Areas of Application of

Environmental Psychology UNIT 7 DISASTERS, TOXIC HAZARDS, AND

POLLUTION*
Structure

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Natural Disasters
7.1.1 Definition and Characteristics
7.1.2 Categories of natural disasters
7.1.3 Causes of Natural Disasters
7.2 Perception and Effects ofNatural Disasters
7.3 Environmental Theories and Disasters
7.4 Technological Catastrophes
7.4.1 Effects of technological disasters
7.5 Toxic exposure from industries, occupation, and household wastes
7.6 Air pollution and Behavior.
7.7 Role and functions of disaster management agencies in India
7.8 From Disaster to Resilience
7.9 Summary
7.10 Keywords
7.11 Review Questions
7.11 Reference and Further Reading
7.12 Additional Online Resources
Learning Objectives
After having read this Unit, you will be able to,
 Explain the meaning, categories and causes of natural disasters
 Gain insight into the perception and effects of natural disasters
 Discuss the effect of toxic and non-hazardous wastes
 Elucidate the effect of technological disasters and air pollution on behaviour
 Appreciate the roles and functions of disaster management agencies in India,
and
 Analyse the startegies to build more resilient communities in the wake of
disasters

7.0 INTRODUCTION
Disasters are a complex worldwide crisis. It is an inevitable truth of nature, which
cannot be prevented, only managed. Every year, millions of individuals and hundreds
of communities get affected by different types of disasters all around the world. Such a

*
146 Ishita Chatterjee, Department of Applied Psychology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata.
crisis situation not only impacts their physical health and surroundings, but also disrupts Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
their mental health and well-being. Global economic and social development is frequently
deterred by natural and man-made disasters. Further, developing countries are more
prone to profound damage inflicted by disasters and environmental hazards. This is
due to the various challenges such countries face, like extreme hunger and poverty,
resource-crunch, poor educational facilities, lack of infrastructure, unavailability of skilled
manpower, lack of awareness and limited knowledge of disaster mental health. In this
Unit, we expand our understanding on the meaning, characteristics and causes of natural
disasters. Perception, effects and theoretical perspectives on disasters will be
introduced. Finally, the roles and functions of varous stakeholders in disaster
management will be discussed.

7.1 NATURAL DISASTERS

7.1.1 Definition and Characteristics
We are all familiar with environmental calamities that result in excessive property
destruction, human life loss, or both. Untold human agony has been brought by
earthquakes, tornadoes, floods, fires, storms, and avalanches. Although disasters caused
by naturally occurring phenomena usually have minimal human involvement, there are
moments when natural events and our impact on the environment intersect. A disaster
is anything that has extremely bad implications for individuals who are impacted by it
and is caused by the interaction of natural and societal events (Veitch and Arkkelin,
1995) This definition recognizes that a natural event is only a disaster if it has an impact
on humans.A natural disaster is a major calamity caused by the earth’s natural processes.
Characteristics of natural disastersNatural disasters are distinguished by the
following characteristics:
 They occur suddenly.
 They are usually unpredictable, and even when we have some advance notice,
we donot always know when the event will occur or what will happen.
 They are out of control
 They are incredibly powerful
 They are frequently acute, meaning they last only a few minutes rather than
days (Oliver, 2008)
Some examples of natural disastersare tornadoes, severe storms, hurricane, tropical
storms, floods, wildfires, earthquakes, droughts, volcanic eruption, tsunami,
andlandslide.

7.1.2 Categories of Natural Disasters

The natural disaster category is generally divided into six groups of disasters, namely,
biological, geophysical, metrological, hydrological, climatological, and extra-terrestrial.
a. Biological disaster – Biological disasters are natural events that result in
widespread disease, disability, or death among humans, animals, and plants
as a result of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, or poisons.Examples
are, dengue, malaria, meningitis, HIV, Bird flu, Swine flu, Cholera, etc. 147
Areas of Application of b. Geophysical disasters– They are potentially damaging natural events and/
Environmental Psychology
or phenomenathat may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social
and economic disruption, or natural degradation, extreme natural hazards are
pre-manifestation of the complex, hierarchal and non-linear earth systems.
Examplesare, Volcanic eruption, earthquakes, landslides, mudflows, etc.
c. Metrological disasters – These are caused by extreme weather such as
rain, drought, snow, extreme heat or cold, ice or wind.Examples of weather
disasters embrace blizzards, cyclones, hailstorms, heat waves, hurricanes,
floods, and tornadoes.
d. Hydrological disasters – A hydrological disaster is a violent, sudden, and
destructive change either in the quality of earth’s water or in the distribution of
the movement of water on land, below the sea-level or in the atmosphere.
Examples are, floods, limnic eruptions (eruption of carbon dioxide present in
the deep waters of a lake that creates gas cloud), puddle, landslides.
e. Climatological disasters – These are events that are brought about by drastic
fluctuations of the climate states and variabilities. Or, these are a phenomenon
that is a result of climate fluctuations that shift outside of their normal state to
different factors that impact the climate. Examples areElNino Southern
Oscillation, La Nina, enhanced greenhouse effect (climate change), acid
deposition, ozone depletion.
f. Extra-terrestrial disasters – These are hazards caused by asteroids,
meteorites, and comets as they pass near Earth, enter the earth’s atmosphere,
and/or strike the earth. They cause changes in interplanetary conditions that
affect the earth magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere. Examples are,
meteorites, interstellar dust, explosion from comets, nuclear accidents in space.

Figure 7.1 Natural Disasters

Source: https://www.ncei.noaa.gov

7.1.3 Causes of Natural Disasters

Earthquakes, flooding, volcanic eruptions, landslides, hurricanes, and other natural
calamities can all contribute to a natural disaster. To be classified as a disaster, it must
have a significant environmental impact, as well as human loss and, in many cases,
148 financial loss.
Natural disasters are caused by natural events such as extreme weather conditions or Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
movements of the earth’s surface that tend to be localized in certain areas of the world,
and they are remembered vividly because of their dramatic nature. For example,
Hurricanes form over moisture-rich oceans and coastlines, such as the Atlantic Ocean,
Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico, whereas earthquakes occur along fault lines in
the earth’s crust.
Avalanches of snow or excessive rainfall leading to flooding can also cause disasters;
the magnitude of the disaster may be exacerbated by human intervention in some areas,
but humans are not directly responsible for the events(Oliver, 2008). Soil erosion,
seismic activity, tectonic movements, air pressure, and ocean currents, among other
factors, all contribute to natural disasters. The main causes of these disasters are natural
activities occurring in the earth’s crust as well as on the surface.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Enlist the major characteristics of natural disasters.
.......................................................................................................................
2. Give some examples of natural disasters that have been recent.
.......................................................................................................................
3. Briefly describe the 6 categories of natural disasters.
.......................................................................................................................

7.2 PERCEPTION AND EFFECTS OFNATURAL

DISASTERS
Perception of natural hazards and disasters involve intuitive judgments, beliefs, and
attitudes adopted by individuals and groups of people about the likelihood and
occurrence, and mechanism of development of such phenomenon. The subjective nature
of the understanding of natural hazards influences people’s decisions.
Risk perception is influenced by many factors which are firstly related to the nature of
the hazard itself and secondly to psychological, social, and cultural components and
their mutual interactions. In the case of natural hazards, risk perception analysis has to
take into account that they vary immensely from certain events such as flash floods,
avalanches, or earthquakes to long-lasting phenomena such as heatwaves and droughts.
Most comparative studies focus on human-induced dangers whereas risk perception
of natural hazards has been researched less.
Some limitations of human risk perceptions are related to psychological mechanisms.
Natural disasters may cause unpleasant feelings of anxiety and lack of sense of
security.For this reason, each individual’s emotional and psychological traits have an
impact on their perception.
Effects of Natural Disasters
Natural disasters generally affect the physical infrastructural facilities, agricultural
productivity, and even lead to loss of life and cause property damage. Various factors
influence the effects that are disastrous for a country, like the magnitude of the disaster
149
Areas of Application of and geographic location of the affected area and recovery efforts directed towards
Environmental Psychology
reducing immediate effects of a disaster.Failure to mitigate various short term economic
effects of a disaster affects the long-term economy of the country. The primary effects
are direct results of a natural disaster such as collapsed buildings and waste damage.
Secondary effects are the result of primary effects. The effect of natural disasters is
both short-term including loss of life and damage to property and long-term affecting
the economic stability of a region or a country.

7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES AND DISASTERS

Over the centuries there have been four fundamental theories about the disaster, which
have conceived disasters as acts of fate/acts of God, acts of nature, joint effects of
nature and society, and social construction, respectively. Let us explore them.
Acts of fate/acts of God For millennia, disasters were considered to arise from
impersonal and uncontrollable sources either from unfortunate alignments of stars and
planets or acts of God that were beyond human understanding. Both forms of this
theory viewed disasters as predetermined and thus completely beyond the victim’s
control. A variation on this theory was that disasters were cosmic or divine retribution
for human failings- personal disasters for personal failings, and collective disasters for
societal failings.
Acts of Nature Overtime increased scientific knowledge led many people to substitute
natural causes for supernatural ones.Thus floods occur because of a large amount of
rainfall from a serious form exceeded capacity to absorb it.Accordingly the term natural
disaster came to refer to an outside attack upon social systems that broke down in the
face of such assaults(Quarantelli, 1998).
Joint effects of Nature and Society It was proposed that hazards arise from the
interaction of a physical event system and human use system.Thus, it takes both the
hazardous event system and the vulnerable human use system to produce disaster
According to this view, human societies adapt to the prevailing environmental conditions,
e.g.,temperature, wind speed, precipitation, seismic activities, at a given location.
Unfortunately, they fail to anticipate the variations in those environmental conditions;
consequently, their adaptation to normal conditions usually is inadequate for extreme
events – blizzards, heat waves, tornadoes, hurricanes, and floods.
Social Constructions Most recently researchers have recognized that disasters are
quite systematic in the types of people they harm aswell as the type of geographical
location and use systems they impact.While the interactive theory is concernedwith
hazard-exposure at specific locations and physical vulnerability of specific structures,
the social construct theory calls attention to the social vulnerability of specific population
segments. To say that hazard vulnerability is socially constructed does not mean that
people are vulnerable because they think the wrong thoughts, as most people would
categorize the belief that floods are caused by alignments of planets and stars. Rather,
socially vulnerable population segments emerge because their psychological,
demographical, economical, and political processes tend to produce them.
Check Your Progress 2
1. What are the major effects of natural disasters?
.......................................................................................................................
150
2. What does the join effects of natural and society theory propose? Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
.......................................................................................................................
3. Which theory of environmental disaster has been propagated from ages?
.......................................................................................................................

7.4 TECHNOLOGICAL CATASTROPHES

A technological disaster or catastrophe is an event caused by a malfunction of a
technological structure and/or some human error in controlling or handling the technology.
Technological disasters are classified as man-made catastrophes since they have an
“identifiable cause” feature. As a result of this trait, the impact on communities is
frequently more negative. The consequences of a tragedy on families and people can
be long-lasting and persist for years. Symptoms, on the other hand, may arise gradually
and the effects may not be seen right away.
Bhopal Gas tragedy can be considered to be an example of a technological disaster. It
occurred in December 1984 in Bhopal and still terrorizes people because toxic Methyl
Isocyanate (MIC) leaked from the Union Carbide factory. The gas spread out silently,
engulfing the highly inhabited neighborhoods surrounding the factory.People awoke
gasping for air and dashed outside, only to inhale more of the lethal gas. Many people
perished while sleeping, while others became blind. Several people developed post-
traumatic ailments over time, and many continue to do so now. This was one of the
deadliest chemical disasters in history, with over 10,000 people killed (the exact figure
is unknown) and over 5.5 million people afflicted and suffering from excruciating injuries.
The catastrophe occurred as a result of human error and poor manufacturing supervision.
Unfortunately, numerous industries in India continue to operate with little government
pressure on the implementation of safety standards as spelled out by the authorities in
their Standard Operating Procedures.

Box 7.1 Chernobyl Disaster

Chernobyl disaster is one the wrost nuclear disasters that occurred in the
Chernobyl nulear power station in the erstwhile Soviet Union on April 25 and
26, 1986. Human mistakes combined with others, resulted in several massive
explosions. Many people contracted radiationsickness and many of them
succumbed to radiation-induced illnesses as well as cancer in the long term.
Large amount of radiactive material was released into the atmosphere, millions
of acres of forests were destroyed, livestock were born with deformities, and
humans suffered negative impact on both their physical and mental health.Such
incidents highlight about the decision-making process and its related
consequences.

Technological disasters can be further sub-divided into:

 Industrial (chemical spills, collapse, explosion, fire, gas leak, poisoning,
radiation, and others)
 Transport (air, rail, road, water, miscellaneous accidents, fire collapse,
explosion, and others) 151
Areas of Application of 7.4.1 Effects of technological disasters
Environmental Psychology
Technological disasters are especially stressful because they are unpredictable.
Individuals, families, and communities are affected. Some of the results include income
loss, loss of job security, uncertainties about the future, family conflict, and stress.
Several publications were generated in the aftermath of several disasters in the mid-
1980s, which began to pinpoint the implications for individuals. It became clear that
there were unanticipated effects. Following a traumatic occurrence, shock, sadness,
and psychological disruption are to be expected. However, researchers at the Institute
of Psychiatry in London, such as James Thompson, revealed two major “surprising”
findings. To begin with, psychological effects were not always instantaneous and generally
did not manifest until several months following the occurrence, which might be as long
as 9-12 months in certain circumstances. Second, the repercussions were comparable
to and as severe for personnel on the scene as they were for direct survivors who had
been directly involved in the incident. The latter result led to the understanding that
delayed, severe, and long-term impacts were both prevalent and routine for workers
involved in lesser incidents, such as road traffic accidents. This has far-reaching
ramifications for emergency personnel’s training and support systems. Indeed, it is
now widely acknowledged that simply viewing disaster coverage on television or being
aware of terrible events in one’s neighborhood can cause psychological anguish. What
is evident is that (a) disasters affect a significant number of people; (b) these
consequences are not restricted to large-scale events, and (c) we donot know the full
scope of these effects.
Furthermore, it became evident, at least in the United Kingdom, that rescue services
and psychological support services were not fully prepared to deal with such widespread
trauma. Attempts to comprehend and cope with the psychological response to
catastrophes, as well as attempts to understand the causes of technical disasters and
accidents in terms of human mistakes and person-machine interaction, provide
psychological input.
The literature has concentrated on three groups in order to understand the psychological
impacts observed: survivors, bereaves, and employees involved at the scene. Much of
what we know now comes from crisis response, where psychologists worked with
people who had been involved in severe disasters. The Centre for Crisis Psychology in
Yorkshire (UK), directed by Peter Hodgkinson and Micheal Stewart, has demonstrated
such a response. These workers have supplied a wealth of knowledge based on their
own experience, but clearly, there is still much more to be done.
Those who survive disasters are commonly referred to as victims, and there are two
points worth emphasizing about this term. First, it emphasizes the fact that the
consequences are extreme, and that many people who lived through the event do not
survive. To survive is to return to a relatively normal existence similar to that which
existed before the disaster, and many people do not make it. Second, some researchers
oppose to the term victim because it suggests helplessness and an incapacity to recover
on the part of the person and have instead suggested using the term catastrophe impacted
person, which has a less negative connotation.
Robert Jay Lifton, who interviewed some of the Hiroshima survivors retrospectively in
1967, is credited as being the first to study the psychological impact of disasters.
According to Lifton, death imprint refers to a tendency to release the experience in
152
vivid flashbacks, either awake or asleep, as if the imprint of the event has been indefinitely Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
stamped on the mind:regret forliving when others died, as well as guilt over not doing
enough to save others. The repression of sentiments and emotions concerning the
occurrence is referred to as a psychic number, as if a feeling has been fully switched off.
The inclination to be furious and irritated with offers of aid that one believes others truly
donot understand, as well as the isolation of one of the most powerful mediators of the
process, social support, are referred to as nurture and conflicts. The desperate and
continuous search for meaning, which contradicts completely the construction of reality,
which is to some extent predictable, controllable, and with some degree of scrutiny
after such an event, it is difficult to believe in anything. This quest can be positive if it
leads to working through and acceptance of the event.
Guidelines for Coping with Stress in the Event of a Technological Disaster
Individuals need to take the following steps:
 Maintain as much of a routine as possible.
 Reduce the amount of media coverage of the event.
 Maintain a healthy lifestyle and discover healthy ways to relieve stress, such
as going outside, exercising, and completing stress-relieving exercises.
 To have a better understanding of the situation, look for reliable sources of
information.
 Speak with someone you can trust.
 Maintain an optimistic attitude: you will get through this!
 If you are sad, nervous, or having difficulties controlling your emotions, seek
professional treatment.
The following steps need to be taken by couples:
 Talk about what they are going through with each other.
 Please be patient with one another.
 If you lose your job, talk about how you will pay your bills and make a plan.
 If the relationship is too stressful, seek counseling.
 The effect of any crisis on children is largely determined by how adults in the
household react.
Parents are recommended to do the following to help children cope with stress:
 Limit the exposure to disaster coverage on television.
 Answer all inquiries a youngster may have honestly and in a language that a
child can understand.
 Maintain a positive attitude and concentrate on how things will improve.
When it comes to children, know when to seek expert aid. Significant behavioral changes,
especially those that endure for a long time, can indicate that a kid is having difficulties
(Evans & Wiens 2004).
153
Areas of Application of
Environmental Psychology 7.5 TOXIC EXPOSURE FROM INDUSTRIES,
OCCUPATIONS, AND HOUSEHOLD WASTES
Toxic industrial chemicals, including chlorine, phosgene, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia
have variable effects on the respiratory tract and maybe seen alone or in combination.
Other toxins include the effects of cyanide, carbon monoxide, and fire suppressants.
Toxic exposure is defined as the direct or indirect contact with any natural or man-
made substances or agents that can lead to deleterious changes in body structure or
function including illness or death. Toxic materials may enter the body in different ways—
these are called the routes of exposure.The most common route of exposure is through
inhalation (breathing it into the lungs). Toxic industrial materials are chemicals other
than chemical warfare agents that have harmful effects on humans.Toxic industrial
materials or chemicals are used in a variety of settings such as manufacturing facilities
maintenance areas, and general storage areas.Chemical waste is typically generated
by factories, processing centers, warehouses, and plants.
Household wastes also known as domestic waste or residential waste is disposable
materials generated by households, This waste can be comprised of non-hazardous
waste and hazardous waste.Non-hazardous waste can include food, scraps, paper,
bottles, etc. which can be recycled or compost. Household hazardous waste and
demolitions include motor oil, automobile batteries, paints and solvents, household
cleaners, drain openers, pesticides, compressed gas tanks, such as propane and oxygen.
Disposing of waste has a huge environmental impact and can cause serious
problems.Some wastes will eventually rot, but not all and in the process, it may smell
or generate methane gas which is explosive and contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Leachate, produced as waste decomposes, may cause pollution.
Industrial waste is defined as the waste generated by manufacturing or industrial
processes. The types of industrial waste generated include cafeteria garbage, dirt, and
gravel, masonry, and concrete, scrap metals, trash, oil, solvents, chemicals, weed grass,
and trees, wooden scraps, lumber and similar wastes. Occupational hazards are risks
of illness or accidents in the workplace.In other words, hazards that workers experience
in their place of work are called occupational hazards. It is something unpleasant that
a person experiences or suffers as a result of doing their jobs, it also means risk.
Poor waste management contributes to climate change and air pollution and directly
affects many ecosystems and species. Landfills are considered as the last resort in
waste hierarchy. They release methane, a very powerful greenhouse gas linked to
climate change.Inefficient municipal solid waste management systems may also create
serious negative environmental impacts like infectious diseases, land and water pollution,
obstruction of drains, and loss of biodiversity.

7.6 AIR POLLUTION AND BEHAVIOR

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the
health of humans and other living beings or cause damage to the climate or to materials.
There are many different types of pollutants such as gases including ammonia, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, methane, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, particulates,
both organic and inorganic, and biological molecules. Air pollution may cause diseases,
allergies, and even death to humans.It may also cause harm to other living organisms,
such as animals and food crops,and may damage the natural environment, for example,
climate change, ozone depletion, or habitat degradation, or built environment, for
154
example, acid rains. Both human activity and natural processes can generate air pollution. Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including
respiratory infections, heart diseases, Chronic ObstructicvePulmonary Disease, stroke,
and lung cancer. Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be
associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition, increased risk for psychiatric
disorders, such as depression, and detrimental perinatal health.
Psychological and toxic effects of air pollution can lead to psychiatric symptoms including
anxiety, and changes in mood, cognition, and behavior. Air pollution also impacts the
level of stress, studies have confirmed air pollution increases crime, polluted air increases,
anxiety, which can, in turn, lead to a rise in criminal or unethical behavior.Studies have
concluded that cities with high levels of air pollution had higher levels of crime; further
studies have confirmed that air pollution can contribute to annoyance, anxiety,
depression, and general dissatisfaction with life. Pollution is also linked to substance
abuse, self-harm, suicide, as well as crimes.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Briefly describe the various types of toxic waste.
.......................................................................................................................
2. How does air pollution affect human behaviour? Describe briefly.
.......................................................................................................................
3. Which of the chemicals are considered to be toxic industrial chemicals?
.......................................................................................................................

7.7 ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT AGENCIES IN INDIA
Various disaster management agencies play a pivotal role in the management of disasters
when a disaster has occurred.
Role of the Union Government Even though the State government is primarily
responsible for the management of the crisis and disaster but the Union or the Central
government plays an integral role in providing financial and physical resources, helping
with complementary measures like early warnings, coordinating with different
departments, and ministries and organizations. There is also a Cabinet Committee on
Natural Calamities, at the highest level, that reviews the crisis at hand.
There is a high-level committee of ministers that runs under the chairpersonship of the
Agriculture Minister and it mainly works with the issues related to financial support that
is supposed to be provided to the State governments from the National Disaster
Response Fund, in case the state governments do not having enough funds available to
them. There is another committee, Cabinet Committee on Security that handles matters
related to biological, nuclear, and chemical emergencies.
National Crisis Management Committee The National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC) is led by the Cabinet Secretary, who is the senior executive
officer. NCMC is made up of secretaries of important ministries and departments, as
well as leaders of other organizations. It examines and monitors crisis circumstances 155
Areas of Application of regularly, and offers orders to the Crisis Management Group as needed. The NCMC
Environmental Psychology
has the authority to instruct any ministry, department, or organization to take a particular
action in response to a crisis.
Since disaster management is a multi-disciplinary process, all Central Ministries and
Departments play an important role in disaster management. Due to the highly technical
and specific character of many catastrophe occurrences, such as aviation disasters,
rail accidents, chemical disasters, and biological disasters, among others, the ministries
responsible for that topic have nodal responsibility for dealing with that sort of disaster.
Nodal Ministries/Department for Disaster Management at the National Level:
i. Droughts – Ministry of Agriculture
ii. Epidemics and Biological Disasters – Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
iii. Chemical or Industrial Chemical Disasters – Ministry of Environment and Forest
iv. Nuclear Accidents – Department of Atomic Energy
v. Railway Accidents – Ministry of Railways
vi. Air Accidents – Ministry of Civil Aviation
vii. Natural Disasters except for Drought and Epidemics and Civil Strife – Ministry of
Home Affairs
The Secretaries of the Government of India’s Nodal Ministries and Departments, such
as the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Agriculture, Civil Aviation, Environment and
Forests, Health, Atomic Energy, Space, Earth Sciences, Water Resources, Mines,
Railways, and others, are all members of the National Executive Committee (NEC)
and serve as nodal agencies for specific disasters based on their core competencies or
as assigned to them.
The National Executive Committee (NEC), which is led by the Home Secretary,
coordinates amongst several nodal ministries/departments. The NEC is responsible
for developing a national disaster management strategy based on the National Disaster
Management Policy.

Box 7.2 National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime
Minister of India, is the apex body for Disaster Management in India. Setting up
of NDMA and the creation of an enabling environment for institutional
mechanisms at the State and District levels is mandated by the Disaster
Management Act, 2005. NDMA is mandated to lay down the policies, plans
andguidelinesfor Disaster Management. India envisions the development of an
ethos of Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness and Response.The Indian
government strives to promote a national resolve to mitigate the damage and
destruction caused by natural and man-made disasters, through sustained and
collective efforts of all Government agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations
and People’s participation. This is planned to be accomplished by adopting a
Technology-Driven, Pro-Active, Multi-Hazard and Multi-Sectoral strategy for
building a Safer, Disaster Resilient and Dynamic India. It empowers all the
stakeholders to improve the effectiveness of Disaster Management in India.
156 Source: Home | NDMA, GoI
Crisis Management Group (CMG) The Crisis Management Group (CMG) is made Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
up of nodal officers from many ministries with a stake in the outcome. Apart from
CMG, the National Executive Committee, led by the Home Secretary, is responsible
for the DM Act’s statutory coordination and duties.
The CMG’s responsibilities include reviewing annual contingency plans formulated by
various ministries, departments, and organizations in their respective sectors,
coordinating the activities of the Union Ministries and State Governments in relation to
disaster preparedness and relief, and obtaining information from nodal officers on all of
these issues.In the case of a disaster, the CMG meets often to monitor relief activities
and gives all necessary support to the afflicted nations to help them overcome the
crisis. Meetings with the Resident Commissioner of the concerned state are also held.
Funding Mechanism Each state has a fund called the State Disaster Response Fund,
which is managed by a state-level commission overseen by the State Government’s
Chief Secretary.The amount of the corpus is calculated based on the state’s usual
expenditure on relief and rehabilitation during the previous 10 years.If the funds available
via the State Disaster Response Fund are insufficient to fulfill the specific needs, State
Governments can seek help from the National Disaster Response Fund, which was
established at the national level. Both of these programs are for relief and rehabilitation,
as their names imply, and do not support mitigation or reconstruction, which must be
paid independently by the state or national governments.
Role of State Government In India, it is the state government’s primary role to
provide rescue, relief, and rehabilitation in the case of natural disasters. The whole
system of crisis management in state governments has been geared for post-disaster
assistance and rehabilitation since the outset.Relief Commissioners are in charge of
relief and rehabilitation initiatives in the majority of states. The majority of states have
established a Disaster Management Department with the necessary connections to the
many developments and regulatory departments involved in the prevention, mitigation,
and preparedness.
Every state has a Crisis Management Committee, chaired by the Chief Secretary and
comprised of secretaries in charge of concerned departments, that reviews crises daily
during a crisis, coordinates all departments’ activities, and provides decision support
to the district administration. A Cabinet Committee on Natural Calamities, chaired by
the Chief Minister, takes stock of the situation and is responsible for all major policy
decisions at the ministerial level.
Role of District Administration The general administration of catastrophes in the
district is the duty of the District Magistrate/Collector. Under the rules of the General
Financial Rules/Treasury Codes, he can mobilize the response apparatus and has been
given financial rights to draw money.During a disaster, all departments of the State
Government, including the police, fire services, public works, irrigation, and so on,
work together under the direction of the Collector, with the exception of metropolitan
regions, where the municipal government plays a prominent role. The District Collector
also has the authority to ask the Armed Forces for help if the situation warrants it. In
recent years, NGOs have proven to be helpful in providing relief, rescue, and
rehabilitation.
Role of Local Self-governments Following the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the
Constitution, local self-governments, both rural and urban, have arisen as key layers of
governance. In addition to being intimately interwoven with the community, they are 157
Areas of Application of also the closest administrative units and are among the first responders to any crisis.
Environmental Psychology
Under the general direction of the District Administration, these units can thus play a
significant role in crisis management.
Role of NGO/Civil Society/Media/Public In the event of a disaster, the local
community is usually the first to respond. Traditional disaster management expertise
and appropriate countermeasures are also carried by the local community. As a result,
with the support of non-governmental organizations (NGO), the media, and the role of
the local community must be utilized.They are encouraged to take part in all three
phases of disaster recovery. The district government also needs to focus on disaster
management capacity building, involvement, and empowerment of these stakeholders.
For a speedy, efficient, and effective reaction, community activity supported by local
NGOs, as well as government apparatus, is required. Healthy coordination between
local administration and local community/NGOs is required for this. Local NGOs and
civic society must seek to instill in society a deep culture of safety and prevention.In a
democracy, NGOs, civil society, and the media all play an active role as pressure
organizations, allowing any government inaction to be detected and corrected. As a
result, the general people and NGOs should keep a careful eye on how the government
handles disasters and act as watchdogs.
Natural hazards are endemic to our geology, geography, climate, social, and cultural
environments, but we can surely endeavor to manage crises more effectively so that
dangers do not devolve into disasters. With a well-thought-out crisis management
strategy in place, it is conceivable to envision our country, despite its numerous dangers,
as a place free of all calamities in the future.
The work of announcing a policy, promulgating a law, or establishing an institution in
the field of crisis management is relatively simple; the complexity lies in putting policies
in place to accomplish the desired goals.Crisis management, a governance issue that is
both vital and complex, is at the core of India’s administrative system.
In order to speed up the administration’s emergency reactions and raise the effectiveness
of the machinery to handle crisis situations and improve crisis readiness, the system
requires innovative thinking and fundamental reforms. To that end, it is critical that the
crisis management apparatus perform and deliver. What is required is the introduction
of a new paradigm in terms of the quality and efficacy of our institutional capabilities
and delivery systems, while also ensuring that they are anchored in both authority
structures and accountability procedures.
Our goal should not only be to have more efficient governance systems, but also to
have innovative ways of capacity building and empowerment of all stakeholders at all
levels, including panchayats and the community, strategic applications of science and
technology, the establishment of a reliable emergency communication network, the
construction of safe homes and infrastructure, and learning from research and
development as well as previous experiences with crisis situations.
Each of these responsibilities is difficult and necessitates well-thought-out planning and
implementation strategy, as well as coordinated efforts from a number of stakeholders
both inside and outside the governmental structure. Our goal should be to create synergy
and convergence between technological and knowledge-based advances and our
diverse socio-cultural practices and indigenous coping mechanisms. The hallmarks of
the disaster management method have been systematic preparedness, early warning,
158 swift response, and long-term rehabilitation.
Institutional Support of Science and Technology Institutions for Disaster Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
Management
The contributions of numerous research and technology institutions are critical to disaster
management.Indeed, advances in science and technology have resulted in significant
advancements in disaster management efforts.Because crisis management is
multidisciplinary, relevant research is conducted by a variety of sector-specific research
and development organizations.The National Disaster Management Authority, with
the help of National Institute of Disaster Management, may be able to enable a shared
platform between science and technology organizations and users of relevant
technologies, according to the 2nd Administrative Reforms Committee. Such systems
could be implemented at both the federal and state levels.

7.8 FROM DISASTER TO RESILIENCE

Disaster resilience has become increasingly important in th present times. The community
neede to be better prepared and equipped, be more resilient and therby less vulnerable
in the wake of disasters. Therefore, all the stakeholders, public, private and the civic
sectors need to make efforts to adapt and act effectively in the crisis situation. The
following components need to be strengthened:
Professionalization of Disaster Management The lack of properly qualified
employees has definitely hampered the country’s institutional growth for disaster
management. While civil servants and other senior personnel in organizations such as
the police, armed forces, and municipal bodies have played a leadership role in the
past and will continue to do so in the future, it is past time to pay special attention to the
country’s long-felt need to professionalize disaster management. The tactics and
procedures perfected by various industrialized countries in disaster management are
the finest practices, and India can benefit from exposure to these principles.It is, therefore,
desirable that the possibility of bilateral agreements with foreign governments for the
exchange of experiences and learning from their documentation and research efforts
be fully explored.
Use of Social and Mass media When it comes to crisis awareness, the media plays
a critical role. Immediately following a major disaster in any part of the world,
communities’ curiosity and fear about their own danger are at an all-time high.This is a
good time to run public awareness campaigns and use the media to raise awareness
about the dangers that the community faces. The only way to achieve this is for the
media and the disaster management system to work together.Lessons learned from
previous disasters or from disasters in other places could be a useful contribution to
such awareness-raising programs. The specifics of all such disasters must be adequately
documented and kept in the public domain for this reason. These facts, as well as the
lessons learned, should be made available on the websites of the District Disaster
Management Authorities (DDMA), the State Disaster Management Authorities, and
the NDMA.
Building Community Resilience The community is also a reservoir of traditional
knowledge and skills, which must be incorporated into the risk reduction process. It is
vital to educate the community about disaster risk reduction in general, as well as to
impart skills and assign specific duties to community members, in order for the community
to be prepared the first response from the community is a well-coordinated one.
159
Areas of Application of Focus on District Disaster Management Plan The district’s hazard, risk, and
Environmental Psychology
vulnerability profile need to be discussed by the administration. The district’s vulnerability
map, as well as the historical profile of major catastrophes that have occurred in the
past, their impact on the district, and how the district has dealt with them, should be
known to the administration. What is the district’s current level of preparedness? Is the
district prepared to deal with a calamity if it occurs now?What is the district
administration’s or DDMA’s current capacity for search and rescue, relief distribution,
logistics, ensuring life-line services, providing security and safety to the people, law
and order situation, resource mobilization, and so on? All of these inquiries must be
answered by the administration. This would provide an indication of the district’s capacity
as well as a starting point for planning. After that, the administration, or DDMA,
consolidates the district’s risks and moves the level forward.

Fact check on statistics related to natural disasters!

https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters
 On an average almost 60,000 people die due to natural disasters every
year across the globe.
 On a worldwide level, disasters contribute to 0.1% of deaths over the last
10 years of time
 Deaths caused by natural disasters have seen a major decline over the last
century from millions of deaths every year to an average of 60,000 deaths
 Poverty stricken population is the one that is most highly affected by natural
disasters with high number of deaths and property.

Check Your Progress 4

1. What are the functions of local self- government in disaster management.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. Suggest strategies to make the community resilient in the wake of disaster.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

7.9 SUMMARY
To sum up what we have learnt in this unit, here is a quick recap:
 A natural disaster is a major calamity caused by the earth’s natural processes.
Natural disasters are sudden, unpredicatable, out of control and are intense.
The main categories of natural disasters are biological, geophysical,
metrological, hydrological, climatological, and extra-terrestrial.
 Natural disasters are caused by extreme weather conditions or movements of
160 the earth’s surface that tend to be localized in certain areas of the world.
  The risk perception at the time of disaster is influenced by many factors which Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
are firstly related to the nature of the hazard itself and secondly to psychological,
social, and cultural components and their mutual interactions.
 The main perspectives on disasters have been as acts of fate/acts of God,
acts of nature, joint effects of nature and society, and social constructions.
 A technological disaster or catastrophe is an event caused by a malfunction of
a technological structure and/or some human error in controlling or handling
the technology. Technological disasters are especially stressful because they
are unpredictable. Individuals, families, and communities are affected.
 Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful
to the health of humans and other living beings or cause damage to the climate
or to materials. air pollution can contribute to annoyance, anxiety, depression,
and general dissatisfaction with life. Pollution is also linked to substance abuse,
self-harm, suicide, as well as crimes.
 Significant roles and functions are played by the various levels of government
in case of a disaster. There are various committees and minsitries that are
dedicated towards relief work to manage a natural disaster. As a way forward,
it is important to professionalise disaster managemnt, constructively use social
media, buld a resilient community and focus on district disaster management
plan.

7.10 KEYWORDS
Industrial Waste : Waste generated by manufacturing or industrial processes
Natural Disaster : A major calamity caused by the earth’s natural processes
Occupational Hazards : Are risks of illness or accidents in the workplace
Technological Disaster : An event caused by a malfunction of a technological
structure and/or some human error in controlling or
handling the technology

7.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the theories related to environmental disasters.
2. What do you mean by hydrological disasters?
3. How are extra-terrestrial disasters caused?
4. Define technological disaster.
5. What are the two further sub-categories of technological disasters?
a. Industrial and chemical
b. Industrial and transport
c. Transport and legal
d. Air-born and water-born 161
Areas of Application of 6. Briefly discuss the role played by the union government in the management of
Environmental Psychology
disasters.
7. What does NCMC stand for?
a. National Crisis Management Committee
b. National Crisis Management Chair
c. Nagpur Crisis Management Committee
d. New York Crisis Management Committee
8. Which of the following ministries/department is responsible for handling droughts?
a. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
b. Ministry of Railways
c. Ministry of Home Affairs
d. Ministry of Agriculture
9. Who handles and manages the State Disaster Response Fund?
a. Chief Minister
b. Commissioner
c. State Government’s Chief Secretary
d. District Magistrate
10. What does DDMA stand for?
a. District Disaster Management Authority
b. District Drought Managing Association
c. District Drought Management Affiliation
d. None of the above

7.12 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Barton, H., & Grant, M. (2006). A Health Map for the local human habitat. Journal
of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 126(6), 252–253. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1466424006070466
Benetti, A. D. (2007). Preventing disease through Healthy Environments: Towards an
estimate of the environmental burden of disease. Engenharia Sanitaria e Ambiental,
12(2), 115–116. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-41522007000200001
Gifford, R. (2014). Environmental psychology: Principles and practice. Optimal
Books.
Gifford, R. (2016). Research methods for environmental psychology. Wiley
Blackwell.
Hall, E. T., &PetitaAmeìlie. (2014). La Dimension cacheìe. Ed. du Seuil.
162
Joireman, J., Barnes Truelove, H., &Duell, B. (2010). Effect of outdoor temperature, Disasters, Toxic Hazards,
and Pollution
heat primes and anchoring on belief in global warming. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 30(4), 358–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.03.004
Kopec, D. (2020). Environmental psychology for design. Fairchild Books.
Malhotra, N. K. (2007). Environmental psychology: Principles and practices. Sumit
Enterprises.
Nishihara, R., & Okubo, M. (2015). A study on personal space in virtual space based
on personality. Procedia Manufacturing, 3, 2183–2190. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.promfg.2015.07.359
Proshansky, H. M. (1974). Environmental psychology: Man and his physical
setting. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Resnik DB, Portier CJ. 2008. Environment and Health. In M Crowley (Ed.), From
Birth to Death and Bench to Clinic: The Hastings Center Bioethics Briefing Book
for Journalists, Policymakers, and Campaigns (pp. 59–62). Garrison, NY: The
Hastings Center.
Prüss-Üstün A, Corvalán C. 2006. Preventing Disease Through Healthy
Environments. Towards an estimate of the environmental burden of
disease. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Tewari, R., & Mathur, R. (2014). In Environmental psychology. essay, Pointer
Publishers.

7.13 ADDITIONAL ONLINE RESOURCES

 Causes and Effects of Climate Change. National Geographic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G4H1N_yXBiA
 Disasters of Extra-terrestrial origin
Disasters of extraterrestrial origin | World Problems & Global Issues | The
Encyclopedia of World Problems (uia.org)
 Natural Disasters
https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters
 Psychological impact of natural disasters on adults
Psychological Impact of Natural Disasters in Adults - University of Houston (uh.edu)
 Chernobyl Disaster
https://www.prindlepost.org/2019/07/moral-and-existential-lessons-from-
chernobyl/#:~:text=Some%20of%20th
Chernobyl disaster | Causes, Effects, Deaths, Videos, Location, & Facts | Britannica
Answers to Review Questions
5. (b); 7 (a); 8 (d); 9 (c); 10 (a)

163