Functions 3.1 Basic Terminology Next in importance to the primitive notion of ser isthe idea of function. This is a term that nowadays is introduced informally quite early in the mathematics currcu- lum, I often defined asa rule that associates to each element ofa set A (usually 4 set of real numbers) an element of another set B (often Fas well). The function keys on a calculator are so named because when a number x is entered into a calcu- Iator and a function key f is pressed, another number f(x) appears! The essential characteristic of a function is thatthe value that it associates with a given element is uniquely determined by that element. If we enter 4 into a calculator and then we are presented with exactly one number, nota choice of pres some uncon sored mnie 4 [V] =2, fr, #2 Heristhe omal defini of ution A ineton fom ast A oa st sa binay elon f from A w B with be property that, for every a € A, there is exactly one b € B such that (a,b) € f. (In ‘some areas of mathematics, map is a commonly employed synonym for function.) ° In this definition, the idea that a function should associate with each element 2 € A aunique element b & B is captured by viewing a function fas a subset of ‘A x B with the special property that for each @ € A, there is just one pair (a,b) in J having frst coordinate a. If A = (1,2,3), B= (x, y}and f is F=(0.2.29)8.0)), then f is just the rue that associates x with 1, y with 2, and x with 3, ‘There are two key points about the definition of function, First, every a in A must be the first coordinate of an ordered pair in the function, Again, with A = (1,2, 3) and B = fx, y} the set 8 =10,2),8,9)) is not a function from A to B because g contains no ordered pair with first coordinate 2, Second, each element of A must be the first coordinate of exactly one ordered "here we assume Wat we haven't entered a number lke ~1 and then pressed the square rot key! 72 CC —————-_ TT 94 Basic Terminology 73 pair, With the same A and B, h is not a function because 2 PROBLEM 1. Suppose A is the set of surnames of people listed in the Salt Lake City telephone directory. Is it likely that f isa function from A to the set of natural numbers? Comment. 2), 29) the first coordinate of two ordered pairs. (a,n) | aison page n) Solution. By definition of / each element ofA isthe fist coordinate of apairin f, 0 the key question here is whether each a € A determines @ unique n € N. Is each surname on a unique page in the telephone directory’ This isnot very likely sinee some sumames (Smith?) are undoubledly listed on « number of different pages. It is unlikely that f isa function - When f is a function from A to B, the clement & € B, which is uniquely determined by the clement a € A, is denoted f(a) and called the image of a. Thus, oO) (4,6) f itand only if = f(a). ETT is customary to write f: A —> B vo mean that f isa function from A to B and to site £3 a - b to mean tat f(a) = b. (Not the differences between the symbols = between seis, asin A > Band between elements, a in a > b,) Thus, the funetion f = ((1, x), (2, ), (3,x)} could also be described by Lex fi Dey Bek although the description as ordered pairs seems simpler, Sometimes (often in calculus), a function i sufficiently nice that itis possible to write down a precise formula showing how (x) is determined by x; for example, SG) = x3, f(x) = 3x7, f(x) = InG). When we talk about “the function f(x) = x2" we are really talking about the function f: R —> R that associates with any x € R, its square x°; that is, x +» x2, Asa binary relation, f = ((x, x2) | x © R). When this function is graphed as usual in the xy-plane, we are, in actual fact, making a picture of the ordered pairs in this set. PPP caN ee «Let f: A> B be a function from A to B. «The domain of f, writen dom f, is the set A. «The sarger of fis the set B. «The range or image of f, written mg fis mg f = (b € B | (a,b) € f forsomea € A} = (be B| b= f(a) forsomea € A} «The function is onto or surjective if its range is the target, mg f every b € B is of the form b = f(a) for some a € A; equivalently, [» that is (0: For any b € B, the equation b = f(x) has a solution x € A."4 CHAPTERS Functions different elements Of A have ¢ (11) or injective if and only if m + Tis one-to-one (1-1) or injective if and only event different images: in symbols, a # a2 —> f(s) # S(@?) the contrapositive), «is bijection or bijective funcron i is both one-to-one and onto * Some Discrete Examples EXAMPLE 2 — Suppose A = (1,2,3,4], B = {x,y,z} and F= (0,2), 2B. GM ‘Then f isa function A —> B with domain A and target B. Since me f = (* B, f isomo. Since f(2) = ft4) (= y) but2 #4, f isnot one-to-one, [In Fact, no function A —> B is one-to-one. Why not? See Exercise 313.) : Ys, w), and EXAMPLE 3 Suppose A = {1,2,3], B= F={(,w). 2.9). ‘Then f: A+ Bisa funotion with domain A and range {w, yx). Since mg f # B, f isnot onto, [No function A —> B is onto. Why not? See Exercise 31(b)] This function is one-to-one because f(1), (2), and f(3) ate all different: I F(a ‘F(az),then ay = a. EXAMPLE 4 Suppose A = (1, 2,3}. B= (1.9.2) F=DAYBI, and g= (0,229 G0) ‘Then f and g are Functions from A to B. The domain of f is A and domg = 4 too. The range of f is {, 9), which isa proper subset of B, so f is not onto. On the other hand, gis onto because mg g = {z, j,.) = B. This function is also one-to- ‘one because ¢(1), (2), and g(3) are all different: If g(a,) = g(a), then ay = ay, Notice that f is not one-to-one: (2) = (3) (= y),yet2 #3) : 1x — 3, Then dom f = Z. To find mg f, noe EXAMPLE 5 Let f:Z—> Zbedefined by f(x) that bemgfob=2a-3 —_forsomeintegera b= 2a—2)+1. forsome integer a and this occurs i and only if i odd. Thus, the range off is the set of odd integers Since mg f #Z, f is not onto, Itis one-to-one, however: If f(xy) = f(x) then 2xy = 3 = 2ty — 3 and 4) = 2, . EXAMPLE 6 Let :N > Nbe defined by f(x) = 2x — 3. This might look like a perfectly ‘200d function, as inthe lst example, but actually there is a difficulty, If we try to caleulate f(1), we obtain f(1) = 2(1) ~ 3 = —T and =1 ¢ N. Hence, no function has been defined. . PROBLEM 7. Define f: 2 —> Zby f(x) = x? — Sx +5, Determine whether fis Solution, To determine whether / is oneo-one, we consider the possibilty th S61) = fey. Intiscase, a7 —5m, +5 = 45 Sys Saeed eee and Gy) G5, +) T= ag = Su) ~ St: (1 — a2). This equation indeed! has solutions withEOMSIEN ERP sano ar EXAMPLE 9 8.4 Bask Terminology 75 xy # Xp: Any xy, x2 satisfying xy +x Since f(2) = FQ) = —1, we conclude that fis not one-to-one 1s f onto? Recalling that the graph of f(x) = x7 = Sr +5,x € Risa Parabola with vertex (3, ~$), clearly any integer less than —1 is not in the range of J. Altematively, itis easy to see that 0 isnot inthe range of f because x?—Sx-+ O as no integer solutions (by the quadratic formula). Either argument shows that f is not onto, a ay 5 will do, for instance, xy = 2, x PROBLEM 8. Define f:Z > Z by f(x) = 3x* — x. Determine whether f is ‘one-to-one andlor ono, Solution. Suppose f(x, 3G} = xf) =a) — xy and = f2) for x1.x9 € Z. Then 3x} — x1 = 3x} = 22,50 3a — (sf +t) = 01 2 Ixy # xa, we must have x? + xjx2 +13 = 4, which is impossible since x and x2 ae integers. Thus, xy = x2 and f is one-to-one Is f onto? IF yes, then the equation b = f(x) = 3x? — x has a solution in Z for every integer b. This seems unlikely and, after a moments thought, it occurs 10 us that the integer 6 = 1, fr example. cannot he written this ways I = 3x? ~ x for some integer x implies x(3x*— 1) = 1. But the only airs of integers whose product is 1 are the pairs 1,1 and —1,—1. So here we would require x = 327-1 = 1 orx = 3x71 =I, neither of which is possible. The integer b lisa counterexample tothe assertion that fis onto, so fis not ont. a Define g: Z > Zby g(x) = 2x? +7. Is g onto? Is g one-to-one? 1 The Identity Function ‘The special function we now define looks innocuous and it is, but it arises in so ‘many situations that itis helpful to give it a name. For any set A, the identity function on A is the function «4: A —> A defined by (g(a) = a for alla € A. Interms of ordered pairs, = {(@a)| ae A) ‘When there is no possibility of confusion about A, we will often write «, rather than (4. (The Greek symbol «is pronounced “yata”, so that “14” is read “yota sub ay * ‘The graph of the identity function on Ris the familiar line with equation y = x. ‘The identity function on a set A is indeed a function A —> A since, for any a € A, there is precisely one pair ofthe form (a, y) € «, the pair (a, a, rove that the identity function on a set A is one-to-one and onto. 0 Functions of a Real Variable Let f: R > Pbe defined by f(x) = 2x —3. The domain of f is Rand mg f = A since any real number ean be expressed y = 2x = 3 lors = 40+) Graphically, this means that any horizontal line intersects the graph of y = 2 Fig. 3.1.) Since mg f = Ry fis onto, tis also one-io-ne (the argument in Example 5 can be used again), so being onto and one-to-one, itis a bijection from RoR. .7G CHAPTERS Functions EXAMPLE 10 EXAMPLE 11 EXAMPLE 12 aa Perea Figure 3.1. The graph of y = 2-3. 2, The domain of g is Pi the range of g isthe is-a proper subset of Rg iS not ono, . Let g: R-> Re defined by g(x) = set of nonnegative real numbers. Since this Neither is g one-to-one since @(3) = g(~3). but 3 # ~3. ion is identical to the function Define h: [0, 00) > Fi by (x) = x2. This function is identical ¢gof the preceding example except for its domain. By restricting the domain of g {o the nonnegative reals, we have produced a function / that is one-to-one since wed and hence x; = 2%. Since x1 2 0 and.x2 2 0, we i . Let f: R—> Rie defined by f(x) = 3x? — x. Students of calculus should be able to plot the graph off and see immediatly that f i onto, but not one-to-one. (See Fig. 32) Figure 32 The graph of y = 3x"— x. Contrast this last example with Problem 8 on page 75. There we saw that the func- tion with the same rule as the one here, but with Z as domain, was one-to-one, but not onto, A function is more than a rule; domain and range are critical too. ‘The absolute value of a number, denoted [x], is defined by ef = frz0 =| -x itr 2 3. Define f: 2 > Zby fs) 4. Define f: N-> Nby f(r 8. Define f: N+ Nby f(x 6 Define f:Z-> Zby fix) 7. Define f: Z—> Zby f(x) 8 Define f: + by f(x 1, Then fis aone-to-one function 241, Then f is a one-to-one function. +2. Then f is an onto function. +2. Then f is an onto function. 1+ 1, Then f is an onto function 2x +L. Then f is an onto function. 9. [x] = Lx] + | forany x eR, 10. lle-a\) =0. AL. [xy] = Le) Ly forall real numbers x and y 12, Vz? = x forall rel numbers x ‘The answers to exercises marked [BB] can be found in the Back ofthe Book. 1. Determine whether each ofthe following relation is @ function with domain (1,2, 34). For any relation that is not function, explain why its (a) (BB) (1, 1), 2,1), 3,1, 4, D, 3,3) ) f= ((1.2).2.3.4.3) © (BB) f=(0.0.2,0.8,0.4.D) @ f= (0,0.0.2.0.369) fe) f =401,4),2.3).G,2,.4, DI 2. Suppose A isthe st of stadents curently registered at the Unversity of Calgary, B i the set of professors at the University of Calgary, and C isthe set of courses cur rently being feed atthe University of Calgary. Under ‘nha conditions is each ofthe following a faction? (a) [BB (@,b) | aistaking course from b} (b) (a) | as isla each week sine} (6) ((a.c)| has aclss in on Friday afternoon) Explain your answers, 3. [BB] Suppose A and B are nonempty ses. Can A x B ver bea function A -> B? Explain, 4. Give an example ofa function N > Nhat is (@) [BB] one-to-one but nt onto: (b) conto but not one-to-one: (©) neither one-to-one nor ont; (@) batho one and onto, (mm 5 Let X be the set of all countries inthe British Common. ‘wealth and ¥ be the set ofall people who live in thse countries, (a) (BB) Show that Prime Minist Domicile: ¥ > X are functions. PX oY and (b)_ Show that Prime Minister is one-to-one but not onto (€)_ Show that Domicile is onto but not one-to-one, 6, [BB] Give examples of some common functions whose graphs resemile the graph ofthe floor function. 7. (@)_ At what values of x do the jumps in the graph of x — 3) occur? (6) Answer pat (a forthe graph of y = [x +7] (©) Answer prt (@ forthe graph of y = [2] 8 (@) [BB] IC and x are imegers with k > O and kx = Un). isit the case that x = (J? Explain (b) How many multiples of 3 lie between 1 and 50000? {BB} Prove that x] + Ly} < Let] forall real numbers wand y. 20, Prove tha 21+ [pT & [e+ forall wal number « 9. 1 Show tht x} + = [x] +7 forany real number and any rea number, eoeeece12, LoS =(1,2,3,4,5) and define f: $ + Zby faye] 241 itxiseren W=S ifvisodd Express f a8 a subset of $x Z. Is f one-to-one? 18, The auton and multiplication of eal numbers tions add, mult: Rx R > R, where ee add(x.y) = x+y; mult(r,y) =ay (a) (BB) Is add one-to-one? Is it onto? (®) Is mutt one-to-one? Is it onto? Explain your answers, 14, (BB] Define @:Z + B by hofihefollovingeaes. sane @ 8 (b) BEN 16 Dan (5A by J) = 3-45. Dai ih ineachofthe folowingcasns sneer J #200 @ [BB}A=Q ) AEN 16. Define h: A —> A by h(a) = x? +2. Determine (with reasons) whber hs one-one and iether his oto cachof the fllowing cases @ A () ASN Define g: A + A by g(x) = 3x? + 14x 51. Determine (wth reasons) whether g is one-to-one and whether 5 onto in each of te following cases. @ A=Zz ASR 18, Define f: A > B by f(x) =x? + 14x —S1. Determine (vith reasons) whether i one-10-0ne and whether is onion each ofthe following cases. (a) [BB]A=N, B= (beZ|b > ~100) (b) A=Z Basin(a) (© A=R.B= (be R|6> —100) 19, Find ihe domain and range ofeach ofthe given functions of areal variable, In each ese, determine whether the functions one-to-one and wheter ition (a) [BB] f: R— R defined by f(x) =x° (b) g: R > R defined by g(x) = x/x] (©) B: (4,00) — Fidefined by A(x) = log,(3x ~ 4) @ + Redefined by f(x) = 2°"! +3 20. (a) [BB] Define f: R > Alby f(x) = 3x° +x. Graph 1 wodetermine wheter fis one40-one andor onto. (b) [BB] Define f: Z > Z by f(x) = 3x° + x. Deter- nin (wth reasons) whether fis one-one andor onto. 21. (a) Define g: R > Aby g(x) =x? — 4 +1. Graph g tocdetermine wheter gis one-to-one andr nt. (b) Define g: Z + Zby g(x) = 4° —« +1. Determine (with reasons) whether g is one-to-one and/or onto. (©) Repeat (b) for the function g: N —> N defined by sW=ae-r4l 3.4 Basic Terminology 79 22. Detemine whether each ofthe following defines a one tone andlor at ono fonction, Ether give a poof or exhibit a counterexample to justy every answer, {@) [BB] f(1.m) = 2n + 3m: f:NxN > N (0) (0B) flr.) = 2n-4 3m; f:ZxZ—>2Z (©) fam) = n+ 22m; f Nx NN (€) fla.) = 890 + Mm fi 2x2» Z (tins |= (=17)246) + 47089) (© fam) =a em |; {2x2 N © flan) = (2) +b fe NN 23. Let.a.b.c be real numbers and define f: > R by fs) = 0) axe ba +e. Prove that J i one 10-0n€ ifand only iy #2 implies af + na 4x3 +a + n)+be0 Fe cah ofthe following, nthe Ingest subst A of . Such thal the given formula for f(2) dines a function J withdamain A Give the range off ches (@) (81 fo) = © so In cach ofthe following cases, explain why the given finetion i not one-one. Then rec the domain of the function to as lg ast as possible 0 a to make a one-to-one function, (a) f= (o,a),(0,9).(€.9). ie) (@) [BB] f: Al Redefined by f(s) = 42+ 12x—9 (© f: A> Reine by f(s) = sinx 26, Let § be a set conaining the number 5, Lat A= (7:5 > S}be these ofall functions § —> 5. For fae Adetne f~ git) = 40) Ga) Prove that ~ defines an equivalence relation on A. (©) Find the equivalence clas of f = ((5.0), (0) (b.b)} mite case $= (8.0) 27 Let A be a set end let f: A> A be a function. For sy € Avdsinex~9 iff) = FO) (a) Prove tht ~ isn equivalence relation on A (0) For A = Rand f(x) = Ls in he equivalence ciate of, and —} (6 Suppose A= (1,2,3,4.5.6) and f = (0.2) 21D, GD, G3), 6.6) (6, D) Bind al guise alenc classes. 28, (BB) Let X = (a,b) and ¥ = (1,2,3). (a) Listall the fantions from X 0 Y and ¥ 10. (0) Listall the one-to-one factions from X to ¥ and ¥ tox (©) List lhe ont function from X to ¥ and Y to X 2, Let X= (a,b, cand ¥ = (1.2.3.4). (@) How many one-to-one futon are there rom X > Yan Y'~» X? In cach as, ital the functions (0) How nay onto function ar there X°—+ ¥ and YX? Ineach tse, tal the functions. m4BO CHAPTERS Functions 30, [BB) Given a set X containing m containing n elements, guess a genk numberof functions X > ¥, (A table showing the pos sible values for each possible pair ma € {1,2,3,4) may be helpful) 31. Suppose 4 and B are sets, A containing n elements and B containing m elements. (a) If > m, prove that no function A+ B can be ‘one-to-one, (©) fm > n, prove that no function A> B can be onto, 32. (a) [BB (—+)] Suppose that A and B are sets each con: 3.2 Inverses and Composition taining the same (finite) umber of elements and thy J: A Bisa function, Prove that f is one-to-one iad only iff is onto. (b) Give an example of a one-to-one function Ny that is not onto, Doss this contradict (a)? Explain, (©) Give an example of an onto function N —> N that ig rot one-to-one, Does this contradict (a)? Explain, 33, [BB] Let f: A> Robe defined by f(x) = x + (x) (a) Graph this function, (0) Find the domain and range of f 34. Define $: FL» Roby s(x) = 4 — [XJ Iss one-to-one? fy ‘tonto? Explain EXAMPLE 13 relocate EXAMPLE 14 The Inverse of a Function ‘Suppose that f is a one-to-one onto function from A to B. Given any b € B, there exists a € A such that f(a) = b (because f is onto) and only one such a (because J is one-to-one). Thus, for each b € B, there is precisely one pair of the form (a,b) € f. It follows that the set {(b.a) | (a,b) € f), oblained by reversing the ordered pairs of f. is a function from B to A (since each element of B occurs precisely once as the first coordinate of an ordered pai). IA =(1,2,3,4) and B = (x, y,,f) then £=(0.9.29),G.2.4.0) ‘one onto function from A to B and, reversing its pairs, we obtain a 2 is a one. function B > A: {(%, 1). (942). 3). (1.4) A function f: A> B hasan inverse if and only ifthe set obtained by reversing the ordered pairs of fis a function B > A. If f: A —> B has an inverse, the function = {((,4) | (a,b) ef) is called the inverse of f. * We pronounce f~! as “f inverse,” terminology that should not be confused with 4: f-" is simply the name ofa certain function, the inverse of 2 Tif: A — Bhas an inverse f-': B > A, then f-! also has an inverse because reversing the pairs of f-' gives the function f: thus, ¢f-!)! =f. WA =(1,2,3,4) and B no (x, y,2,f},and (1,29, 2.y 82.4.0 then {6x 1), (92), 3), (4) 4.0) = r 10,2), 2.9), ( and (f-')-! ‘Readers may wonder whether itis ever possible for f-! and 4 40 coincide, Indeed its, and this observation led to an article by R. Cheng, A. Dasgupta, B. R. Ebanks, LF Larson and RB. MeFadden, “When Does American Mathematical Monthty 18 (1998), no 8, 704-717Peeinnoas EXAMPLE 15 EXAMPLE 16 EXAMPLE 17 3.2 Inverses and Composition @4 1 At the beginning of this discussion, we saw that any one-to-one onto function has an inverse. On the other hand, suppose that a function f: A —> # has an inverse f-": B > A. Then f must he onto for, given b € B, there is some pair (b.a) € F- (since dom f-! = B), and so the pair (a, 6) is in f, Moreover, f Must be one-to-one. Why? ’ ‘So we have the following proposition. A function f: A —+ B has an inverse B > A if and only if f is one-to-one and onto, For any function g, remember that (x,y) € g if and only if y = g(x); in Particular, (b, a) € f-' if and only if a = f-1(b). Thus, a= f(b)» b,a)e fo (a,b) € f b= f(a), ‘The equivalence of the first and last equations here is very important: Q) £7'(b) if and only if f(a) F711. then we can conclude that For example, if for some function f, Sr) = -7. If f4) =2,then4 = f-'Q). The solution to the equation 2x = Sis x = $ = 2-5. Generally, to solve the equation ax = b, we ask if a # 0, and if this isthe case, we multiply each side of ‘the equation by a~', obtaining x = a~'b ice all real numbers except 0 have ‘a multiplicative inverse, checking that a # O'is just checking that a has an inverse, ‘We solve the equation f(x) = y for x in the same way we solve ax = b for x. We first ask if f has an inverse and, if it does, apply f~' to each side of the ‘equation, obtaining x = f-'(y). ‘The “application” of f~! to each side of the equation y = f(x) is very much like multiplying each side by f~!. “Multiplying by f~!" may sound foolish, but there isa context (called group theory) in which it makes good sense. Our intent here is justo provide a good way to remember the fundamental relationship expressed in (2). If f: R > Ris defined by f(x) = 2x — 3, then f is one-to-one and onto, so an inverse function exists. According to (2), if y = f~'(x), then x = f(y) = 2y — 3. Thus, y = hr +3) =f. . Let A = {x € R| x < 0), B = {x € R| x > 0} and define f: A > B by f(x) = x°, This is just the squaring function with domain restricted so that it is one-to-one as well a8 onto, Since f is one-to-one and onto, it has an inverse. To obtain f—!(x), let y = f~!(x), deduce [by the relationship expressed in (2)] that ‘f (9) =x and so y? = x, Solving for y, we get y= + VF. Since.x = f(y), y € A. 50 y <0. Thus, y = —/¥; f(x) =~. Denoting the positive real numbers by R*, let f: > R* be defined by f(x) = 38, Since f is one-to-one and onto, it has an inverse. To find f~'(x), let y F-'Go) and write down its equivalent form, x = f(y) = 3°. Solving for y, we get Togs x. So f-'(x) = logs x. .| Se y 2 CHAPTERS Functions nd define f: A > Roby f(x) = =% PROBLEM 18. Let A= (x | # g f has an inve 80. U Is f one-to-one? Find mg f. Explain why 2A > ™Bz bas an inverse, Fing dom f-!,mg f-!, and a formula for f“'(*) 4az 4a 2 AB 50 Baya ~ 4a, Solution, Suppose (as) = flex). Then <7 = Ja, =T ae Baja; ~ day, hence ay = ap. Thus J is one-0 Next, yempf © y=fla)forsomereA ‘o> there isan.x € A such thal Y = 5 © there is an.x € A such that 2x) — 4@ there is an x € A such that x(2y ~ 4) = comes 0= xists. On the other the equation x(2y ~ 4) = y becomes 0 = 2 me x as . othe hand, if y 2, then 2y — 4 # 0 and so, dividing by 2 ~ 4, we =3y Le thats, € A. See PAUSE 4.) Thus y € mg J eR|y #2) i ‘one and onto, it has an inverse f-': B > . To find f-"(x), set (tis easy to see that such xis neve if and only if y # 2. Some f Since f: A > B is on Also, dom f-! = mg f = B and mg f~! = dom f = y= f-\G@), Then and, solving for y, we get y = 4a tle. a Let y #2 be a real number and letx Show that x # ‘The following important property of f~! will be used in Section 3.3. If f: A > Bis one-to-one and onto, then f-!: B + A is also one-to-one and ono, Prove Proposition 32.3. 1 Composition of Functions Wf: A B mad g: B— C are functions, then the composition of ¢ and fis the function g 0 f: Ar C defined by (g © f)(a) = g(f(a)) for alla € A. + EXAMPLE 19 IA = [a,b,c], B= (x,y), and C = (u,v, w),andif f: A> Bandg: B>C are the functions SHEN OMG g (x4), 0, w)} |y EXAMPLE 20 EXAMPLE 21 EXAMPLE 22 5 EQUALITY OF ans 3.2 Inverses and Composition 6 then (0 fila) = g(F(a)) = g(a) = 0 (0 fib) = Bf) = #09) = w. (eo fle) = gif(O) = atx) = 4 and so go f = {(a, 1), (b, w), (c,)). . ‘og. Inthis last example. for instance. fog is Itis seldom the case that go f tinguish between “the composition ot even defined, We must be careful then to of g and f" and “the composition of f and g’ IE f and g are the functions R > R defined by $@)=2x-3, gala? tl, then both g o f and f og are defined and we have (0 fx) = BF) = BAe -3) = 2-3" +1 and (Fe g)a) = flea) = f@? +I) = 20? +1) -3. ‘Thus, even when both f © g and g 0 f are defined, it is unlikely that f © ge / In the definition of go f, its required that mg f < B = dom g. It f: > Rand 8: R\ (I) > Rare the functions defined by f(x) =2e-3 and g(x) then go f isnot defined because mg f =F domg. On the other hand, f 0 gis defined and . (Fog) =2(5)- If f: A— Ais any function and «denotes the identity function on A, then f ois a function A> A. Also, for any a € A, (f 0)(a) = f(e(a)) = f(a). Similarly, (0 f)la) = F(a) forany a € A. Thus, fo = f = f. Iti for just this reason that is called the identity function on Ait behaves with respect 10 © the way the number I behaves with respect to multiplication. . ‘Under what conditions are two functions f: A —> B and g: C -> D equal? In the first place, A = C and B = D, so the functions must have the same domain and the same target. Second, remembering that a function is a set and that two sets are equal ifand only i they contain the same elements, iff = g, then (a,b) € f if and only if (a,b) € g. ‘Thus, for any a € A, the common domain ofthe functions, b = f(a) = g(a). ‘We are led to the following necessary and suflicient condition for the equality of functions. Functions {and g are equal if and only if they have the same domain, the same target, and f(a) = g(a) for every ain the common domain. wit fo1 = f in Example 22. We noted that each of the @ Notice how we proved vf ovand f was a function A > A and then proved that (f:)(a) functions for alla € A. esEER tenoascuon Proof M4 CHAPTERS Functions Suppose f: A -> B isa funetion, Explain why ¢ ° ’ One of the fundamental properties of composition of functions isthe conten oy the next proposition. Composition of functions is an associative operation. Let J. g, and A be functions. We must prove that (f 0.8) oh = ¥'9 (8 oh) wenn cach ide ofthis equation is defined. We Tea itt the reader to vey that this occurs precisely when, for certain sets A. B, C, and D. his a function ‘A> Bog isa function B -» C, and f is afunction C — D. In this cas, each of (f og) oh and f o(¢ oh) is a function A > D, 80 We have only to prove thar (Seg) eh\(a) = (fF 0 (@ oh))(a) for any a € A. For this, we have (fog) ohVa) = (fF ognhta)) = f(g and (Fo(goh)(a) = fg ona) = Sea) as desired, If f: A> B has an inverse f-!: B > A, then, recalling (2), f(b) =a if and only if b = f(a). So for any a € A, Nb) = f-\f@) = flo f@- In other words, the composition f~!o f = ta, the identity function on A. Similarly, for any element b € B, b= fla) = f(f")) = fof» = tp is the identity function on B. We summarize, ‘Thus, the composition f 0 f~ Functions f: A> B and g: B > A are inverses if and only if g o f= t4 and fog = tas that is, and only if g(f(a)) =a and f(g(b)) = b foralla € A andall b € B. PROBLEM 23, Show thatthe functions f : R > (1,00) and g: (1, 00) > Fdefined by FG) S341, ge are inverses. Solution, For any x € R (go fia) +1) BLO) = y(log3l3** +1) — 1p)- ST 3.2. Inverses and Composition 8S and for any x € (1, 60), (Fe g)ix) = f(g) = FC lous(x = 1) = dine 4 = Peet By Proposition 3.2.7, f and g are inver - ___We have noted the similarity in the solutions to the equations ax = b and F(x) = y. Ifa (or f) has an inverse, we multiply by this inverse and obtain x = @'b(orx = f-1(y)). Itis interesting also to observe that the connection between a and its inverse a~ (their product is 1) is strikingly similar to the connection between F and its inverse f" (their composition is the identity function), 3. Suppose f(a1) = f(az) for some a, az € A. Let b = f(ai) (= f(az)). Then (a), 5) and (a;,6) are both in f,s0 (b, a) and (b, a3) ave both in f-'. But f-* is a function, and so each element of B occurs just once as the first coordinate ‘of an ondered pair in f~'. 1 follows that a = a; f is one-to-one 2y — 4, 300 = —4, which is not 4, eross-multiplying gives 2 5. To show that f~! is one-to-one, assume f—'(b,) = f-\ba). Setting ay = F7'(b)) and ay = f-'(bn), we have ay = ay. Therefore. bs = Flas) = by. To show that f-" is onto, leta € A. Then f(a) a= f-'(b) as desired, 6. Since f: A+ B and cg: B > B, the composition 1g 0 f is also a function A B. Also,foranya € A,tgo f(a) = ta(f(a)) = f(a), because f(a) € B and 1p(b) =D for all € B. Thus, the functions ¢g © f and f are equal. ue/False Questions (Answers can be found inthe back ofthe book) 1. The function 2: N— N defined by fx) 2 The function f: Z—> Z defined by f(x) = x + 1 hasan imerse A The function f: Z-> Z defined by f(x) = 2x + | hasan inverse 4. The function f: R—> defined by f(x) = 2x-+ 1 has an inverse. 6 + 1 hasan inverse. . Assuming fis fun ~1(b) ifand only if f(b) If f: A+ B is one-to-one, then there exists a subset C of B suc that f= A —> C bas 7. ef: A> Bis om, then there exists a subset D of A such that f: D> B has an 8 Assuming fis functi 9, For functions f and g, (8 0 f(x with an inverse, (f-!! = fh (9) F(0 W ver both sides are defined 10, 1f f and g are functions and « is in the domain of g 6 f, then «isin the domain of f8G CHAPTERS Functions The answers to exercises marked [BB] cam be found inthe Back of the Book 1. (BB) Let A = (1, 2.3.4, 5) Find the inverse of each of the following functions fi: A > A @ £=10.2.2,9.8,4).4.5,6,0) ©) £=(0.2.2,9.8,3),4.0.6.9)) 2, [BB] Define f: 10,00) > (00.0) by f(x) Find a formal for !(x), 3. Define f: (00,0) -> {0,00) by flay = 3%. Find a formula for f(x) 4, Define f: (0,20) > (-20,0) by f(x) formula for f-') S. Let fag: R > Ze the floor and ceiling functions re spectively. Compute f g(x) and go f(s). 6. Graph each ofthe following functions and fnd each in- verse. Specify the domain and range ofeach inverse. (a) (BB] f: RR given by f(a) =3r+5 () J: > Rgivendy f(s) =x? -2 (©) B: (4,00) + Riven by B(x) = log,C3x ~ 4) (@ g: R> Regiven by s(x) = 7 Show that each ofthe following functions f: A + Ris ‘one-to-one. Find the range ofeach function anda suitable (@) (BB) A= [x ER |x #4}, 6) = 14 Vi Find a () A=(re Rix 4-1), Fe) 8 Define f:Z> Nby soy={ 2M, TT SQ (a) Show that fas an inverse (b) Find f-!(2586) 9. Suppose is the set ofall married people, mother: A > ‘As the function that assigns to each martied person his forher mother and father and spouse have similar mean- ings. Give sensible interpretations of each of the follow (2 (88) meter moter (b) mother father (©) fathero mother (@ mothers spouse (©) spouse omotner () fathero spouse (®) spouse o spouse (h) (Spouse father) o mother (spouse o (father emather) 10, Let § = (1,2,3.4,5) and T = (1.2,3,8,9) and define functions f:'S + T and g:S > S by f= (0,8,G,9, 43.20.52) and g = 10.2)... 2.2), 4,3). 6.2)} (a) (BB) Find f og orexplain why f 08 isnot defined, Repeat forg © f, fo f.and #0 8. (b) Which of f, g are one-to-one? Which are onto? Ex. pli, (©) Find f-! if it exists It doesnt explain why not. (@) Find g~!ifit exists, IF it doesn’t, explain why not AL, Let S = (1.2.3.4) and define functions fg: 5 > Sy f = ((1,3),22),G.4).4,D} and g = (0,4), @,3).G,.4,2)). Find efor — (b) fos tog (a) (BIg © sofort @ gogtof © flog tofogs 12, (BB) Lot f,g, and h: > Fibe defined by 1 aur N=. fons, 40 Compute g © f(x), fo g(x) hogo f(x), g eho fix), go f-'o f(x)and f-'oge f(x). Ba Lad tet ga = (ee RI <>) ad dt Fenny 1 nperet f=. aw Find g 0 f(2), fo ghogo f(x)and f og ox), 14, (BB) Let f: R—> Ribea function, let c be a real number, and define g: > Riby g(x) =. ~c. Explain how the graphs of f and g 0 f ate related 18, Let f: R— Rbe a function, let be a real number, and define g: RR by g(x) = x —c, Explain how the graphs of f and f 0 are related, 16, Let f: R > Pibe a funtion and let g: R > Ribe de- fined by x(x) = =[x), (a) [BB] How are the graphs of f and f 0 g related? (b) How are the graphs of f and g 0 f related? 17, Let A denote the set R\ (0, 1}. Let « denote the identity funetion on A and define the functions f,g,h, s.r: A > Aby fo(@) Show that fog = cand gor = 5, Ci & = Cand gor = s, Complete the table, thereby showing thatthe composition of any ‘wo of the given functions is one ofthe given five, or the identity.” 7] jes ea slo] () Which ofthe given six functions have inverses? Find (and identify) any inverses that exist, 18, Let A = (1,2, 3) and define fi, fo. fs. fu fo! A> A a follows: A=(0.0,2.3),6,2) A ={(1,3),@,2),6,0)) f= (0.2), 2,0,6.3) fe=(0,2),2.3),8,0) =10,3).2.1),6,2)) (a) Show that each composite function fi © f) is one of the given functions, or the identity, by complet ing a table like the following one.* For example, if fro fa = fa, the entry in row fy, column fy, should bef RIAA AR ERE fh fr f te all (b) Find the inverses of those ofthe six functions in (a) that have inverses 19, Let $= (1,2,3,4,5} and let f,g.h: S > S be the functions defined by Ff =(0,2.2,D,8,9,4,9.6.3) £=((1,3),2,5).B.1064.2) (5,9) f= ((1,2),2,2, 84.4.3). Dh (a) [BB] Find fog and go. Are these functions equal? (b) Explain why f and g have inverses but fs does not Find f~ and g"'. (©) Show hat (f ogy! = sof) # F108"! The ale {group isthe smallest one Ut is not commutative. as with Exercise 17, this table also describes the multi 20, a. 2 my 25, 26. co 28, 3.2 Inverses and Composition 87 [BB] Let A = (x € Rx #2) and B= (x Al x 1). Define f: A > Band g: B+ Aby fa) = si) = z=1 (a) Find (f © g)(x. (b) Are f and g inverses? Explain Let A bea subset of Rand suppose f: A —> A isa func- son wth he property that f-!) = = forall x € A (a) Show that 0 ¢ (b) Show that J* = «4, the identity function on A. (By Ff wemean fo fo fof) Suppose f: A + Band g: B > C are functions (a) (BB) If go f is one-to-one and f is onto, show that ‘is one-to-one. (b) IF go f is onto and g is one-to-one, show that f is onto, 4. (@) [BB] Prove thatthe composition of one-to-one func- Bol (997), and (996). (©) Guess the range of f. ~__ is one-to-one. Vee Find mg f and a suitable inverse. Let: Fl be the function defined by r(x) (@) Graph 1 and use this to decide whether ¢ has an in- 2x) - (b) (BB) Prove that ¢ is one-to-one without using the graph oft (©) Prove that is onto without using the graph oft (@) Find a formula for (x) a will cnstract inthis exereise isthe multiplication table for an important mathematical object known asa group. This paticular ication forthe smallest group that is not commutative