Heat Flow Basics for Architectural Calculations

By Dr John Straube, P.Eng., University of Waterloo, Canada

Heat always flows from hot cold.

1. DEFINITIONS
Temperature – a measure of thermal energy, units of Kelvin (K) or Celsius (C)
Conductivity – a material property, heat flow per unit area per unit thickness per unit
temperature, symbol k (W/m K)
Conductance – a property of a material layer, heat flow per unit area and temperature, symbol
C (W/m2 K) = conductivity k / thickness l (in meters)
Resistance – a property of a material layer or wall measured from surface to surface, equals
1/C , symbol RSI (m2 K /W)
Imperial value R (ft2•F•hr/Btu) = 5.678 RSI
Overall heat transfer coefficient – a property of an enclosure assembly, basically the thermal
conductance of an assembly, heat flow per unit area and temperature, symbol U, U =
1/Rtotal , units W/m2 K.

2. BASIC EQUATIONS
The conductance of a layer, if made of a single material, can be calculated from:
C=k/l
where
k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and
l is the length of the heat flow path, that is, the thickness of the layer.
For layers that have complex shapes, such as hollow concrete block, or composites of several
materials, the conductance is often derived from physical tests or detailed computer models
and reported in tables.

The R-value of a layer is often listed on a material, or calculated from:

R = 1 / C which therefore is l / k.

The thermal resistance of a multi-layer assembly of flat materials (most building enclosures),
can be calculated from
RT = R1 + R2 +… + Rn
where
RT is total thermal resistance of the assembly, and
R1 to Rn is the resistance of each of the building assembly’s layers, including
air films, air gaps, and solid materials.
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

The U-value is commonly used to describe the heat transmittance of an assembly, especially
windows and non-standard enclosures, and is defined simply as:
U = 1 / RT
Example: Given that the thermal conductivity of Type 4 extruded polystyrene (for example,
Styrofoam SM) is 0.029 W/mK, find the conductance and resistance of a layer 50 mm
thick in both imperial and metric units.
Answer:
Conductance = conductivity k / thickness l (in meters). 50 mm = 0.050 meters so …
C = 0.029 / 0.050 = 0.58 W / m2•K
this means, for example, that a one square meter panel of 50 mm thick Styrofoam
SM will allow 0.58 watts of energy to pass through it under a one degree Kelvin (or
Celsius) temperature change.
Resistance, RSI = 1 / conductance, so
C = 1 / 0.58 = 1.724 m2•K / W
Hence, a layer of SM would have a thermal resistance of RSI 1.724. If one were to
look in a building supply store, a sheet of 2” SM would be stamped with RSI1.76 or
R-10, since 2” sheets are slightly thicker than 50 mm (they are 50.8 mm). By the
way, a layer of 100 mm would have a thermal resistance of RSI3.45, eg twice the
thickness, twice the resistance (this does not work with conductance).
The thermal resistance in imperial R-value would be:
Imperial value R (ft2•F•r/Btu) = 5.678 RSI
Rimp = 5.678 * 1.724 = Rimp-9.8
Again, a full 2” thick sheet would have a slightly higher R-value of R10. Thus, one
often speaks of an “insulation value” of R5 per inch. Four inches, R20 for this layer,
1.5”, R7.5 for the layer.
Most building enclosures include more than just materials – they also include air spaces,
which are insulating. The heat transfer from the air next to the enclosure to the surface of the
enclosure is also not perfect. Hence, one needs to calculate the impact of this effect. These
complications are discussed next.

3. SURFACE FILMS
To account for both the radiation and convection heat transfer modes at the exterior and
interior surfaces of building components, radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients
are used in the form of an equivalent conductance or, alternatively, equivalent resistances.
These equivalent coefficients are termed surface film coefficients. It is important to recognize
that a surface film does not exist in reality. The term film is used simply so that a layer (of
indefinite thickness) can be added to a typical conductive heat flow analysis.

2
 Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

The resistance to heat flow at a surface is small relative to the heat flow resistance of most
modern wall assemblies and therefore need not be accurately estimated for most purposes.
Poorly insulated walls and windows have a lower overall thermal resistance and thus surface
effects are more important. Hence, a more precise calculation of surface films is justified for
these types of enclosures. The overall equivalent surface conductances, ho, or resistances in
Table 1 can be used to find heat flow without further modification.
Surface Position Flow Direction Resistance Conductance
2
Still Air (e.g. indoors) RSI [m K/W] R (imperial) [W/m2K]
Horizontal Upward 0.11 0.61 9.3
(i.e. ceilings
and floors) Downward 0.16 0.93 6.1
Vertical (i.e. walls) Horizontal 0.12 0.68 8.3
Moving Air (e.g. outdoors)
Stormy 6.7 m/s any 0.03 0.17 34
(winter)
Breeze 3.4 m/s any 0.04 0.25 23
(summer)
Average conditions any 0.06 0.33 17
Table 1: Equivelant Total Surface Film Conductances (ho)

4. PLANE AIR SPACES

Plane air spaces are commonly used in building assemblies. Heat is transferred across air
spaces by a combination of conduction through still air, convection flows, and by net
radiation from the warm side to the cold. The modes of heat transfer vary in importance
depending on: the emissivities of the surfaces, the thickness of the air space, and the absolute
and relative temperatures of the two surfaces.
The heat flow across a plane air space can be found with a reasonable degree of accuracy by
using detailed correlations of convection and radiation. However, a high degree of accuracy is
rarely necessary or justified in light of the many poorly known variables (e.g. variable cavity
3
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

widths, blocked cavities, etc.) and the relatively small influence that the airspace has on the
thermal resistance of modern enclosure assemblies. Simplified values for most practically
encountered situations are presented in Table 2. The values in Table 2 are also given in terms
of resistances so that they can be directly used in the heat flow equation.

Heat Transfer Across Plane Airspaces

Situation (non-reflective surfaces) RSI Value R-value

Heat Flow Down (3/4”-4”, 20-100 mm) 0.18 1.0

Heat Flow Across (3/4”-4”, 20-100 mm) 0.17 0.96
Heat Flow Up (3/4”-4”, 20-100 mm) 0.15 0.87
Reflective Surfaces (low emissivity)
Heat Flow Across (3/4”-4”, 20-100 mm) 0.60 3.5

Table 2: Thermal Resistance for non-reflective Enclosed Airspaces (RSI and R-value)
In many practical situations an air space is either intentionally or accidentally vented. Air
flow through an air space can change the heat flow characteristics, although significant flows
are required to modify the equivalent conductances listed above. In most cases, the effect of
venting enclosure assemblies can be ignored, and only in extreme cases does in need to be
accounted for. Extreme cases would includes highly ventilated attics (at least 1% venting
area) and cladding panels with both at least 2% vent area and cavities over 50 mm in size.

4
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

5. HOW TO CALCULATE THE "R VALUE" OF AN ENCLOSURE ASSEMBLY

Remember: one cannot add conductances, you must add resistances
1. List each material in the wall or roof, its conductivity (k) and its thickness (l) in m
2. Calculate the conductance of each layer (C) using C = k / l .
3. Calculate the thermal resistance of each layer using RSI = 1 / C
4. Sum the individual thermal resistances to get the answer.
Usually the thermal resistance of the air films that exist on both the interior and exterior
surfaces of an assembly are added to the wall as virtual layers. This makes our calculations
more accurate.
Example: Calculate the total thermal resistance (R) and overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
of the wall shown below. Use conductivity values from tabulated values.

Answer:
Layer Material Conductivity Thickness Conductance Resistance
Interior film note 1 N.A. N.A. 8.3 0.120
Concrete 1.8 0.150 12 0.083
Type 4 XPS 0.029 0.075 0.39 2.56
Air space note 2 N.A. 25 N.A. 0.17
Brick 1.3 0.090 14.4 0.069
note 1
Exterior film N.A. N.A. 34 0.029
RSI total 3.04
Overall Heat Transfer, U 0.33
Note 1: Table 1. Since the interior and exterior films are fictitious, they do not have a thickness, and so no
conductivity. Hence, tables typically contain only conductances or resistances for the layer. These
values can be quite variable, but as can be seen, the effect of the value of the film resistance on the total
resistance of a wall is small if the wall is a modern insulated assembly.

5
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

Note 2: Table 2. The flow of heat through an air space is complicated by convection (air flows) and radiation
and so tabulated values of conductance are used instead. Like surface films, the values are variable but
not important to accuracy in the calculation in most modern walls.
The total resistance is RSI3.04 (or imperial R 17.2), 84%of it provided by the insulation, and
heat flow will be 0.33 W/m2 K.
This method can be used to predict heat flow through walls, roofs, or foundations with
uninterrupted or “continuous insulation”. If insulation is installed between studs (wood or
steel), is penetrated by floor slabs, or extensive steel structure, thermal bridging must be
accounted for (see later in this document).

6. HOW TO CALCULATE THE STEADY-STATE HEAT FLOW THROUGH AN

ENCLOSURE SYSTEM

Heat flow across an assembly is simply the temperature difference divided by the true R-value
times the area. The temperature difference is usually just (tinside – toutside).
1. Find the total thermal resistance of the enclosure as described earlier.
2. Find the overall heat transfer coefficient U, using U = 1/Rtotal
3. Multiply the temperature difference across the assembly by U, i.e., U*(tinside – toutside)
Of course if the sun is shining on the wall, the outdoor air temperature is not the correct one
to use, (the actual solar heated surface temperature is more accurate, but difficult to find
sometimes – use the table provided later for guidance).
The effect of heat storage, or thermal mass, can be important for some walls since heavy
mineral-based materials can store a lot of heat: see the section on thermal mass later.
Example: Calculate the amount of heat flow through the wall of the previous example when it
-10 C outside with no sun and 20 C inside.
Heat flow = U *( tinside – toutside)
= 0.33 (20 -10) = 0.33 (30)
= 10 W/m2
Ans. Heat flow outward would be 10 W/m2.

7. ASSESSING ENERGY LOSS DUE TO AIR LEAKAGE

If warm/cold air leaks out of the building in winter/summer, it is of course replaced with
exterior cold/hot air. This cold/hot air must be heated/cooled to make it comfortable indoors.
The energy impact of air leakage is significant and must be considered since it is often an
important heat loss/gain component of modern buildings. It can be included by calculating an
equivalent heat loss coefficient for air leakage. This can be found from:
Uair = 0.3 * n * V
Where Uair is the heat loss coefficient due to air leakage (W/ C)
n is the number of complete air changes per hour ( ACH)
V is the total air volume of the building (in m3)
Uair can be included in calculations just like Uwall or Uwindow.

6
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

8. HOW TO CALCULATE THE STEADY-STATE HEAT FLOW THROUGH A

BUILDING SYSTEM
The easiest means of estimating heat flow through an entire building is to
1. Calculate and then list the U-value for each element (wall, roof, window, door) along with
the area of that element
2. The product of each elements' area and its U-value is the heat loss coefficient for that
enclosure element per unit temperature difference (SI units: W/C)
4. The sum of these products is the overall heat loss coefficient for the building.
5. To find the overall heat loss (or gain) multiply the overall heat loss coefficient for the
building by the temperature difference across the assembly.

Example: An industrial "big box" store is 8 m high, 32 m long and 64 m wide.

The enclosure has a lightweight roof (U=0.36 W/m2/C and ) and precast concrete
walls (U=0.4 W/m2/C). The front of the store (which faces west) has a 6 m high by
24 m long glass curtainwall with a U-value of 2.0 W/m2/C. Six loading doors are at
the back, each 5 m high and 3.5 m wide with a U-value of 1.0. The building is
estimated to leak at 0.5 ACH under normal conditions.
Ignoring the effect of the floors, sun, and any other doors, find the heating
requirements when it is -10 C.
Answer:
See the sketch of the building for details of the areas.
Air leakage Heat loss: 0.3 n V = 0.3 (0.50) (16384) = 2458 W/C.
Enclosure Area U Value Q Heat Loss % Total
Component (m2) (W/m2/C) (W/C) Heat Loss

Walls 1287 0.40 515 13%

Roof 2048 0.36 737 18%
Doors 105 1.0 105 3%
Curtain Wall 144 2.0 288 7%
Air Leakage from above 2458 60%
Overall Building Heat Loss Coefficient (Uo) 4103 W/C
Therefore, the total heat loss can be seen to be 4103 W per degree Celsius difference. For an
outdoor temperature of -10 C, indoors of 20 C, the difference is 30 C, and total heat loss is
123 kW.
The relative impact of each building component can also be seen. For this building type, the
U-value of the enclosure is unimportant relative to the impact of air leakage. It should also be
noted that the lights and equipment and people in the store may consume 30 W/m2 of
electricity in retail applications, all of which is converted to heat. Hence, if we assume an
average energy use of 30 W/m2, the interior heat gains would be:
2048 m2 x 30 W/m2 = 61440 W

7
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

This energy will offset the losses of 123 kW, but a heating system of some type would be
needed to make up the remaining need (123-61) = 62 kW. In normal practice, engineers
assume all the energy inside a building is not available to provide heating. This was
acceptable in the days of poorly insulated enclosures, with modest interior heat gains, but
becomes a questionable assumption in highly insulated buildings.

Building Volume
=32x64x8
=16384

Roof Surface Area

=32x64
=2048 m2

Curtain Wall Surface Area

=24x6
=144 m2

Door Surface Area

=6(3.5x5)
=105 m2

Wall Surface Area

=(64x8)2+(32x8)2-(105+144)
=1024+512-105-144
=1287 m2

Building Surface Area

=2048+144+105+1287
=3584m2

8
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

9. HOW TO ESTIMATE ANNUAL HEATING ENERGY

An approximate method, widely used before hourly computer simulations were available, is
the Heating Degree Day method. This approach assumes that heating must be provided to a
building below some temperature, called the balanced temperature. Above the balance
temperature, heat from occupants, lighting, equipment, etc., makes up for heat loss. In the
50’s and 60’s, the balance temperature of poorly insulated houses was assumed to be 18 C
(65 F), and that of offices (with the very high lighting use) was assumed to be 10 C. Today
well-insulated houses and offices will tend to have a balance temperature of around 10C (50
F). Climate data is widely available for many locations which identifies Heating Degree
Days, a number that is the sum of each day of the year of the difference between the balance
temperature and the average outdoor temperature for that day.
To estimate annual space heating energy then,
Eannual = Uo * 24 hrs/day * HDD
If the units of Uo are in W/C, then the result will be in Watt-hours per year. If Uo is in
Btu/F, then the results will be in Btu per year.

9
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

Material Density Conductivity Conductance Range

(kg/m3) Range (W/m K) (W/m2 K)
Board / sheet products
Plywood 400 - 600 0.08 - 0.11
OSB 575 - 725 0.09 - 0.12
Waferboard 0.1
Hardboard 0.105
Vegetable Fiberboard 270 - 300 0.045 - 0.07
Particleboard 590 0.102
Particleboard 1000 0.17
Strawslab 260 - 350 0.085 - 0.11
Corrugated Metal Deck negligible
Finishes
Ceramic Tiles 1
Acoustic Tiles - fibreboard 0.065
Acoustic Tiles - glassfibre 0.036
Gypsum Board 800 - 900 0.16
Sand Plaster / Lath 0.71
Gypsum plaster / Lath 0.16 - 0.35
Sand :Cement plaster 1570 0.53
Gypsum plaster w/perlite 720 0.22
Gypsum plaster w/sand 1680 0.8
Carpet Fibrous Underlay 2.73
Carpet Rubber Underlay 4.42
Terrazzo 1.8
Hardwood Flooring 0.16
Siding / Cladding
Hardboard siding 640 0.094
Wood Siding - lap 0.1 - 0.12
Plywood Siding 0.09
Face Brick - clay 2000 1.3
Face Brick - concrete 2200 1.9
Metamorphic Stone 2600 - 3000 2 - 2.8
Sedimentary Stone 2200 - 2600 2.1 - 2.3
Metal vinyl clapboard/V-groove 8
Metal - flush installed 40 - 80 0 negligible
Cement Stucco 1800 0.7 - 1.4
Structural Materials
Softwood lumber 510 0.1 - 0.14
Hardwood Lumber 720 0.15 - 0.18
Cedar Logs and Lumber 0.098 - 0.12
Concrete 2400 1.4 - 2.6
Concrete (limestone) 1920 1.1 - 1.3
Concrete (light) 1300 0.5 - 0.7
Aerated Concrete 400 0.12 - 0.15
Aerated Concrete 600 0.18 - 0.2
Carbon Steel 7680 40 - 80
Aluminum 2800 160 - 200
Cement Mortar 1800 0.8
Concrete Block 200 mm 5.1
Lt. Wt. Concrete Block, 200 mm 2.84

10
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

Concrete Block, 100 mm 8

Hollow tile, 100 mm 5.5
Durisol 400 - 500 0.072 - 0.085
Adobe 1400 - 1800 0.4 - 0.8
Clay Straw (function of density) 600 - 1400 0.15 - 0.5
Cement-bonded rice husk 720 0.15
Wood fibre and cement 1550 0.32
Insulations
EPS Type 1 16 0.039
EPS Type 2 24 - 32 0.034
EXPS Type 3 and 4 0.029
Batt Insulation 0.036 - 0.048
Rigid Mineral Fiber 0.03 - 0.04
Rigid Fibrous Roof Insulation 0.036
Rigid Polyurethane 0.024
Rigid Polyisocyanurate 0.023 - 0.029
Phenolic Foam (closed cell) 0.017 - 0.02
Urea Formaldehyde 0.031 - 0.032
Fibreboard 270 0.052
Cellulose Fibre 37 - 51 0.039 - 0.046
Sawdust 145 - 160 0.05 - 0.08
Strawbale 120 - 200 0.06 - 0.075
Corkboard 145 0.042
Sprayed Asbestos 0.05
Vermiculite, exfoliated 64 130 0.06 - 0.07
Perlite, expanded 800 0.2 - 0.26
Perlite, expanded 320 0.07 - 0.08
Perlite, bonded/expanded 16 0.052
Eel Grass batt 145 - 215 0.043 - 0.049
Jute Resin bonded 420 0.065
Peat slab 240 - 480 0.058 - 0.101
Sheeps Wool, fluffy 50 0.045
Roof Materials
Built-up Bitumen Roofing 0.17
Asphalt Shingles 12.9
Wood Shingles 6
Crushed Stone 1.60
Thatch-Straw 240 0.07
Thatch-Reed 270 0.09
Other Materials
Fresh Snow 190 0.19
Compacted Snow 400 0.43
Ice at -1 and -20 C 920 2.24 - 2.45
Water at 20 C 1000 0.60
Earth, dry to damp 1400 - 2000 0.80 - 2.00
Sand dry 1400 0.30 - 0.80
Air, still (conduction only) 1.2 0.03
Glass, soda lime 2500 0.80 - 1.00
Copper 380
Lead 35
Brass 120
Nickel 60
Rubber 0.2
11
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

12
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

10. THERMAL BRIDGES

Heat flow deviates from one-dimensional at corners, parapets, intersections between different
assemblies, etc. When heat flows at a much higher rate through one part of an assembly than
another, the term thermal bridge is used to reflect the fact that the heat has bridged over /
around the thermal insulation. Thermal bridges become important when:
 they cause cold spots within an assembly that might cause performance (e.g., surface
condensation), durability or comfort problems
 they are either large enough or intense enough (highly conductive) that they affect the
total heat loss through the enclosure
All enclosures should be designed to avoid a large number and large thermal bridges. The
most effective solution, exterior layers of continuous insulation (i.e., insulating wall
sheathings) are quite useful for “blunting” thermal bridges and also offer improved resistance
to exfiltration condensation in cold weather.
Thermal bridging, especially by steel framing, or at the intersection of wall corners with roofs
and floors, projecting structural elements like balconies and perimeter slabs often causes cold
interior surface temperatures and thus condensation. Attached figures provide a schematic of
how temperatures at studs and near corners can cause low surface temperatures. In the case of
the steel framing shown, an exterior temperature of –10 C can result in interior surface
temperatures of 5 to 10 C at studs, and below freezing at floor to wall corners.
The R-value of walls with insulation (of any type) installed between framing, and penetrated
by floor assemblies can be significantly compromised. Wood frame systems will often
experience R-value reductions of 25 to 30% compared to the nominal value. Light-gauge
steel framed systems regularly experience reductions of 60 to 75%. A commercial steel stud
system can be considered to be a single “layer”, and the heat flow through the studs
calculated. The values for several common steel studs systems are listed below. The thermal
resistance of interior and exterior sheathing, finishes, cladding, exterior insulation and air
films can be added to these values to predict the overall system R-value.
Cavity Depth (in) Rated Cavity Eff R-value Eff RSI
R-value @16in centers @405mm centers
2.5 empty 0.75 0.13
3.5 empty 0.79 0.14
3.5 R-13 6.0 1.06
3.5 R-15 6.4 1.13
6.0 empty 0.84 0.15
6.0 R-19 7.1 1.25
6.0 R-21 7.4 1.31
6.0 R-24 (4" ccSPF) 7.6 1.34

Figure 1: Effective layer Clear-wall R-value for light gauge steel framing
Almost all continuous insulations are, in practice, penetrated by screws, discrete ties, and
other point fasteners. Typical use of wire ties for masonry or sheet metal clips degrade
performance by perhaps 2 to 5%. However, continuous cold-formed steel Z-girts reduce the
performance by 50% or more and should be avoided.
13
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

Table 3: The thermal bridging impacts of steel stud vs wood stud

14
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

15
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

16
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

11.SOLAR HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS

When analyzing buildings for solar heat gain (beneficial in winter, usually not in summer),
solar heat gain is important to assess. Solar heating of surfaces is discussed in Section 11, and
this information can be used to predict heat flow through opaque enclosure elements under
extreme conditions. This type of heat gain is usually a small fraction of the heat gain through
the walls of most buildings. The cooling load of most buildings is controlled by direct solar
gain through the windows.
The fraction of incident solar radiation that passes through a window as heat is termed the
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC). The SHGC is a property of windows that should be
specified by the designer, and is readily available from most manufacturers. Hence, the solar
heat gain through windows facing one direction is
Qsolar = A * Isolar * SHGC
Where A is the area of windows (m2), and
Isolar is the intensity of incident solar radiation on the surface (W/m2).
Table 4 provides an estimate of the incident solar radiation on a vertical surface for four
orientations and four months: detailed values are available from numerous engineering
textbooks.
Month South North West/East
Jan 21 870 70 493
April 21 622 131 753
July 21 494 167 722
October 21 829 92 603
Table 4: Representative “Clear Day” Solar radiation on vertical surfaces at their peak
hour for 44N Latitude (W/m2).
Clear glass, single pane 0.75
Double paned insulated glazing unit 0.66
Double, low-e, argon or air filled 0.55
“Solar Control” low-e IGU 0.25 to 0.40
Reflective coatings, double IGU 0.10 to 0.20
Triple, 2 low-e coatings, passive solar 0.45 to 0.55
Representative SHGC for glazings.

17
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

12.THERMAL MASS
Thermal mass acts to store and release thermal energy (heat). Thermal mass is almost always
beneficial for buildings with near constant interior temperature. For buildings with aggressive
setback temperatures or long periods of unoccupied hours, thermal mass can cause control
difficulties and may even increase energy consumption.
For high performance buildings, the overall heat loss coefficient is low enough that the
thermal mass of typical construction is quite substantial: if heating is removed it can take
hours for the temperature to drop by one degree. In many high-performance buildings setback
schedules will not work because the building does not cool down to the setback temperature
before the temperature is set up again. This has the major advantage that a super insulated
building can survive many times longer than normal buildings in the event of a power outage.
Thermal mass is often desirable to store solar heat gains and internal heat generation from
occupancy during the day, and release it during the evening. This is one of the basic tenents
of passive solar design. The limit to this strategy in all types of buildings is the rate at which
heat gain can be transferred to the thermal mass during sunny period (without overheating)
not the amount of thermal mass. Because the heat loss of high performance buildings is so
small, increasing thermal mass is often not useful unless the rate of heat transfer to the
thermal mass is increased. This latter goal can be achieved by increasing the surface area of
mass (e.g mass more than 2 to 4” thick take too long to charge), by ensuring that the mass is
not covered by insulating or thermally lightweight finishes, and by encouraging airflow from
the heated zone to remote thermal mass in other zones.
For ultra-low energy use buildings, thermal mass can be a powerful and often necessary
strategy. However, it is a design strategy that is difficult to use because of the complexity of
assessing actual dynamic building use, heat transfer to and from mass, the temperature swing
acceptable to the occupants and other poorly characterized variables.

18
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

13.RADIATION-INDUCED EXTERIOR SURFACE TEMPERATURES

Radiation, either solar heating by the sun or cooling by radiation to the night-sky, can have a
very significant influence on the thermal exposure of the building envelope. Although rarely
warranted, detailed procedures can be used to relatively accurately calculate, in terms of
energy transfer rates (e.g. W/m2), the effect of solar heating and night-sky cooling on
enclosure surface temperatures.
It is often convenient to have simple equivalent temperatures that can be entered directly into
a standard conductive heat flow analysis. When an equivalent air temperature is used, the
temperature is termed the sol-air temperature. This procedure has the drawback that air
temperature is no longer realistic and the advantage that surface films play a role in the
definition of the temperature. The value for the overall surface film coefficient is often
assumed to be 17 W/m2·ºC although this coefficient is quite variable, especially if the surface
becomes hot. In fact, under solar-heating, the coefficient is likely to be as much as two times
larger.
A simple and equally realistic approach is to use approximate surface temperatures. Table 5
is a compilation of the most useful approximate surface temperatures based on calculation
(using refined surface heat transfer coefficients) and supported by several years of field
measurements.

Situation Thermally Massive Thermally Lightweight

Roofs: direct sun ta + 42  ta + 55 
roof: sun plus reflected ta + 55  ta + 72 
/ emitted radiation
roof exposed to night-sky ta - 5  ta - 10 
walls: winter sun ta + 35  ta + 48 
walls: summer sun ta + 28  ta + 40 
walls exposed to night sky ta - 2  ta - 4 
Notes: All values are for approximately 35º-55º North. ta refers to the ambient air temperature,  is the surface
emmittance, and  is the solar absorptance. The emmittance is about 0.90 for most materials. The absorptance
varies with colour from about 0.3 for white/beige objects to 0.65 for forest green to 0.95 for flat black.
Thermally massive refers to walls with a significant amount of thermal storage capacity (e.g. brick veneer or
equivalent) outside of a low conductance material (e.g. insulation). Walls with significantly more mass (e.g.
multi-wythe brick, rubble) or less insulation (U > 1 W/m2/ºC) will be less affected. Vinyl, metal and EIFS are
lightweight walls; other walls can be interpolated based on heat capacity. The values for are for likely clear
night or sunny day maximums and apply to east/west orientations in summer and south orientations in the
winter.
Table 5: Approximate Radiation-Induced Surface Temperatures (ºC)
Example
If the example wall in Section 3 were exposed to bright sun on a -10 C day, the
temperature of a very dark, lightweight, south-facing surface would be expected to be
as much as 48*1 = 48 C above the air temperature (see Table 5 later in this document).
For this example, we will assume dark thermally-massive red brick (absorptance
=0.85) and thus estimate a surface temperature of about 35 * 0.85 = 30 C above the air
temperature. This means:
19
Heat Flow Basics www.LearnBuildingScience.com

Heat flow = U * (tinside – toutside) = 0.33 [20 -(-10+30)] = 0.33 (0)

= 0 W/m2
Ans. If the wall were facing south, dark red, thermally massive, and exposed to bright
sunshine, the heat flow would be approximately zero.

20