ENGINEERING AND OENERAL

GEOLOGY
10
THE BIOSPHERE
term is used to expross tho collective life
This
formas it exists on the Earth on
surtace and under water. The blosphere depends for its oxistonce on the other its
and the atmosphero. It has boen very three
zones : the lithosphere, tho hydrosphere
procosses. Formation of coal and petroleum reserv9sactively
invoved in avariety of geological activities. The problem of is
directly related to the
biogeological xistence and evolution of
lite on our planet
has been one of very important and interesting issues before
the
scientists.

1.3. EARTH SCIENCES

The sciences that deal with one or more aspects of the Earth as a nlae
All of them are definitely related to and
grouped together as earth sciences. in many
cases derived from one major science geology.
=
Geology (from Greek, Ge0 = Earth, Logos Science) is the science that
d

with the study of the Earth as

a
whole. Thus, it is the science dealing with the origin, age
and structure of the Earth on the
one hand and with the evolution, modification an
extinction of surface and subsurface features (like mountains, plateaus, plains, valleve
basins andcoastal and marine and submarine forms) on the other hand. It also deals with
the materials making up the Earth and with the nature of the surrounding gaseote
envelope (atmosphere) and the vast expanse of the liquid and frozen water
(hydrosphere). The interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, the
processes and the results caused due to such an interaction also fall in the domain of
geology. Similarly, geology also includes the study of various physical, dynamic and
physicochemical processes operating on and within the Earth, and of the agents and
forces invotved and evolved in such processes. The greatest emphasis in geology is on
the study of the materials as they exist today and the processes which operate todav to
establisha record of the past events in the history of the Earth. In geology, present is the
basic key tothe past.
Geology is rightly considered one of the important basic sciences like physics
and chemistry. It has many'subdivisions or branches.
1.3.1. SUBDIVISIONS OF GEOLOGY
From the above definition of geology it is evident
that the subject is very vast.
hence the necessity of subdivisions. Following are important and well
branches of geology. established
(a) Physical Geology :
It deals with the origin,
development and ultimate
of the Earth and also with its structure. The role played fate of various surface features
earthquakes) and external agents (wind, water, ice and internal agentson
by (volcanism and
features of the Earth makes a major part of study in physical atmosphere) the physical
disposition of the rock bodies and huge bodies of water Geology. The structural
subjects of study in Physical Geology. and ice form other specific
(b) Geomorphology :
Thisbranch confines itselfto the study of
primarily of the land surface. Detailed the features of the surface of the Earth,
investigations regarding development and
INTRODUCTION
11
disposition of mountains,
plains, plateaus,
forms fall in
the domain of Geomorphology. valleys and basins and the associated land
landforms in space and The structure and evolution of these
time are specialized fields of study within geomorphology.
(c) Mineralogy :

Minerals are
Mineralogy the basic building units of which
up.
is that branch of geology the solid crust of the Earth is made
aggregation, properties and uses of which deals with formation, occurrence,
a well
recognized branch of mineralogyminerals. It has many
subdivisions. Crystalogra
which
and exiernal manifestations of minerals when specifically deals with the internal structure
includes study of artificial crystals made by they form cvstals. This science also
cooling liguids under proper condittons
(d) Petrology :

KoCKS are defined as building that make up the crust of the Earth. Inese
are themselves made up of building blocksunits the minerals. Formation of
rocks, their mode of occurrence, their composition, textures, structures,various
types OT
geolog9lea a
geograpnical distribution are all studied under pPetrologv. It is one of the most
subdivisSIons of Geology and is further subdivided into laneous
important
Petrology, Sedimenteary
Petrology and Metamorphic Petrology. Petrography specially deals with tne natur
geographic distribution of rocks on the Earth and geological reasons governing Sucn a
distribution.
(e) HistoricalGeoiogy :
It deals with the past history of the Earth as deciphered from the rocks. Rocks
may be treated as pages of the Earth historv, They contain within them evidence in the
form of nature of their formation, composition, constitution, magnetism and in many cases
fossilS (remains of ancient life), which when interpreted properly can reveal a lot about the
past history of the planet. Thus fairly accurate estimates can be made on the above
evidence about the climates, biological and environmental conditions prevailing during
(and after) the formation of these rocks in and around the areas of their occurrence.
Palaeogeography, Paleontology and stratigraphy are three distinct subdivisions of the
HistoricalGeology.
(t) Economic Geology :
This branch deals with the study of those minerals and rocks and material
occurring in the Earth which can be exploited for the benefit of the man. These include a
wide variety of ores of all the metals (e.g. iron, aluminium, copper etc.), non-ores like
building stones, rock salt, fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas and atomic minerals) and
industrial minerals for refractories, abrasives and insulations and for manufacture of
chemicals. Mode of occurrence, principles of formation, properties, structural and other
controls that help in the extraction of these materials at economical costs are important
fields of study under economic geology.

1.3.2. ALLIED SCIENCES

addition to the above major branches of Geology, there are a few other
In
comparatively new branches of science that have geology as very important component.
on the increase
These may well be called as sciences allied to Geology. Their number is
with advances in the science. A few of them are:
geo-chemistry, ge0-physics,
geo-hydrology, mining geology, engineering geology, rock mechanics and
 ENGINEERING AND GENERAL
12 GEOLOGY
goo-mochanico, motrology nnd ocoanography. Thoir scope is briefly given below:
doals with the chemical
(1) Goochemlstry : It is that branch of sclonco that Constitution
of the Enrth as a wholo and nlso In parts. It studios speciflcally tho distribution
on and within and relative
abundanco of difteront olomonts and compounds the Earth. It also studies
tho tronds roorqanisation in tho olomonts processos.
of of
tho Earth during the geological history
through the oporation of surfaco and subsurtaco
(2) Geophyslcs : In this branch of scionce, important principles, proceses and methods
of
physlcs aro appliod to solvo many goological problems, hence geo-physics. The
of
constitulion of tho Earth is impossiblo without application of knowledge of study
seismic
wavos.
ln fact thore aro vast numbor of (goological arcas where application of physics
not only dosirablo but ossontial. Tho important subjocts of the study in geophvsics es is is
:goomagnotism, goooloctricity, goothermomotry, geocosmogony and
seismology.
Identification of wator and oil boaring strata below.the surface of the Earth falls
almost
entiroly in Goophyslcs.
(3) Geohydrology : t is an onginooring scionce that has evolved out of
interaction
betweon hydrology and geology. It doals specifically with the geological aspects
ground-water and surlaco wator bodios with rogards to thelr occurrence and movement
and through differonttypos of rocks.
(4) Mining Geology : It is geology as applied to mining practice,
that is, for the
exploration and exploitation of oconomlc mineral deposits. The location and development
of mines aro decided primarily on the basis of
mode of formation, mode of occurrence and
structural disposition of tho oconomic minerals and rocks. Tho method of exploitation
depends upon tho propertios of tho matorials and their relationship with the host rocks
Knowledge of minoralogy and petrology is a prerequisíte for
the study of mining geology,
(5) Engineoring Goology : It is rather a now
fild of applied
due to interaction between the civil ongineering practico sciences that has developed
branch deals with the gootochnlcal study of the sites and and geological sciences. This
projects on the one hand and with tho availability of locations for major engineering
construction on the other hand. It has a vory materials of required quality for
construction of sale, stablo and oconomical vital rolo to play In the design and
engincoring projocts. Since this book deals
primarily with engineering applications of
goology, a dotailod discussion on the scope of
engineering geology is reservod for a later section.
(6) Rock Mechanlcs : It deals exclusively
with study of bohaviour of rocks
imposed upon them. In this rospect, Rock under loads
Mechanics is moro anonginoering rather than
applied science subject. But rocks being
geological matorials and tho behaviour of rocks
being practically controlled by tho naturo
presupposes full geological knowledgo and constitution of rocks, this branch
of rocks, In rock mochanics
natural or artificial, static and dynamic. loads appliod may bo
on Similarly moasuromonts may
laboratories represontativo samples or In sltu at bo mado in the
involving all possible combination tho sltos, or in simulatod conditions
of
those factors, geological or otherwiso, situation.
rosponsiblo
Tho branch also Includos study of all
of rocks under different forco for obsorvod and oxpocod bohaviour
fiolds. This branch
safe construction in the rocks bolow has major rosponsiblity for dosiging
tho ground.
(7) Geomechanics : It is a
newly dovolopingonginoaring
with the study of natural force scionco which concorns itsolf
fiolds as acting on tho Earth on
The present structural constítution alobal and rogionallovols.
of th contínents
and ocoans and mountain rangos
INTRODUCTION
13
offers a lot of scope for analysis of
forces responsible for
Meteorology :The study of atmosphere (which an sucha
dispoSItion.
(8)
its aspects : phySIcal, chemical and biological- is integral part of the Earth) all
falls in the domain of Meteorology. Abou
in
one halt century ago, this
science was thouaht to
implication. But with dramatic advances spacebe concerned with only weather ano is
in
science or great importance in the present times., research, Meteorology has
Huge investments are beingbecoiie
unravel every mystery of the atmosphere with the help of made to
including satellites and space crafts. latest scientific techniques
(9) Oceanography : This may be aptly described as
the youngest of
sciencesdealing exclusive by the oceans. The various important aspects (geological)
be studied with regard to the oceans are : their geological history, chemicalWnlcn naveo
of their waters, physical behaviour and their life content.
compoSttion
and of course their econonmiG
potential. Great stress is being laid by all the big nations to study these and other aspecis
of the Oceans because these water bodies happen to form more
than 70 percent or our
planet Surtace. Hence they offer an immense source of hitherto unknown reserves Tor une
mankind.

1.4. SCOPE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering Geology may be defined as that branch of applied sciences which
deals with the application of geology for a safe, stable and economical design and
construction of a civil engineering project. It is now recognized as a well established
interdisciplinary subject. In qualifying for a career as a civil engineer, grasp of
fundamentals of engineering geology is now almost universally regarded as basic and
important as that of soil mechanics, strength of materials or theory of structures. During
last fifty years, this branch has undergone very sound and rapid development so that at
present application of geological knowledge in the planning, designing and construction of
big civil engineeringprojects is considered not only desirable but absolutely essential.
The basic objects of a course in Engineering Geology are twofold :

(a) Itenables a civil engineer to understand engineering implications of certain

conditions related to the area of construction which are essentially geological in
nature.
(b) It enables a geologist to understand the nature of geological information which is
absolutely essential for the safe design and construction of a civil engineering
project. He is required to present this information in the form of a report fully
understood by a civil engineer for use in the design and construction of the project.
It is obvious, therefore, that the civil engineer is neither expected nor required to
undertake himself geological investigations of the area before the construction of the
project. He must be capable, however, to discUss the geological report prepared by the
geologist with him as critically as possible and derive maximum useful information
pertaining to his project.
The scope of Engineering Geology is best studied with reference to major
activities of a professional civil engineer : Construction, Water Resource Development;
Town and Regional Planning.