INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE 2020
The study of science today branches into the study of living things and nonliving
things – the life sciences and the physical sciences. Physical Sciences has two
major components – Physics and Chemistry. Physics is about the nature of things
such as motion, forces, energy matter, heat, sound, light, and the composition of
atoms. Chemistry is about how matter is put together, how atoms combine to form
molecules, and how the molecules combine to make up the many kinds of matter
around us.
Mathematics is an essential skill for the sciences. When the ideas of science are
expressed in mathematical terms, they are unambiguous. They don’t have the
double meanings that so often confuse the discussion of ideas expressed in
common language. When the findings in nature are expressed mathematically, they
are easier to verify or to disprove by experiment. When we create a mathematical
expression for a scientific law, we can make predictions.
Scientists try to make sense of our environment by developing theories. These
theories must be proven by using the Scientific Method. The Scientific method
starts with careful observations. If we observe that something generally happens in a
specific way, we can form a hypothesis to explain why it happens. A scientific
hypothesis is a temporary explanation for an observed regularity/phenomenon. The
hypothesis must be proven/disproven with experiments. An experiment is a
controlled method of testing a hypothesis. From the results of an experiment, we can
develop a scientific theory or a scientific law. A scientific law is a statement that
describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. At the time it is made, no
exceptions have been found to a law. Scientific laws explain things, but they do not
describe them. Scientific theories are explanations of natural phenomena. They are
not predictions but can be used to make predictions. They are explanations of why
we observe something. Theories can change but are not likely to as they are formed
only after many observations.
Scientific laws are like scientific theories in that they are principles that can be used
to predict the behavior of the natural world. Both scientific laws and scientific theories
are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence. Usually
scientific laws refer to rules for how nature will behave under certain conditions,
frequently written as an equation. Scientific theories are more overarching
explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. As a
comparison, theories explain why we observe what we do, and laws describe what
happens.
1.1 Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around
us and answering questions. It is a set of steps intended to guide the process
of scientific research and discovery towards the most correct conclusions
possible by using a method that can be repeated and that the experiment is a
fair test.
(from https://commondescentpodcast.wordpress.com/2017/10/22/episode-20-
the-scientific-method/)
Write-up of experiments/investigations
You need to have the following headings and in this order for your write-up.
Underline your heading when doing the write-up for an investigation.
1. Investigative question
2. Hypothesis
3. Aim
4. Variables
5. Apparatus and Chemicals
6. Method
7. Observation
8. Results
9. Interpretation
10. Conclusion
The difference between a practical investigation and an experiment is:
• an experiment is conducted to verify or test a known theory whereas
• an investigation is an experiment that is conducted to test a hypothesis i.e. the
outcome is not known before.
When doing your experiments, you are testing one set of values only so therefore
have no variables. Since you have no variables, you do not have to give an
investigative question or hypothesis in your write-up.
Investigative Question
• Relationship between variables written as a question
• Ask a question containing an independent and dependent variable
• The answer to the question must not be yes or no
• Include the variable you kept constant, i.e. state the condition where the
relationship is valid
Hypothesis
• Make an informed guess that is related to the investigative question
• The independent and dependent variables must be stated in terms of a
relationship to one another
• The constant variable must be included.
Aim
• This must clearly state what the experiment is about and the problem that you
want to solve or investigate.
• Refer to the variables
Method
• How the experiment is carried out in point form.
• A method must be numbered, accurate, step by step and brief.
• It must be in 3rd person, correctly so that anybody can repeat it.
Observation
• Everything you can experience in the experiment with your senses. Example:
What do you see, hear, smell, feel etc. No measured values are given here –
this belongs under your results.
Results
• We always use a table to record the raw data (not calculated values).
• In a table the heading must state the variable and the unit. Do not repeat the
units in the body of the table
• Headings must be informative.
• The table must be easy to read and logical.
Example:
The following table lists estimates of mass for different quantities of rice.
Number of grains Corresponding mass (in g)
400 7,00
200 3,50
100 1,75
800 14,00
1300 22,75
There is no order to the data. It is difficult to see that the mass increases as
the number of grains increase.
The following table shows the data ordered from the smallest to the largest
number of grains, and the corresponding order in the mass is more evident.
Number of grains Corresponding mass (in g)
100 1,75
200 3,50
400 7,00
800 14,00
1300 22,75
Interpretation of results
This includes:
• Calculations when appropriate
• Graphs when appropriate (see next section on graphing skills). Tip: ensure
that you have enough values to enable you to draw an accurate graph
• An explanation of the calculations and/or graphs
• Discussion of unexpected/incorrect results.
Conclusion
This is a short paragraph in which you refer to your results (i.e. mention values, etc.)
and summarise the findings you made under the interpretation.
The aim of the experiments is to develop scientific thinking skills. If your results are
not as expected you can still get good marks if you explain the errors correctly in
relation to the science you tested, e.g. determining the value for gravitational
acceleration can give errors as the object you drop has a lot of air resistance.
Graphs
You will often be required to deduce a relationship between two sets of
measurements, with a view to establishing a mathematical equation which relates
the quantities. It is easiest to do this by interpreting graphs. As you will encounter a
number of different kinds of relationships, we shall interpret the following imaginary
sets of results as example:
• Direct proportion
If one quantity is doubled the other is also doubled: four times one of the quantities
yields four times the other etc.
Consider the following table:
A B A
B
2 5 0,4
4 10 0,4
6 15 0,4
8 20 0,4
If we use the information in the above table to draw a graph of A versus B, we obtain
the following:
The two main characteristics of direct proportion are:
A graph of A against B yields a straight line passing through the origin.
A
= constant. Thus the value of A may be obtained by multiplying B by a constant k.
B
The symbolic representation of direct proportion is:
A B,
Or A = kB, where k is a constant of proportionality.
• Inverse proportion
In this case as one quantity increases, the other decreases proportionately. If one
quantity is halved, the other is doubled.
Consider the following table with quantities A and B.
A B 1 AB
B
1 24 0,042 24
2 12 0,083 24
3 8 0,125 24
4 6 0,167 24
6 4 0,250 24
8 3 0,333 24
12 2 0,500 24
24 1 1,000 24
If we use the information in the above table to draw a graph of A versus B, we
obtain:
25
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
The two main characteristics of inverse proportion are:
1
A graph of A against B yields a hyperbola, while a graph of A against yields a
B
straight line passing through the origin.
AB = constant. Thus the value of either quantity may be obtained by dividing this
constant by the value of the other quantity.
The symbolic representation of inverse proportion is:
1
A ,
B
k
Or A = , where k is a constant of proportionality.
B
• Gradient
y
From mathematics we know that the gradient = (y = mx + c)
x
Graphing
Pictures, histograms, graphs, and physical models often reveal things that tables do
not. Graphs are particular useful when you suspect a proportional relationship. A
graph can reveal many things if it is carefully prepared and the reader knows how to
interpret it.
The line drawn in the left figure predicts where data points would be if the masses of
actual rice samples were measured. The more points plotted to predict a line the
better the prediction. Once you are confident that enough points are plotted to locate
a line, you can use the graph to predict what a measurement would be without
bothering to measure it. The upward slope of the line in the left figure indicates that
the more grains you have, the greater the mass of the rice. This interpretation
certainly makes sense.
The figure on the left contradicts experience in that it is too good to be true. All data
points fall on the curve. This happens when data are artificial; it seldom happens with
real data. Real data come from measurements that are a little greater or less than
the actual value.
The figure on the right shows a graph of real data. The mass and volume of 18
pieces of glass were measured and used to plot the graph. A straight line was drawn
to predict where data points should be, even though the line does not pass through
all points representing actual, measurements. The line was drawn to represent best
what data would look like if there were no uncertainty in the measurements.
However, measurements are uncertain (not accurate).
Best – fit line
You have no way of knowing whether a measurement recorded is larger or smaller
than the true value. However, in making many measurements, you assume that
there will be as many measurements that are too large as there are measurements
too small. The change of error in either direction is the same. Consequently, when
the line is drawn to represent were points would be if there were no uncertainty in
them, it is drawn so there are as many points above the line as below it. The line is
also drawn so points that do not fall on the line are scattered along it. The line
describe is called the best fit for the data. In careful scientific work, mathematical
equations are used to indicate this best fit line. In this course, you will do it by eye.
Rules for Good Graphing
• Give your graph a descriptive title
The purpose of a graph is to communicate information in a concise manner. A
graph conveys little information if it is not labelled properly.
• Indent the axes from the edge of the graph paper
• Draw them with a ruler.
• Label each axis and indicate the units
Numbers along each axis are useless if you do not show what they represent.
• Numbers representing variables, which you change throughout an
experiment, are called independent variables. Independent variables are
labelled on the horizontal (x) axis. Variables that change because of the
changes in the independent variables are called dependent variables.
Dependent variables are labelled on the vertical (y) axis.
• Choose an appropriate scale
The scale should allow you to get all data on the graph. Check the largest and
smallest values to determine the range for each axis.
Always start at zero.
Maintain the same scale for the length of each axis, however the scale of the
axes do not have to be the same.
• Choose a convenient scale
A graph is easier to read (and plot) when each square (centimeter) represents
a value of 1, 2, 5 or a multiple of ten times these numbers: 10, 20, 50 or 0,2,
0,4.
• Draw a smooth curve or straight line to represent the general tendency of the
data (line of best fit)
Graphs drawn in maths classes represent absolute numbers, and each data
point falls on the curve being plotted. This situation is seldom the case in
science, where the data points represent experimental measurements. Data
points based on experimental measurements have uncertainty associated with
them and the line of best fit (as previously mentioned) must be used.
Uncertainty in measurement
The most common reason for uncertainty in measurement is that measuring tools
are limited. Each instrument is graduated according to a particular degree of
accuracy. For example, a meter-stick may be graduated in millimetres (mm), a
stopwatch in one-tenths of a second and a burette in one-tenths of a cubic
centimetre.
Never try to estimate accuracy between the markings on the scale when taking
readings. Let us consider an ammeter graduated in tenths of an ampere. This means
that the scale is accurate only to 0,1 A. If the needle lies more than halfway between
2,6 A and 2,7 A record the reading as 2,7 A.
Whenever an experiment is preformed there is some margin of error. This may result
from:
o an inaccurate reading of the apparatus used
o the use of poor quality apparatus
o measuring instrument which do not have a high degree of sensitivity or
accuracy.
It is not always possible to eliminate 1: the careful handling of apparatus and skill in
taking measurements come only with practice.
We are, however, able to explain 2 and 3. In a number of experiments which you
perform you will be asked to “discuss sources of error”. This is your opportunity to list
the inadequacies in the experimental arrangement and the apparatus used, and
perhaps to suggest methods of improving them.
When using apparatus, experimenters usually indicate the degree of accuracy of
each measurement. Thus if a stopwatch graduated in 0,1 s intervals is used to
measure a time interval, the result may be written t = 6,8 ±0,1 s.
