Cause of ratio error and phase error in PT

RATIO ERROR:

PHASE ANGLE ERROR

Function of isolator
BULK OIL, MINIMUM OIL AND AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT
BREAKER
#comparisons of static relay and electromagnetic relay
Static differential relay
Need of protection system in power system

Various causes of electrical fault:

#Difference between measuring and protective CT:
Measuring CTs and protective CTs are two types of current transformers used in electrical
systems. Although they may look similar, they have different functions and designs.
Measuring CTs are used for metering and monitoring purposes. They are designed to
accurately measure the current flowing through a conductor and provide a proportional
output signal that can be used for monitoring and control purposes. Measuring CTs have a
high degree of accuracy and a low saturation point, which means they can accurately
measure current even at very low levels.
Protective CTs, on the other hand, are used for protective relaying applications. They are
designed to detect fault conditions in the electrical system and provide a signal to protective
relays to initiate a trip or other protective action. Protective CTs have a high saturation
point, which means they can withstand high currents during fault conditions without
saturating and distorting the output signal.
Protective CTs also have a higher burden rating than measuring CTs, which means they can
handle higher currents without causing damage to the CT or the connected protective relay.

Difference between fuse and MCB

Classification of circuit breaker
Circuit breakers can be classified based on several criteria. The most common basis for
classification is based on their operating mechanism, voltage level, and application.
Based on Operating Mechanism:

• Air Circuit Breaker (ACB): Uses air as the medium for arc interruption. Suitable for
low voltage applications.
• Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB): Uses oil as the medium for arc interruption. Suitable for
high voltage applications.
• Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB): Uses vacuum as the medium for arc interruption.
Suitable for medium and high voltage applications.
• SF6 Circuit Breaker: Uses SF6 gas as the medium for arc interruption. Suitable for
high voltage applications.
Based on Voltage Level:

• Low Voltage Circuit Breaker: Operates at a voltage level below 1000V.

• Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker: Operates at a voltage level between 1000V and
72.5 kV.
• High Voltage Circuit Breaker: Operates at a voltage level above 72.5 kV.
Based on Application:

• Residential Circuit Breaker: Used in homes for protection of individual circuits.

• Commercial Circuit Breaker: Used in commercial and industrial settings to protect
multiple circuits and equipment.
• Industrial Circuit Breaker: Used in heavy-duty industrial applications to protect large
motors and machinery.
Based on Construction:

• Indoor Circuit Breaker: Designed for indoor use.

• Outdoor Circuit Breaker: Designed for outdoor use and can withstand harsh weather
conditions.
Based on Tripping Mechanism:

• Thermal Circuit Breaker: Operates on the principle of thermal expansion and is used
for overcurrent protection.
• Magnetic Circuit Breaker: Operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction
and is used for short circuit protection.
• Hybrid Circuit Breaker: Uses a combination of both thermal and magnetic principles
for overcurrent and short circuit protection.
In summary, circuit breakers can be classified based on their operating mechanism, voltage
level, application, construction, and tripping mechanism. The classification system is used to
determine the most suitable type of circuit breaker for a specific application.

Component of static relay with block diagram [8 marks]

Basic Elements of Static Relay:
The below shows the block diagram of the static relay with essential elements.

Static Relay - its Definition, Block Diagram, Advantages & Limitations

Input Element: Generally, the input to the relay will be either current or voltage or both the
quantities obtained from the CT and PT connected in the circuit to be protected. But in the
case of static relays, it cannot be directly connected to the CT and PT. Thus, an electronic
circuit such as a rectifier is used to convert the input quantity obtained from the CT and PT
into a convenient form that can be measurable by the measuring element. Some mixing
circuits such as op-amp and adder are also used in the input element circuit and sometimes
the input signal obtained can be from a transducer or combination of various signals.

Measuring Element: It is the major element in the whole relay. Basically, it comprises a
comparator that compares the output signal from the input element with a preset value. It
generates an output signal based on the comparison i.e., when there is a fault in the circuit
it protects, and the signal is applied to the output element which in turn drives the tripping
circuit.
Output Element: The output element is basically an amplifier. The output obtained from the
measuring element needs to be amplified before applying it to the trip circuit. Thus the
output element strengthens the output signal obtained from the measuring element with
the help of an amplifier which is used to drive the trip circuit. Other than amplifiers it also
contains multipliers that combines the signal with other signals to delay them.
Feed Element: The feed element provides the required dc supply to all the electronics
circuits along with the tripping circuit present in the relay.
Advantages of Static Relays :

• In static relays moving parts and contacts are greatly reduced as the designed
response is being developed by incorporating solid-state components like transistors
and diodes, without mechanical motion. Hence, friction or contact losses are absent
as a result of minimum. maintenance is required.
• Static relays have a high speed of operation.
• They have greater sensitivity as amplification of signals can be obtained very easily
by the use of semiconductor devices.
• Resetting time and overshoots can be reduced..
• Several functions can be accommodated in a static relay.
• Static relays have superior characteristics and accuracy.
• Static relays consume less power compared to conventional electromechanical
relays and provide less burden on the CTs and PTs.
• By making use of the linear couplers in place of CTs reduces the cost and solves the
difficulty of the DC component of the fault current.
• They have excellent mechanical stability which is not possible with the
electromechanical relays.
• They are not affected by the vibrations as they are compact in size and has long life.
Limitations of Static Relays :

• The characteristics of semiconductors devices (such as transistors, diodes, etc.) used

in static relays vary with temperature and aging.
• They are sensitive to voltage transients.
• They are not robust in construction.
• The reliability of static relays depends upon a large number of small components and
their electrical connections.
• Easily affected by surrounding interference.
• Static relays have low short-time overload capacity compared with
electromechanical relays.
• These relays could not meet practical requirements and hence are never used for
commercial purposes.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC RELAY AND ELCTROMAGNETIC RELAY:
Class of current transformer error and terms related associated with it:
There are five major class named as Accuracy class 0.1, 0.2,0.5. 1.0,5.0. the categorization is
based on the percentage error they show. The first three class are used in high precision
metering application where the error plays significant role. While the later two are used in
protection application where a good degree of accuracy is required (high degree not
required).

• Current Error: The current error is the difference between the primary current and
the secondary current, expressed as a percentage of the rated primary current.
Ideally, a CT should have zero current error, meaning that the secondary current
accurately reflects the primary current. However, due to various factors such as the
magnetic properties of the core material and the quality of the winding, there can be
some current error in practical CTs. The current error is specified as a percentage of
the rated primary current, with typical values ranging from 0.1% to 10%.

• Phase Displacement Error: The phase displacement error is the angle between the
primary current and the secondary current, expressed in degrees or minutes. Ideally,
the secondary current should be in phase with the primary current, meaning that the
two currents are aligned in time. However, due to various factors such as the core
geometry and winding configuration, there can be a phase displacement between
the primary and secondary currents. The phase displacement error is specified as the
angle between the primary and secondary currents, with typical values ranging from
a few minutes to several degrees.

• Composite Error: The composite error is the combination of the current error and
the phase displacement error, expressed as a percentage of the rated primary
current. Since both the current error and phase displacement error can contribute to
the overall measurement error of a CT, it's important to consider the composite
error when specifying the accuracy of a CT. The composite error is typically specified
as a percentage of the rated primary current, with typical values ranging from 0.1%
to 10%.