid based biological control are Alfalfa Blotch Leafminer, Cereal Leaf Beetle and Alfalfa
Weevil (in some years).

o Predators: There is a wide array of insect and mite species in numerous orders which have
adapted to the role of insect predators. Insect predators search for, attack and consume other
insects externally (as contrasted to internal parasitoids). Commonly recognized predators are the
Lady-Bird beetle, Lacewings, Big-eyed Bug, and Damsel Bug. In addition, ground beetles and
predaceous mites are also effective predators. Generally, predators are most effective when host
insects are in high numbers. Examples of insects controlled by predators are aphids and plant
feeding mites.

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Competency Area 5: Pesticide Formulations and Labels

35. Recognize the distinction between the federal and state pesticide regulations, and that
state regulations can be more restrictive than federal regulations. Be able to explain
what to do if state laws are stricter than label directions.

Federal law gives the states the option of being stricter than EPA. A state may restrict products, or
remove products from sale and use within its borders. They may also choose to modify labels. States
may also decide to interpret label statements to give them a more strict meaning, such as New York
interprets the phrase “For Professional Use Only” as meaning this product is a “Restricted Use” product
and cannot to be sold to uncertified people. The bottom line is: the applicator must follow the more
stringent state regulation.

36. Be able to explain the difference between a pesticide label and labeling.

The label is the information printed on or attached to the container of a pesticide. It has information
about a pesticide’s characteristics, and proper use. But you also need to know that there are other
brochures and flyers that have information about the pesticide product. These additional pieces of
information are called “Labeling.” Labeling is all the information that you receive from the manufacturer
about the product. It includes the label on the product container plus any supplemental information
including brochures, leaflets, and information handed out by your dealer or a recognized authority such
as a University. Labeling is just as important to you, the user of the pesticide, as the label.

37. Identify and locate the kinds of information found on a pesticide label.

o Brand, Trade, or Product Names.

Each manufacturer has a brand name for their product. Different manufacturers may use different
brand names for the same pesticide active ingredient. The brand name shows up plainly on the
front panel of the label.

o Classification.
Every use of every pesticide will be classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as
either "general" or "restricted." Every pesticide product which has been restricted must carry this
statement in a prominent place at the top of the front panel of the pesticide label: "RESTRICTED
USE PESTICIDE. For retail sale and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct
supervision and only for those uses covered by the certified applicator's certification." Your state
lead agency has the authority to deem a product as restricted use. When a product has been
restricted by a state, the "restricted use" statement will not appear on the label. Contact your state
lead agency for the list of state restricted use products.

Ingredient Statement. Each pesticide label must list what is in the product. The list is written so that
you can see quickly what the active ingredients are and the amount (in percentage) of each ingredient
listed.

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o Chemical Name.
The chemical name is a complex name, which identifies the chemical components and structure of
the pesticide. This name is almost always listed in the ingredient statement on the label. For
example, the chemical name of Sevin 50% WP is 1-naphthyl methyl carbamate.

o Common Name.
Because pesticides have complex chemical names, many are given a shorter "common" name.
Only common names which are officially accepted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
may be used in the ingredient statement on the label.

o Type of Pesticide.
The type of pesticide usually is listed on the front panel of the pesticide label. This short statement
usually indicates the kind of pests that the product will control.
Examples:
• Insecticide for control of certain insects on fruits, nuts, and ornamentals.
• Soil fungicide.
• Herbicide for the control of trees, brush, and weeds.
• Algaecide

o Name and Address of Manufacturer.

The law requires the maker or distributor of a product to put the name and address of the company
on the label.

o Registration and Establishment Numbers.

These numbers are needed by the pesticide applicator in case of accidental poisoning, claims of
misuse, faulty product, or liability claims.

o Signal Words and Symbols.

Almost every label contains a signal word that will give you a clue to how dangerous the product is
to humans. Knowing the product's hazard helps you to choose the proper precautionary measures
for yourself, your workers, and other people (or animals) who may be exposed. The signal word
must appear in large letters on the front panel of the pesticide label. It usually is next to the
statement, "Keep Out of Reach of Children" which must appear on every pesticide label.

DANGER Any product, which is highly toxic orally, dermally, through inhalation, or causes severe
eye or skin burning, will be labeled DANGER. All pesticides which are highly toxic orally, dermally,
or through inhalation will also carry the word POISON printed in red and the skull and crossbones
symbol.

If a pesticide receives a highly toxic rating because of the possibility for corrosive damage to the
skin or eyes, the signal word DANGER will be on the label without the word POISON.

WARNING Any product which is moderately toxic orally, dermally, or through inhalation or causes
moderate eye and skin irritation, will be labeled WARNING.

CAUTION Any product which is slightly toxic to relatively non-toxic orally, dermally, or through
inhalation or causes slight eye and skin irritation, will be labeled CAUTION.

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Precautionary Statements.
All pesticide labels contain additional statements to help you decide the proper precautions to take to
protect yourself, your helpers, and other persons (or domestic animals) which may be exposed.

o Hazards to Wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case,
the precautionary statement may tell you what to avoid doing. Some labels indicate toxicity to bees,
birds, fish and crustaceans. Labeling may indicate limitations imposed to protect endangered
species. These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions on types of application, or a ban
on the pesticide's use within the species range. The label may also tell you where additional
information can be obtained.

o Protective Clothing and Equipment Statements.

Pesticide labels vary in the type of protective equipment statement they contain. You should follow
all advice on protective clothing or equipment, which appears on the label.

o Environmental Hazards.
Pesticides may be harmful to the environment. Some products are classified RESTRICTED USE
because of environmental hazards alone. Label warnings may include groundwater advisories and
protection information. Look for special warning statements on the label concerning hazards to the
environment.

o Special Toxicity Statements.

If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will be stated on the label. E.g.:
• This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toxic to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
These statements alert you to the special hazards that the use of the product may pose. They
should help you choose the safest product for a particular job and remind you to take extra
precautions.

o General Environmental Statements.

These statements appear on nearly every pesticide label. They are reminders of common sense
actions to follow to avoid contaminating the environment. The absence of any or all of these
statements DOES NOT indicate that you do not have to take adequate precautions. Sometimes
these statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid harm
to wildlife.

Examples of general environmental statements include:

• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.

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o Physical or Chemical Hazards.

This section of the label will tell you of any special fire, explosion, or chemical hazards the product
may pose. For example:
• Flammable; Do not use, pour, spill, or store near heat or an open flame. Do not cut or weld
container.
• Corrosive; Store only in a corrosion-resistant tank.

o Storage and Disposal.

All pesticide labels contain general instructions for the appropriate storage and disposal of the
pesticide and its container. State and local laws vary considerably, so specific instructions usually
are not included.

o Directions for Use.

Correct application of a pesticide product is accomplished by following the use instructions found
on the label. The use instructions will tell you:
• The pests which the manufacturer claims the product will control.
• The crop, animal, or site the product is intended to protect.
• In what form the product should be applied.
• The proper equipment to be used.
• How much to use.
• Mixing directions.
• Compatibility with other often-used products.
• Phytotoxicity and other possible injury or straining problems.
• Where the material should be applied.
• When it should be applied.
• Labels for agricultural pesticides often list the least number of days which must pass between
the last pesticide application and crop harvest, slaughter, or grazing livestock. These are
intervals set by EPA to allow time for the pesticide to break down in the environment. This
prevents illegal residues on food, feed, or animal products and possible poisoning of grazing
animals. This information may appear as a chart or it may be listed just after the application.

38. Know the four times when you should read the pertinent parts of a label

The first rule of pesticide application is “Read the Label First!” This is a simple way to remember that
reading the label is fundamental to using the pesticide properly. There are four (4) times when you
should read the pertinent parts of a label. You will learn to go to the correct part of the label and read
and re-read those instructions that you want to review.
1. Before you buy the pesticide, 3. Before you apply the pesticide, and
2. Before you mix the pesticide, 4. Before you store or dispose of the pesticide.

39. Be able to explain the meaning of the phrase “Use Inconsistent with Labeling”.

The source of the label’s legal power is law, specifically the law called FIFRA (The Federal Insecticide
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act). FIFFA contains the following statement, which must appear on the
pesticide label:
“It is a violation of federal law to use this product in any manner inconsistent with its labeling.”

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In short, you are forbidden to use a pesticide contrary to the labeling. The label is a “permission
document.” Any use not indicated on the label is prohibited. Likewise, consultants or sales persons
cannot legally recommend a pesticide be used contrary to its’ labeling.

Competency Area 6: Management of Pesticide Resistance

40. Define pesticide resistance, and be able to describe how it develops in a pest population.
Know examples of resistant field crop pests in the Northeast.

See “About Pesticides: Resistance Management” by the Government of British Columbia

(http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/pesticides/a_4.htm) for a general introduction on this topic. See also
”http://entweb.clemson.edu/pesticid/Issues/resistan.htm”. See 21-A for details about herbicide-resistant
weeds and herbicide resistance management.

Competency Area 7: Using Pesticides in an Environmentally Sound

Manner - AEM

Pesticide Movement in Soil and Water

41. Recognize how movement of a pesticide in soil or into water may be affected by:
A. Soil texture
B. Erosion
C. Pesticide degradation
D. Pesticide persistance
E. Degradation processes
F. Leaching
G. Precipitation runoff
H. Pesticide solubility
I. Pesticide adsorption
J. Source of entry into the environment

See: http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/pestmgt-water-qual-90.html for a copy of

“Pesticide Management for Water Quality; Principles and Practices. Van Es, H.M, and N.M.
Trautmann. October 1990. This bulletin describes, among others, pesticide movement in soil and
water.

42. Understand soil/pesticide interactions and their influence on pesticide selection,

pesticide use, and water quality protection. Be aware of pesticide runoff/leaching
potential predicting tools such as Win-PST 3 and be able to recommend mitigation to
improve or minimize the negative effects on the environment.

See: http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/pestmgt-water-qual-90.html for a copy of

“Pesticide Management for Water Quality; Principles and Practices. Van Es, H.M, and N.M. Trautmann.
October 1990. This bulletin contains information on soil/pesticide interactions and their influence on

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pesticide selection, use, and water quality protection. The USDA-NRCS National Water and Climate
Center developed and supports the Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST). WIN-PST is a
pesticide environmental risk screening tool that NRCS field office conservationists, extension agents,
crop consultants, pesticide dealers and producers can use to evaluate the potential for pesticides to
move with water and eroded soil/organic matter and affect non-target organisms. For more information
on Win-PST 3, see http://www.wsi.nrcs.usda.gov/products/W2Q/pest/winpst.html.

43. Recognize how the following impact proper pesticide use in regard to water quality
protection: soil characteristics, ground cover, proximity to water sources (surface
water, groundwater, wells, etc.).

See: http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/pestmgt-water-qual-90.html for a copy of

“Pesticide Management for Water Quality; Principles and Practices. Van Es, H.M, and N.M. Trautmann.
October 1990.

Government Regulations

44. Recognize the general provisions of state pesticide regulation laws.

The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) is the agency responsible for
administration and enforcement of New York State pesticide laws. Article 33 of the Environmental
Conservation Law provides the general framework for the distribution, sale, use and transportation of
pesticides in New York. In addition, Title 3 of Article 15 requires a permit for aquatic pesticide use in
certain circumstances. Title 29 of Article 71 provides the enforcement provisions for Article 33.
New York State Pesticide regulations are found in 6 New York Code of Rules and Regulations (6
NYCRR) Parts 320-329. Part 325 contains regulations on the application of pesticides, including
commercial and private pesticide applicator certification requirements and pesticide business
registration. Part 326 contains pesticide product restrictions, including restricted use pesticides, banned
pesticides, pesticide-specific limitations, and commercial permit requirements. More information about
New York state pesticide regulations can be found on the DEC website at:
http://www.dec.ny.gov/chemical/298.html.

45. Recognize the general provisions of recent EPA regulations such as the Clean Water
Act and Worker Protection Standards.

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is the primary law that regulates how
pesticides are produced, transported, sold, used, and disposed of. FIFRA also establishes the process
for the registration and re-registration of pesticide products and directs the certification of pesticide
applicators. All states, tribes, and territories must comply with FIFRA regulations and may establish
additional pesticide regulations as long as they are not less stringent than the FIFRA requirements.
Other important pesticide-related laws include the Federal Food, Drug, and Act (FFDCA), the
Worker Protection Standard (WPS), the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Clean Water Act. The
FFDCA regulates the tolerances (i.e., the maximum amounts of pesticide residue) that may remain in
human food and animal feed. Several government agencies, including the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), test food and feed products to
ensure they do not exceed legal tolerances. To set tolerance levels, the Environmental Protection

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Agency (EPA) has established a complex process that involves the review of many scientific studies.
This process is necessary for ensuring the safety of food and feed products in the United States.
The WPS is a regulation aimed at reducing the risk of pesticide exposure to agricultural workers
and pesticide handlers. Under this regulation, owners and operators of agricultural establishments or
commercial businesses must comply with a list of requirements for establishing a safe work
environment for employees. Pesticide safety training for all agricultural workers and pesticide handlers
is one of the WPS requirements.
The ESA protects endangered or threatened species from harm, including any harm they might
encounter from pesticides. Under the Endangered Species Protection Program, pesticide products that
might adversely affect an endangered species must carry a statement instructing applicators to consult
a county bulletin to determine if they must take any special measures to protect an endangered species
when using the product. It is the applicator’s responsibility to obtain the bulletin and comply with the
special precautions.
The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the cornerstone of surface water quality protection in the United
States. The statute uses a variety of regulatory and non-regulatory tools to reduce direct pollutant
discharges into waterways, finance municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and manage polluted
runoff. The CWA made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters,
unless a permit was obtained. These tools are employed to achieve the broader goal of restoring and
maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters so that they can
support "the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the
water."

Competency Area 8: Protecting Humans from Pesticide Exposure

Keeping Pesticides on Target

46. Be familiar with spray drift and problems drift can cause for applicators and others.

Drift occurs when air currents cause pesticide to be deposited outside a target application site. It may
occur as solid or liquid particles at the time of application or as vapors during or after application. Any
pesticide that is carried out of the target area by wind or any air current may damage non-target plants,
contaminate surface waters, harm wild and domesticated animals, or harm people. Herbicide drift
tends to be the most noticeable because of its visible effect on plants. “Invisible” effects can also be
bad. For example, any pesticide drift might produce illegal residues on a neighbor’s crop; even legal
residues could be a problem for an organic producer. Because drift can harm, civil, criminal, or
administrative penalties (such as fines) may result. Note that both the applicator and the person (if any)
who directs the applicator to use the pesticide can be held responsible for drift. Legal problems may not
be the only costs associated with drift. If drift does cause harm, the injured party may choose to sue.
Your insurance company may raise your deductible and premiums. Finally, there is the intangible cost
of strained relations with neighbors and your clients if drift harms them or their property.

47. Know the factors that affect particle drift and why they affect drift:
A. Droplet size C. Nozzle distance from target
B. Wind speed D. Temperature and humidity

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 The obvious intent of spraying a pesticide is to deposit droplets on the crop or soil surface. However, a
lot can happen to a droplet in the distance between a nozzle and the crop or soil.

(a) Droplet size. Smaller droplets fall more slowly, evaporate more quickly, and are more easily
moved by wind. Therefore, they will be carried farther by wind before they are deposited.
(b) Wind speed. A stronger wind means droplets will be carried farther before they are deposited.
This is true for any size droplet, though the effect is still greater on smaller droplets.
(c) Nozzle height. The higher a boom or nozzle is set above the target surface, the farther a droplet
must travel before being deposited. This means the droplet will be in the air longer and subject to
evaporation and wind longer.
(d) Temperature increases and humidity decreases. As the air gets warmer and/or drier, the water
in the spray droplets evaporates faster. This makes droplets effectively smaller, making them more
prone to drift.

Spray droplet size is the most important factor affecting the potential for particle drift. Wind speed is
also very important. However, increasing droplet size can greatly reduce the wind’s effect.

The active ingredient is not a significant factor in particle drift. The effects of formulation and physical
properties of the spray mix are also much smaller than those of droplet size, wind speed, and nozzle
height.

48. Know factors that affect spray droplet size:

A. Spray pressure
B. Nozzle size
C. Spray rate (gallons per acre)
D. Drift control agents (foams, invert emulsions, spray additive stabilizers, etc.)

Droplet size is the most important factor affecting the potential for particle drift and that smaller droplets
drift farther than large droplets. Spray droplets less than 150 microns in diameter are more prone to
drift and droplets less than 50 microns being highly susceptible to drift. (For reference, 50 microns is
about the diameter of a human hair.)
There will always be a range of droplet sizes in any spray pattern. You cannot eliminate small
droplets but you can reduce the proportion of them in the spray once you know what affects droplet
size. Increased spray pressure increases the number of small droplets produced. Keep the pressure as
low as possible within the range for the nozzle and product you are using.
Nozzles with larger openings or narrower spray angles will produce fewer fine droplets. Using wider
spray angles may allow you to bring the nozzles closer to the target surface. Doing so more than
compensates for the finer spray. Some nozzles (such as a turbo flat-fan or air induction nozzle) are
specifically designed to produce fewer fine droplets.
Higher spray rates (gallons of spray mix per acre) let you use nozzles with larger openings. Thus, if
you need to increase spray rates, use larger nozzles rather than increasing spray pressure.
Drift reduction adjuvants such as foams, invert emulsions, or stabilizers reduce the number of small
spray droplets but they will also reduce coverage of the plant surface. Be sure to use adjuvants
according to the directions on the pesticide label to avoid problems. A pesticide label may require the
use of drift-reduction agents under certain conditions, such as low application rates.

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Human Toxicity

49. List pesticide modes of entry into the human system.

There are three specific ways in which pesticides may enter your body. Pesticides may enter the body
through the skin, lungs or mouth.

Dermal Route
Wet, dry, or gaseous forms of pesticides can be absorbed through the skin. This may occur if
pesticides are allowed to get on the skin while mixing or applying, or if pesticide-contaminated
clothing is not removed promptly and properly cleaned before being worn again. Oil or paste forms
allow greater absorption through the skin than water-based pesticides. Some pesticides do not
pass through the skin very readily. Others are quickly absorbed through the skin and can be as
dangerous as if they were swallowed. Skin varies in its capacity to act as a barrier to pesticide
absorption. The eyes, eardrums, scalp and groin areas absorb pesticides more quickly than other
areas on the body. Damaged or open skin can be penetrated by a pesticide much more readily
than healthy, intact skin. Once they are absorbed through skin, pesticides enter the blood stream
and are carried throughout the body.

Inhalation Route
Whether as dusts, spray mist, or fumes, pesticides can be drawn into your lungs as you breathe.
Inhalation of pesticides can occur during the mixing of wettable powders, dusts, or granules.
Poisoning can also occur while fumigating or spraying without a self contained breathing
apparatus or a proper respirator in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas such as greenhouses,
apartments, or grain bins. The number of particles needed to poison by inhalation depends upon
the concentration of the chemical in the particles. Even inhalation of dilute pesticides can result in
poisoning. Once they are absorbed through the surfaces of the lungs, chemicals enter the blood
stream and are distributed to the rest of the body.

Oral Route
Pesticides can enter the body through the mouth (also called ingestion). This can occur when
hands are not properly washed before eating or smoking. They may be swallowed by mistake, if
they are improperly stored in food containers. Ingested materials can be absorbed anywhere
along the gastrointestinal tract; the major absorption site is the small intestine. Once absorbed,
they eventually enter the blood stream by one of several means, and circulate throughout the
body.

50. Distinguish between chronic and acute poisoning effects.

Acute exposure refers to a one-time contact with a pesticide. When experimental animals are
exposed to a pesticide to study its acute toxicity, acute exposure is defined as contact for 24 hours or
less. Acute effects can be readily detected and more easily studied than chronic effects. Immediate
toxic effects are more likely to be produced by those pesticides that are rapidly absorbed.
Chronic exposure refers to a repeated contact with a pesticide. The study of chronic toxicity is
accomplished by repeatedly exposing test animals for more than three months. In addition to producing
long-term low-level effects, chronic exposure to pesticides may result in immediate, "acute" effects after

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each exposure. In other words, frequent exposure to a chemical can produce acute and chronic
symptoms. The potential for a chronic effect is related to the level and frequency of exposure received.

51. Recognize general symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning.

Mild Poisoning or Early Symptoms of Acute Poisoning headache, fatigue, weakness, dizziness,
restlessness, nervousness, perspiration, nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite, loss of weight, thirst,
moodiness, soreness in joints, skin irritation, eye irritation, irritation of the nose and throat.

Moderate Poisoning or Early Symptoms of Acute Poisoning nausea, diarrhea, excessive saliva,
stomach cramps, excessive perspiration, trembling, no muscle coordination, muscle twitches, extreme
weakness, mental confusion, blurred vision, difficulty in breathing, cough, rapid pulse, flushed or yellow
skin, weeping.

Severe or Acute Poisoning fever, intense thirst, increased rate of breathing, vomiting, uncontrollable
muscle twitches, pinpoint pupils, convulsions, inability to breathe, unconsciousness.

52. List possible chronic effects of pesticide poisoning.

Chronic poisoning is the poisoning which occurs as a result of repeated, small, non-lethal doses over a
long period of time. Many symptoms may appear, such as nervousness, slowed reflexes, irritability, or
a general decline in health. Some test animals are unable to reproduce normally after repeated
exposure to pesticides.

53. Recognize general procedures to follow if pesticide gets on skin, in eyes, in mouth or
stomach, or if inhaled.

Poison on the Skin

• The faster the poison is washed off the patient, the less injury that will result.
• Drench skin and clothing with water (shower, hose, faucet, pond).
• Remove clothing.
• Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with soap and water. Detergents and commercial cleansers are
better than soap.
• Dry and wrap in a blanket.
• WARNING: Do not allow any pesticide to get on you while you are helping the victim.

Poison in the Eye

• It is most important to wash the eye out quickly but as gently as possible.
• Hold eyelids open and wash eye with a gentle stream of clean running water.
• Continue washing for fifteen minutes or more. It is important to use a large volume of water. If
possible, at least five gallons should be used to flush the eye properly.
• Do not use chemicals or drugs in wash water. They may increase the extent of the injury.
• Cover the eye with a clean piece of cloth and seek medical attention immediately.

Inhaled Poisons (dusts, vapors, gases)

• If victim is in an enclosed space, do not go in after him unless you are wearing an air-supplied
respirator.

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• Carry patient (do not let him walk) to fresh air immediately.
• Open all doors and windows.
• Loosen all tight clothing.
• Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or is irregular.
• Keep victim as quiet as possible.
• If victim is convulsing, watch his breathing and protect them from falling and striking his head.
Keep his chin up so his air passage will remain free for breathing.
• Prevent chilling (wrap patient in blankets but don't overheat).
• Do not give the victim alcohol in any form.

Swallowed Poisons When should you make the victim vomit?

The most important choice to make when aiding a person who has swallowed a pesticide, is whether
or not to make them vomit. The decision must be made quickly and accurately by a health care
professional because the victim's life may depend on it. Get help from a physician or the poison control
center. .. But it is important to know:
• Never induce vomiting if the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions. The victim could
choke to death on the vomitus.
• Never induce vomiting if the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison.
• Never induce vomiting if the person has swallowed petroleum products such as kerosene,
gasoline, oil, or lighter fluid. Most pesticides, which come in liquid formulations, are dissolved in
petroleum products.

54. Recognize that Material Safety Data Sheets are the best source of information concerning level
of toxicity, handling precautions, first aid procedures, and other safety information.

A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is an information sheet containing the properties of a pesticide.
They are an important part of workplace safety, intended to provide workers and emergency personnel
with procedures for handling a substance in a safe manner. MSDS will include physical data (melting
point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal,
protective equipment, and spill handling procedures.

Handling Pesticides Safely

55. Describe protective gear used during mixing and application of pesticides.

Gloves
Always wear unlined, elbow length chemical-resistant gloves when handling all pesticides. The elbow
length gloves protect your wrists and prevent pesticides from running down your sleeves into your
gloves. Glove materials include nitrile, butyl, neoprene, natural rubber (latex), polyethylene,
polyvinylchloride (PVC) and barrier laminates like 4H® and Silver Shield®. Current research indicates
that nitrile, butyl, and neoprene offer good protection for both dry and liquid pesticides. Neoprene is not
recommended for fumigants. Natural rubber is only effective for dry formulations. Never use leather or
cotton gloves. Cotton and leather gloves can be more hazardous than no protection at all because they
absorb and hold the pesticide close to your skin for long periods of time. Clean and store gloves for
reuse. Replace gloves periodically because most materials will accumulate pesticide residues over
time. Nitrile and neoprene gloves can be used for 120 to 160 work hours. Replace PVC and natural

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rubber gloves after 40 work hours. Slash discarded gloves so that they cannot be used by someone
else. Wrap in a plastic bag and put with an empty pesticide container for proper disposal.

Body Covering
Regular work attire of long pants and a long-sleeved shirt, shoes, and socks are acceptable for slightly
toxic (category III) and relatively non-toxic (category IV) pesticides. Many applicators prefer work
uniforms and cotton coveralls that fit the regular-work-attire description and provide equal protection.
Applicators should reserve one set of clothing for pesticide use only. Launder and store separately from
all other clothing. To apply moderately toxic (category II) or highly toxic (category I) chemicals, wear a
clean, dry protective suit that covers your entire body from wrists to ankles. The sleeves must be long
enough to overlap with gloves. Openings, such as pockets, should be kept to a minimum. Protective
suits are one- or two-piece garments, such as coveralls. They should be worn over regular work
clothes and underwear. Protective suits may be disposable or reusable. They are available in woven,
nonwoven, coated and laminated fabrics. The degree of protection increases as one moves from
woven to nonwoven to coated and laminated fabrics. Read the manufacturer's label for specific
information related to care and intended use. Good quality construction, proper fit, and careful
maintenance or disposal are also important. Fabrics can be made more resistant to pesticide
penetration by laminating fabric layers and/or by applying chemical coatings. Chemical -resistant
protective suits of coated or laminated fabrics are a must if you (or your helper) will be in a mist or
spray that would wet your clothing. Coated and laminated fabrics resist water penetration, but not all of
these fabrics qualify as chemical resistant. Chemical-resistant suits are recommended when handling
highly toxic (category I) pesticides.

Apron
Wear a chemical-resistant apron when repairing or cleaning spray equipment and when mixing or
loading. This is a good practice for all pesticides. It is essential for pesticides of category I and II
toxicity. Aprons offer excellent protection against spills and splashes of liquid formulations, but they are
also useful when handling dry formulations such as wettable powders. Aprons can be easily worn over
other protective clothing and are comfortable enough for use in warm climates. Choose an apron that
extends from the neck to at least the knees. Some aprons have attached sleeves. Nitrile, butyl, and
neoprene offer the best protection. PVC and natural rubber are also available.

Boots
Wear unlined chemical-resistant boots which cover your ankles when handling or applying moderately
or highly toxic pesticides. Purchase boots with thick soles. Nitrile and butyl boots appear to give the
best protection. Do not use leather boots. If chemical-resistant boots are too hot to wear in warm
climates or too difficult to put on, try wearing chemical-resistant overboots with washable shoes (such
as canvas sneakers or layered socks.) Remember to put your pant legs outside the boots, otherwise
the pesticide can drain into the boot. Wash boots after each use and dry thoroughly inside and out to
remove all pesticide residue.

Goggles or Face Shield

Wear shielded safety glasses; a full-face respirator; snug-fitting, non-fogging goggles; or a full-face
shield whenever the chemical could possibly contact your eyes. Safety glasses with brow and side
shields are acceptable for low exposure situations. Always wear goggles or full-face respirator when
you are pouring or mixing concentrates or working in a highly toxic spray or dust. In high exposure

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situations when both face and eye protection are needed, a face shield can be worn over goggles.
Clean them after each use.

Head and Neck Coverings

The hair and skin on your neck and head must be protected too. This is most important in situations
where exposure from overhead dusts or sprays is possible, such as in airblast spraying operations or
flagging. Chemical-resistant rain hats, wide brimmed hats, and washable hard hats (with no absorbing
liner) are good. In cool weather, chemical-resistant parkas with attached hoods are a good choice. If
the attached hood is not being used, tuck it inside the neckline so that it will not collect pesticides. Do
not use cotton or felt hats; they absorb pesticides.

56. Describe proper cleanup procedures for application equipment and protective gear.

The outside of the PPE, especially gloves, should be washed at rest breaks or every four hours.
Replace the PPE after that period of time with clean items or thoroughly wash the outside with soap
and water. Replace the PPE after that period of time with clean items or thoroughly wash the outside
with soap and water. After each use, wash the face piece with detergent and warm water. Rinse
thoroughly and wipe dry with a clean cloth. Store the respirator, filters, and cartridges in a clean, dry
place away from pesticides. A tightly closed plastic bag works well for storage. Shower and clean
yourself thoroughly from head to toe. Pay particular attention to fingernails and hair where pesticides
could remain.

Care of Equipment
Whether equipment is very simple or very complex, it must be properly cared for so it will be both
dependable and safe. Cleaning equipment including hoses, nozzles, pumps, tanks and hoppers is very
important. Pumps and other equipment that will be stored in below freezing weather should be
thoroughly drained, or better yet alcohol or antifreeze should be circulated through the equipment.
Nozzles should be removed, cleaned, and stored.

Cleaning Sprayers
Clean the sprayer after each days use. Be sure to wear appropriate protective clothing when cleaning
any piece of application equipment. Flush with clean water inside and out to prevent corrosion and
accumulation of chemicals. When finished for the season or when changing chemicals, clean the
sprayer thoroughly with a cleaning agent. Be careful to avoid contaminating water supplies and avoid
injury to plants or animals when washing.

These steps are suggested:

1. Wash off the inside of the tank and partially fill it with water. Flush this water through the nozzles.
When the tank is empty repeat these steps so that two complete rinses are done.
2. Take off the nozzle tips and screens. Clean them in a strong detergent solution or kerosene using
a soft brush.
3. Fill the tank a third time, this time adding a cleaning agent. Refer to the table on the following page
for information on the type and amount of cleaning agent.

Cleaning Granular and Dust Application Equipment

These devices must also be cleaned following use. Here are some recommended steps:
1. Remove all pesticide from the device. This may require taking it apart to be thorough.

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2. Clean the inside of the hopper.

3. Use sand paper or a wire brush to clean rusted parts. Paint the cleaned parts.
4. Coat the inside with oil. Oil or grease the bearings.
5. Thoroughly clean and oil the flow control slides or valves.
6. Excess oil should be wiped off if it will contact the chemical upon the next use.

Pesticide used 2.5 Gallons Cleaning Solution Instructions

Insecticides (1) and/or
1 Tbsp. powder detergent (2) Agitate, flush, and rinse.
fungicides.
Thoroughly agitate, flush small
Hormone herbicides, salt or
amount through system, and let
amine formulations (2,4-D, 1/2 cup household ammonia
remainder stand in sprayer
Dicamba, MCPA, etc) (3)
overnight. Flush and rinse.
Or Same as above except let stand
3 Tbsp. washing soda (sal soda) for at least 2 hours.
Or Same as above except let stand
1/4 lb. trisodium phosphate for at least 2 hours.
Agitate, operate sprayer for 2
Or
minutes, let remainder stand for
2 Tbsp. fine activated charcoal
10 minutes, then flush through
and 1-2 oz. powder detergent (2)
sprayer. Rinse.
Hormone herbicides, ester 4 oz. washing soda (sal soda) + Rinse inside of tank and flush
formulations (2,4-D, brush 1-1/2 cup kerosene + 1 Tbsp. small amount through system. Let
killers, MCPQA, etc.) (1) powder detergent (2) stand at least 2 hrs. Flush + rinse.
Other herbicides (atrazine, Rinse with clean water before and
1 Tbsp. powder detergent (2)
simazine, alachlor, etc.) after using sudsy solution.

57. Recognize proper ways to dispose of pesticides and containers.

If you have pesticides that you cannot use or do not want, you must take steps to safely and legally
dispose of them. Pesticides, which are still factory-sealed, may be returned to the manufacturer. Check
with the company and see if they will take your surplus back. You may be able to apply the excess
pesticide mixture to another site where a pest problem exists and that can be treated with the same
pesticide. If possible use the rinsewater from your spray tank in a future spray mix of the same
pesticide. Be careful with herbicide-contaminated rinsewater on sensitive plants. Caution must also be
exercised with reusing rinsewater in mixtures of other pesticides. It is not legal and may cause illegal
food or feed crop residues. Never dispose of pesticide contaminated rinsewater in a manner that will
contaminate public or private water sources or sewage treatment facilities.

Farmers who need to dispose of a surplus spray mixture or contaminated rinsewater should do so on
their own property, only if it is not prohibited on the label and only in labeled sites. If the manufacturer
won't take back the concentrates and/or they cannot be used, safe and legal ways to dispose of the
surplus must be found. Other certified applicators might be able to use the pesticide leftovers to control
a similar pest problem. If containers begin to leak or are damaged, they should be packed in another
container that is appropriately labeled. Store your extra pesticides in a locked storage area while you
are waiting to dispose of them. They must be kept in their original containers with the label intact.

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Empty Pesticide Containers

Empty pesticide containers are not really "empty." They still contain small amounts of pesticide even
after they have been rinsed out properly. Never toss them into streams, ponds, fields, or vacant
buildings. Be able to account for every pesticide container you used for the job. Never give them to
children to play with or allow uninformed persons to have them for any use. Dispose of all your
pesticide containers carefully and properly.

58. Describe safe storage of pesticides.

Choosing the Best Site.

Whether you choose a site to build a new storage area or use existing buildings, you need to consider
several points. The site should be in an area where flooding is unlikely. It should be downwind and
downhill from sensitive areas such as houses, ponds, and play areas. There should be no chance that
runoff or drainage from the site could contaminate surface or groundwater. Sites should be selected so
that the soil, geologic, and hydrologic characteristics will not lead to contamination of any water
systems through runoff or percolation.
Setting Up the Storage Area.
Pesticides should be stored in a cool, dry, airy room or building which is fire proof. Fans are an
important feature of any pesticide storage building. A properly installed ventilation system should have
a switch outside, so that the fan can be turned on before anyone enters the facility. The storage area
should be fenced in or at least able to be locked tightly. Weatherproof warning signs should be hung
over every door and window.

59. Recognize procedures to follow when a pesticide spill occurs.

The most hazardous activities involving pesticides are mixing and loading of concentrates. The
following procedures are recommended for cleaning up small spills or spills that will not contaminate
water. Remember to wear all protective clothing indicated on the pesticide label during the entire
cleaning process.
1. Contain the spill. Do everything possible to immediately stop the leak or spill. If the material is a
liquid, construct a dam to prevent it from spreading.
2. Isolate the contaminated area. Rope off the area or use chalk to draw a line around it. Keep people
at least 30 feet away from the spill.
3. Soak up the spill. Spread an absorbent material such as vermiculite, fine sand, or sawdust over the
entire spill.
4. Collect the material for disposal. Sweep or shovel the contaminated absorbent material into a
heavy-duty plastic bag.
5. Decontaminate the area. For floors, work a decontamination agent (usually hydrated lime or a high
pH detergent) into the spill area with a coarse broom. Add fresh absorbent material to soak up the
now contaminated cleaning solution. Sweep or shovel the contaminated material into a heavy-duty
plastic bag. Repeat this procedure several times to ensure thorough decontamination. For soils,
shovel the top 2 to 3 inches of soil into a heavy-duty plastic bag. Next, cover the area with at least
2 inches of lime. Finally, cover the lime with clean topsoil. Minor spills can sometimes be cleaned
up by immediately applying activated charcoal to the contaminated surface.
6. Clean up contaminated vehicles and equipment. Use a mixture of liquid bleach and alkaline
detergent to clean metal surfaces. Porous materials and equipment such as brooms, leather
gloves, and sponges cannot be decontaminated effectively and, therefore, must be disposed of.

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7. Dispose of contaminated materials. Remember that this includes contaminated absorbent

materials, soil, and porous equipment. Check with your state regulatory agency to find of these
materials. Most can be disposed of in a licensed sanitary landfill, but some contaminated materials
are considered hazardous waste and require special handling.

For major spills, or spills that may contaminate water, follow the first three steps under the directions for
cleaning up minor spills. Then call the CHEMTREC telephone number (800) 424-9300. A qualified
person will answer and direct you regarding what procedures to follow and whom to notify. If
necessary, the area coordinator will dispatch a pesticide safety team to the site.
Spills may also require notification steps to other authorities. If a state highway is the site of a spill,
notify the highway patrol and the state highway department. If food is contaminated, notify state or
federal food and drug authorities and city, county, or state health officials. If water is contaminated,
notify public health authorities; regional, state, or federal water quality or water pollution authorities; and
the state fish and game agency.

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Recommended Readings

Weed Management
o The Kansas State Weed Management website: http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/weedmanagement. This
website contains (among others): “Herbicide mode of action”. 2001. Kansas State University. C-
715.Extension Bulletin by D.E. Peterson, C.R. Thompson, D.L. Regehr, and K. Al-Khatic. A Power Point
presentation on the same topic “Herbicide Mode of Action”.

Using Pesticides in an Environmentally Sound Manner

o See: http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/pestmgt-water-qual-90.html for a copy of

“Pesticide Management for Water Quality; Principles and Practices. Van Es, H.M, and N.M. Trautmann.
October 1990. This bulletin describes, among others, pesticide movement in soil and water.

Management and Pesticide Resistance

o See “About Pesticides: Resistance Management” by the Government of British Columbia
(http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/pesticides/a_4.htm) for a general introduction on this topic. See also
http://entweb.clemson.edu/pesticid/Issues/resistan.htm.

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