CNG Programmer's Guide Rick CalverleyProgrammer's Guide "iets Lincoln Col alge of Technology Grand Prairie, TensCopyright © 2024 by ‘The Goodheart-Willeox Company, Inc. ‘All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without the prior written permission of ‘The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. Library of Congress Control Number: 2022942616 ISBN 97841-63776-702-3 123436789 -24-27 26 2524.23 22 “The GoodheastWilleox Company, Ine. 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As the manufacturing industry grows and previous genera tions of workers continue to retire, companies are experiencing difficulties filling skilled positions. This is a great time to be entering the field of manufacturing! In the past, manufacturing facilites were filled with manually operated mills and lathes, a skilled machinist crafting parts at each machine, Today, manufacturing facilities are filled with computer numerical control (CNC} machines, and CNC programmers and operators use these machines to pro- duce parts at a higher level of quality, a higher rate of production, and a higher level of consistency than was attainable in the past. CNC programmers are highly skilled professionals. They have a funda- mental understanding of machine technology, machining operations, cutting tools, and part workholding methods. Along with this knowledge, CNC pro- grammers possess a detailed understanding of programming commands and functions used to control the machine. CNC programmers ate also able to work efficiently with machining personnel in today’s fast-paced production environment. Advancing technology in the manufacturing industry requires a new edu- cational approach to prepare tomorrow's workforce, Students must be able to develop the relevant skills needed for career success. CNC Programmer's Guide has been designed to meet these needs. This text will help students prepare for a career in the exciting field of CNC machining. “The content of this text is organized in three sections. The first section, CNC Mill Programming, covers the commands, functions, and programming techniques used in CNC’ milling operations. The second section, CNC Lathe Programming, covers the commands, functions, and programming techniques used in CNC lathe operations. The third section, Subprogramming, Probe Pro- gramming, and Macros, covers subprogramming applications, probe program- ming, macro programming, and advanced topics. This content organization is designed for different course structures and flexibility in training programs. The three sections contain comprehensive coverage focused on specific machine processes and programming applications. CNC Programmer's Guide features an extensive number of programs throughout the text to illustrate examples of how CNC operations are pro- grammed. These are practical examples with detailed explanations to help students understand how codes work and when they are used. Depending on the CNC machine and controller type, programming commands and functions ‘can vary significantly. This text explains different programming formats where appropriate, with an emphasis on Haas and Fanuc controllers. CNC Programmer's Guide employs a building-block approach to present fundamental concepts before progressing to more advanced topics. Program- ming commands and formats are introduced before specific types of opera- tions are covered. Coverage includes processes involved in program planning, machine setup, and part verification. The primary focus of CNC Programmer's Guide is CNC programming techniques and practices. For more in-depth coverage of CNC manufactur- ing, including CNC machining technology, machine types, tooling, and advanced topics, refer to CNC Manufacturing Technology, also published by Goodheart-Willcox.Eo eee ae About the Author Rick Calverley is the Director of Education at Lincoln College of Tech- nology in Grand Prairie, Texas, where he designed and implemented Lin- coln’s first program in CNC Machining and Manufacturing Technology. As a third-generation machinist, trained mold makes, tool and die maker, and CNC multiaxis programmer, Mr. Calverley has seen this industry go through radical changes. He started his career in 1982, running manual machinery in his father’s shop. During his 30+ years of making parts, he has produced parts used to make turbochargers, transmissions, plastic injection molds, aircraft parts, and even parts for the International Space Station. Before joining Lincoln, Mr. Calverley worked as a CNC program- mer for several manufacturing firms, including Solidiform, Inc., a defense contractor in the aerospace industry. Mr. Calverley is the author of CNC Manufacturing Technology. He holds an AS degree in marine technology from the College of Oceaneer- ing, and has completed additional college-level industry and academic pro- grams. He holds all 12 NIMS Machining Level 1 certifications, as well as three Mastercam Associate Level certifications. Calverley has served on the national councils for the Fabricators and Manufacturers Association, the Mastercam Educators Alliance, and the Haas Technical Education Community. He also established the first National Tooling and Machining Association student chapter. Acknowledgments The author and publisher wish to thank the following companies, organi- zations, and individuals for their contribution of resource material, images, or other support in the development of CNC Programmer's Guide. ‘The author and publisher extend special appreciation to Madalyn Belle Photography for substantial contribution to the photography program. CNC Software, Inc. Haas Automation, Inc. Iscar Rick Calverley thanks his wife, Gina, and his five sons—Jacob, Zech, Sam, Gabe, and Israel—for the support they provided throughout the pro- cess of writing this textbook.Reviewers ‘The author and publisher wish to thank the following industry and teaching professionals for their valuable input into the development of CNC Programmer's Guide. Danny R. Adkins Ivy Tech Community College Evansville, IN Brian Aiken Pickens County Career and Technology Center Liberty, SC Brendan Anderson SUNY Alfred State College Alfred, NY David Black ‘Anderson W. Clark Magnet High School Glendale, CA Daniel Colquitt Baker College Flint, MI Ed Doherty Suncoast Technical College Sarasota, FL Jeremy Dutton Gateway Technical College Kenosha, WI Joel Eisele ‘Monroe Community College Rochester, NY William Gelches Delaware County Community College Media, PA Paul Gorsky Lincoln Technical Institute Mahwah, NJ Douglas Green Solano Community College Fairfield, CA Eugene L. Horst Jr. SUNY Morrisville Morrisville, NY Michael E. Jones York County Community College Wells, ME Jack Krikorian Technology and Manufacturing Association Schaumburg, IL Angel Madiedo Palm Beach State College Lake Worth, FL Carrie Marsico Cuyahoga Community College Cleveland, OH Eric McKell Brigham Young University Provo, UT Alister McLeod Indiana State University Terre Haute, IN ‘Terry Morse Delta College University Center, MI Mathieu Ordiway-Thiem Lockheed Martin High Speed ‘Wind Tunnel Dallas, TX Todd Sanders Danville Community College Danville, VA Kevin Schmidt ‘Camden County College Blackwood, NJ Derek Seeke Guilford Technical Community College Jamestown, NC Rich Shouse Gateway Technical College Kenosha, WI Vincent Stadler Monroe Community College Rochester, NY. Jason Taylor Shelton Seate Community College Tuscaloosa, AL John Templeton NTMA Training Centers of Southern California Santa Fe Springs, CA Steve B. Tornero Stark State College North Canton, OH Jacob Tucker Pasadena City College Pasadena, CA Leonard Walsh Goodwin University East Hartford, CT Chris Waterworth Greater Lawrence Technical School Andover, MA Brian Wickham Hudson Valley Community College ‘Troy, NYFeatures of the Textbook ‘The instructional design of this textbook includes stu- dent-focused learning tools to help you succeed. This visual guide highlights these features. Chapter Opening Materials Each chapter begins with a chapter outline, a list of learning objectives, and a list of key technical terms. ‘The Chapter Outline summarizes the topics that will be covered in the chapter. The Learning Objectives clearly identify the knowledge and skills to be gained when the chapter is completed. The Key Terms list the key techni- cal terms to be learned in the chapter. When key terms are introduced, they are highlighted in bold italic type. Additional Features Additional features are used throughout the body of ‘each chapter to further learning and knowledge. Safety Notes alert you to potentially dangerous practices and conditions. From the Programmer features provide practical advice and guidance that is especially appli- cable on the job. Debugging the Code features explain proper use of programming commands and help you develop troubleshooting skills. 10 Hole Machining OperationsChapter 28 Review suman, Illustrations Illustrations have been designed to clearly and simply communicate the specific topic. The text makes exten- sive use of detailed illustrations and photographs to support explanations of concepts. Program Examples Numerous Program Examples show students the pro- grammed code corresponding to discussions in the text. These examples are set off from the main text with color highlighting. Explanations of specific codes appear to the right of the lines in the program. End-of-Chapter Content End-of-chapter material provides an opportunity for review and application of concepts. A concise Summary provides an additional review tool and reinforces key learning objectives. This helps you focus on important concepts presented in the text. Know and Understand questions enable you to demonstrate comprehension of the chapter material. Apply and Analyze questions extend learning and allow you to apply knowledge and skills. Critical ‘Thinking questions help you develop higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills, viiOOLS FOR STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR SUCCESS Student Tools Instructor Tools ‘Student Text LMS Integration CNC Programmer's Guide is a CNC Integrate Goodheart-Willcox content within your Learning comprehensive text that focuses Management System for a seamless user experience for on the techniques, processes, both you and your students, EduHub® LMS-ready content and procedures used by CNC in Common Cartridge® format facilitates single sign-on programmers. integration and gives you control of student enrollment and data, With a Common Cartridge integration, you can access Lab Workbook ‘the LMS features and tools you are accustomed to using and + Hands-on practice G-W course resources in one convenient location—your LMS. includes review questions G-W Common Cartridge provides a complete learning corresponding to each package for you and your students. The included digital chapter in the textbook. resources help your students remain engaged and learn + Lab activities offer students opportunities to effectively: reinforce knowledge and apply programming + Digital Textbook skills, + Online Lab Workbook content G-W Digital Companion + Drilland Practice vocabulary activities For digital users,e-flash cards and vocabulary ‘When you incorporate G-W content into your courses via exercises allow interaction with content to reinforce Common Cartridge, you have the flexibility to customize and knowledge of key terms and topics. structure the content to meet the educational needs of your students, You may also choose to add your own content to the course For instructors, the Common Cartridge includes the Online instructor Resources. QTI° question banks are available within the Online Instructor Resources for import into your LMS. These prebuilt assessments help you measure student knowledge and track results in your LMS gradebook. Questions and tests can be customized to meet your assessment needs Online instructor Resources + The Instructor Resources provide instructors with time- avin preparation took suchas answer keys editable G WEd uHub fesson plans, and other teaching aids. Instructor's Presentations for PowerPoint? are fully customizable, richly illustrated slides that help you teach and visully reinforce the Key concep om each chapter «Administer and manage asessments to meet your classroom needs using Assessment Software with Question Banks, which include hundreds of matching, completion multiple choice, and short answer questions to ates student knowledge ofthe content In each chapter, See www.c-w.com/cne-programmers-guide-2024 for a pee Istoftlavalebleresoures Professional Development + Expert content specialists + Research-based pedagogy and instructional practices + Options for virtual and in-person Professional DevelopmentBrief Contents Section 1—CNC Mill Programming Machining Mathematics for Milling . Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Milling Preparatory Commands: G-Codes. Miscellaneous Functions: M-Code: Address Codes for Mill Programming Steps in Program Planning....... Mill Program Format Contouring. .... Pockets and Slots. 10 Hole Machining Operations. 11 Facing and Island Machining. 12 Setup Sheets............, 13. Machine Setup Oran nons 0 Section 2—CNC Lathe Programming 14 Machining Mathematics for Turning. 288 15 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Turning 2314 16 Preparatory Commands: Lathe G-Codes 334 - 350 . 3% 3% - 430 452 480 - 502 526 17 Miscellaneous Functions and Address Codes for Lathe Programming, 18 Lathe Program Planning. 19 Lathe Contour Programming 20 Hole Machining on a Lathe 21 Programming Grooves and Parting Off Operations 22 Threading . Live Tooling Section 3—Subprogramming, Probe Programming, and Macros 25 Main Programs and Subprograms . 54d 562, 588 604 - 620 - 638 652 26 Subprogramming Techniques . 27 Probing for Work Offsets. . 28 Probing Inside of the Program . 29 On Machine Verification. 31 Additional Tips and Tricks.Contents Section 1 CNC Mill Programming Chapter 1 Machining Mathematics for Milling 1.1 Introduction . 1.2 Converting Fractions to Decimals - 1.3 Geometric Shapes . “ 1.4Angles . . 1.5 Trigonometry. 1.6 Bolt Circles . 1.7 Milling Speeds and Feeds . Chapter 2 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Milling. 2.1 Introduction . 2.2 Number Lit 23 Two-Dimensional Coordinate System .. 2.4 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System ... 2.5 Absolute and Incremental Positioning. 2.6 Machine Home and Work Origi 2.7 Four-Axis Machines... 2.8 Five-Axis Machines 2.9 Polar Coordinates. Chapter 3 Preparatory Comman 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Using G-Codes ina Program . 33 G-Code Commands 3.4SStartup Blocks .... Chapter 4 Miscellaneous Functions: M-Codes . 4d Introduction ........ a 4.2Use of M-Codes . soa wees 2 4.3M-Codes as Program Functions «1... ..-. 64 4.4 M-Codes as Machine Functions ... 68 Chapter 5 Address Codes for Mill Programming 5.1 Introduction. .. 5.2 Address Codes Codes Chapter 6 Steps in Program Planning . 6.1 Introduction... 6.2 Print Review ..... 6.3 Part Workholding. 6.4Tool Selection . 65 Order of Operations Chapter 7 Mill Program Format 71 Introduction . 72 Opening Statement 73 Program Body. 7.4 Program Closing Statemer Chapter 8 Contouring 8.1 Introduction ...... 8.2 Point-to-Point Programming 8.3 Cutter Compensation. 8.4 Calculating Angular Moves . 85 Calculating Radial Moves. 86 Chamfering .... Chapter 9 Pockets and Slots . . 152 91 Introduction ..... 154 9.2 Pocket Milling 156 9.3 Pocket Fi 166 9.4Slots ... 167 Chapter 10 Hole Machining Operations 182 10.1 Introduction ..........-. oo 184 10.2 Hole Shapes and Types oo 186 10.3 Machining Holes : = 190 10.4 Canned Cycles... 192 105 Hole Patterns. ... 203 106 Helical Milling ... 210 10.7 Thread Milling ... -210 Chapter 11 Facing and Island Machining 11,1 Introduction to Facing 11.2 Facing Tools. 11.3 Facing Program Strategy. .11.4 Creating the Facing Program 22226 115 Island Machining 2227 Chapter 12 Setup Sheets. . 238 12.1 Introduction . 240 12.2 Exchange of Information - 240 12.3 Setup Sheets... 24 12.4 Setup Sheet Formats 2263 125 Efficiency in Production ... 205 Chapter 13 Machine Setup 260 13.1 Introduction ........ +262 13.2 Setting the Workholding... 262 13.3 Establishing Work Coordinates ............264 13.4 Establishing Tool Length Offsets .. 268 135 Tool Diameter Offsets. .... . 27% 13.6 Running the First Piece 278 Section 2 CNC Lathe Programming Chapter 14 Machining Mathematics for Turning . 14.1 Introduction . . 14.2 Converting Fractions to Decimals 288 - 290 14.3 Geometric Shapes .. 292 14.4 Angles 296 14.5 Trigonometry. 3 298 14.6 Tapers. . . 303 14.7 Thread Measurements... oe 306 14.8 Turning Speeds and Feeds .. . 308 Chapter 15 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine ‘Aves for Turning ......... +. 34 15.1 Introduction 36 15.2 Number Line 316 15.3 Two-Axis Coordinate System . 2 317 15.4 Machine Home and Part Origin. 325 15.5 C Axis Coordinate Programming ............ 326 Chapter 16 Preparatory Commands: Lathe G-Codes . .. 334 16.1 Introduction 336 16.2 Using G-Codes in a Program 1336, 16.3 G-Code Commands 2338 16.4 Startup Blocks. ..... M6 Chapter 17 Miscellaneous Functions and Address Codes for Lathe Programming. . 171 Introduction . . 350 352 17.2 Use of M-Codes 352 173 M-Codes as Program Functions... 354 1.4M-Codes as Machine Functions . 21359 175 Address Codes ...... » 367 Chapter 18 Lathe Program Planning.......... 181 Introduction 18.2 Print Review . 18.3 Part Workholding . 18.4 Tool Selection 18.5 Order of Oper Chapter 19 Lathe Contour Programming . ... 376 378 2379 381 385 389 396 19.1 Introduction . 398 1922 Point-to-Point Programming. 398 19.3 Tool Nose Radius Compensation 400 19.4 Programming Radial Moves .... 402 195 Programming Angular Moves. . 406 19.8 Turning Canned Cycles. - 408 Chapter 20 Hole Machining on a Lathe. . . + 430 20.1 Introduction . 432 20.2 Hole Drilling Cycles 432 20.3 Machining Holes with Live Tooling. . 439 Chapter 21 Programming Grooves and Parting Off Operations . . . 452 21.1 Introduction . . . 454 21.2 Planning Grooving Programs .. = AG 21.3 Programming Straight Wall Grooves. 458 21.4 Programming Chamfers . 461 21.5 G75 Grooving Cycle. 463 21.6 Tapered Wall Grooves. 66 21.7 Full Radius Grooves 470 21.8 Parting Off. A Chapter 22 Threading. . 480 221 Introduction... = 482 22.2 Thread Terminology... 482 223 Programming Treats. 484 22.4 Tapered Thread: 493 22.5 Multi-Start Threads . 49% xiChapter 23 live Tooling ...........5 ~ 502 23.1 Introduction . - 506 23.2 Special Considerations with Live Tooling... 505 23.3 Radial Hole Machining Canned Oretes. 23.4 Slot Milling. . 235 CAM Software Programs Chapter 24 Lathe Setup 24,1 Introduction... 24.2 Tool Installation 24.3 Tool Offsets . 26.4 Work Offsets... 245 Setup Sheets. 24.6 Setup Sheet Formats 24.7 Efficiency in Production. Section 3 Subprogramming, Probe Programming, and Macros Chapter 25 Main Programs and Subprograms . 251 Introduction ...... 524 537 25.3 Mill Subprogramming .. 25.4 Lathe Subprogramming Chapter 26 Subprogramming Techniques. 26,1 Introduction 262 The Work Coordinate System ooo... 26.3 Using Work Offsets for Subprograms 566 26.4 Lathe Subprogramming ... 2 589 265 Using Subprograms for Multiple Parts an Fixtures cece B72 26.4 Layering Subprograms . 576 267 Contouring Subprograms 578 268 Using Subprograms in Multiaxis Machining. 582 Chapter 27 Probing for Work Offsets. 21.) Introduction ...-...+ 27.2 Bore Probing Cycle... 213 Boss Probing Cycle........ 274 Rectangular Pocket Probing Cyc 275 Rectangular Block Probing Cycle. xi 276 Pocket X Axis Probing Cycle .. 277 Pocket Y Axis Probing Cycle 278 Web X Axis Probing Cycle . 279 Web Axis Probing Cycle .... 2710 Outside Corner Probing Cycle 2711 Inside Corner Probing Cycle . . 2712 Single Surtace Probing Cycle .. Chapter 28 Probing Inside of the Program 28.1 Introduction . . 28.2 Using the Probe as aTool ......- . 28.3 Starting Probe Position and Protected Moves 28.4 Single Surface Measurement. ... 28.5 Web/Pocket Measurement ...... 28.6 Bore/Boss Measurement .. Chapter 29 On Machine Verification . 291 Introduction : 292 Pros and Cons of On Machine Verification 29.3 Tool Offset Adjustment and Tolerance Verification. 623 Chapter 30 Macros . 638 301 Introduction. 30.2 Using Variables in Macros. 30.3 Local Variables. 640 2 6b 6A 30.4 Global Variables . bal 30.5 System Variables nee hd 30.6 Macro Programming Example 648 Chapter 31 Additional Tips and Tricks. 652 31, Introduction .... : 654 31.2 Verifying the Program 654 31.3 Establishing Tool Offsets . = 654 31.4 Running the First Part 656 31.5 CAM Programming. . = 656 31.6 Lathe Taper .. 31.7 Secondl-to-Last Cut and Finish Pass . 31.8 Programming Feed Rates for Arcs 31.9 Subprogramming Applications. 31.10 Metric Programming. ... 3111 Scaling .. - 31.12 Mirror Imaging. Reference Section .... Glossary .. IndexFeature Contents From the Programmer Trigonometric Calculations . poeee 2 13 ‘Speeds and Feeds . W Calculating Spindle Speeds. Coordinate Entry Format Positioning Mode . . G-Code Entry Format : Gél: Left-Hand Cutter Compensation. ‘Sequence of Commands Notes in Programs. Tool and Offset Numbers. Print Specifications . Machining Inside Corners . Machining Slots. Program Entry Format . General Rules for Programming ... - 102 2116 Startup Block seit tats G53: Machine Coordinate System...............117 Program Building and Planning............... 121 Climb Milling. fiteiecee 128 D Offset Number... 132 Coordinate Calculations. 2 136 Climb Milling 156 Machining CAM and High-Sps 2 165 Drill Point Calculation 185 Drilling Pilot Holes = 186 Using the 676 Canned Cycle. 197 674 and G84 Canned Cycles . 201 Canned Cycle Programming. = 203 Hole Programming =. 213 Efficiency in Machining .. Teamwork in Machining. Repeatable Workholding = 266 Trigonometric Calculations =: 299 Speeds and Feeds . 309 Calculating Spindle Speeds. Coordinate Entry Format. 322 Part Orientation .. 325 Work Offsets...... 326 Multiaxis Turning . 328 G-Code Entry Format... 340 ‘Sequence of Commands . .. Notes in Programs. . Automatic Chamfering Addresses. Spindle Speed Commands . Print Specifications Roughing and Finishing Passes. . Interpreting Dimensions ae Identifying Workholding Requirements Cutting Insert Data....... Programming Efficiency Walking the Path. ...... ‘Arc Programming Methods. Type | and Type 2 Cycles Boring Bar Size........ Tapping on a Lal Hole Machining... Multiaxis Programming Formats... Becoming a Great Programmer. . Grooving Operations. ... Efficiency in Machinin Ball Screw Assembli Tapered Thread Cutting Thread Forms... Hole Orientation . Contour Programming. Multiaxis Programming. . Part Origin and Tool Setuj ‘Setup Sheets in Machining Programming Modes. Using Subprograms. Programming Mode: o Development of Work Offsets . Developing Subprograms . Subprogram Applications ... Parameter Entry. Probe Position. Identifying Probing Cycles. Benefits of Probing Systems. . Initial Work Offset Setti Macros and Variables . Using Probing Cycles in ‘Subprograms .Single Surface Z Axis Measurement... 65 Advancing Probing Technology. 635 Using Global Variables. «6s Reading Variables. 645 Applying Macros... 69 Tool Offset Adjustment 655 Debugging the Code Coordinate Format........ . 2B Canned Cycle Loop Count vv 205 Coordinate Format....... 321 Machine Alarms . 402 6% and G97 Commands . U3 Safe Movement. . ~ W62 Thread Chamfer Pullout .... Interpreting Dimensions .. Offset Measurement... Work Offset Designation Programming Modes.. Feed Rate. . . Tool Offset Adjustment. Tool Offset Settings. xivSection 1 CNC Mill Programming Machining Mathematics for Milling Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Milling Preparatory Commands: G-Codes Miscellaneous Functions: M-Codes Address Codes for Mill Programming Steps in Program Planning Mill Program Format Contouring Pockets and Slots Hole Machining Operations Facing and Istand Machining Setup Sheets Machine Setup| Machining 1 Mathematics for MillingChapter Outline 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Converting Fractions to Decimals 1.2.1 Communicating Precision 1.3 Geometric Shapes 13.1. Circles 1.3.2. Polygons 1.33. Unes 1.4 Angles 1.4.1 Supplementary Angles 1.4.2 Complementary Angles 1.5. Trigonometry 1.6 Bolt Circles 1.7. Milling Speeds and Feeds hus apenn ata ct Sun Naoelbutrtckcon Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ‘= Convert fractions to decimals, = Explain how required precision is communicated in machining, = Identify two-dimensional and three-dimensional geometric shapes encountered in machining. = Name the parts of aright triangle, ‘= Use the Pythagorean theorem to solve for sides of triangles. «= Differentiate between supplementary and complementary angles. '= Use basic trigonometry to solve for sides and angles in a right triangle, = Calculate speeds and feeds in milling. Key Terms acute angle geometric shape thombus angle hypotenuse right angle are isosceles triangle Tight triangle bolt circle line scalene triangle chip load line segment sine circle numerator square complementary angles obtuse angle straight angle cosine parallelogram supplementary angles curved line polygon tangent denominator Pythagorean theorem tangent line diameter quadrilateral triangle equilateral triangle radius trigonometry flute rectangle4 section 1 eee Figure 1-1. A scientific calculator is @ useful tool for completing mathematical calculations. 1.1 Introduction Math is essential in the machining and manufacturing trades. Machinists must have a good working knowledge of math and must be able to make calculations for numerous tasks. This chapter explains the basic math prin- ciples used in creating computer numerical control (CNC) milling pro- grams. Math is used throughout production, from program planning and machine setup to part inspection. As you will learn in this chapter, machin- ists must be able to make calculations based on information provided on. prints. Often, machinists use their knowledge of common geometric shapes to determine unknown dimensions. This chapter explains how to calculate linear distances and angles and how to determine locations of features. This chapter also covers trigonometric functions and calculations for cut- ting speeds and feeds. "When reading prints, itis important to identify the system of measure- ment used for dimensions. In the United States, most prints are dimen- sioned in decimal inches or fractional inches. The inch is the basic unit of linear measurement in the US Customary system. All measurements that you will encounter in this text are based on this system. In most countries outside the United States, prints are dimensioned using the International System of Units (abbreviated SI), known as the metric system. Metric prints used in the manufacturing industry are commonly dimensioned in millime- ters. The system of measurement used on a print is normally indicated in or near the title block. Most CNC machines can read programs prepared in inches or millimeters. In Chapter 3, you will learn how to set the correct mode for working units when writing a CNC program. ‘When making unit conversions and other machining calculations, a calculator is often useful, This text assumes access to a simple scientific calculator, such as the one shown in Figure 1-1. However, any calculator with a fraction key and sine, cosine, and tangent functions is sufficient to perform machining calculations. Consider the calculator as a tool, just like a file or wrench, to support your work in the shop. In this text, green buttons are used to display exactly which buttons on. the calculator to press and in which order. The prompt will look like this: 1.2 Converting Fractions to Decimals Most prints used in manufacturing today are dimensioned in decimal inches. However, you will also encounter prints that use fractions to spec ify dimensions. It is common to see fractional dimensions on older prints and drawings of simple parts. The use of fractions normally signifies a nonctitical measurement or a feature that is not designed to meet a high degree of precision in manufacturing, See Figure 1-2. Fractions cannot be used in CNC programs, however. Instead, they must be converted to decimal values. Knowing how to convert fractions is essential for machinists. Having this knowledge is also important when making measurements because many measuring tools make readings in decimal units. Fractions have a numerator and a denominator. The munerator is the number on top of the fraction and indicates the number of parts in the fraction, The denominator is the aumber on the bottom of the fraction. It Copyright Gocahsar-leox Co, neChapter 1 Machining Mathematics for Miling 5 1.000. onerer.ax Patar Figure 1-2. A basic part with dimensions in decimal inches and fractional inches. indicates the whole number quantity into which the parts are divided, For example, in the fraction 3/4, the numerator is 3 and the denominator is 4. The process of converting fractions to decimals is a straightforward division problem. To convert a fraction into a decimal, divide the denomi- nator into the numerator. The result is a decimal. Take a look at this sample problem: geaorae4 3. 32.750 ‘The process is even easier using a calculator. Use the following sequence: BABE 1.2.1 Communicating Precision The answer to the problem in the previous example is .750. Mathemati- cally, it would also be correct to express the answer as .75, or even .7500. The trailing zero after the decimal point does not hold any value. Similarly, any leading zero on the leftmost side of the decimal point does not hold any value, 00.75 = 0.75 =..780 = 0.750000 = 0000.7500000 All of these numbers are equal. However, machinists have a specific way of communicating, To prevent confusion, machinists talk or work to three places or four places to the right of the decimal point, depending on Copyrighe Gooden Wilox Op, ine.ill Programm the required precision. The third place to the right of the decimal point, for example, is the thousandths place: —— Decimal point As an example of how machinists communicate, a print dimension of .750 is read out as seven hundred fifty thousandths (,750). If you were measuring a drill bit that was .5 in diameter, you would say five hundred thousandths (.500). This system provides an efficient and effective method of communication. ‘A similar method is used when the required precision is in ten thou- sandths of an inch, As shown previously, the fourth place to the right of the decimal point is the ten thousandths place. This place is referred to by machinists using the abbreviation tenths. For example, a print dimension of 0005 is read out as five tenths. In actual measurement, the referenced dimension is five ten-thousandths of an inch. 1.3 Geometric Shapes Geometric shapes include two-dimensional objects, such as circles, arcs, triangles, and polygons; and three-dimensional objects, such as spheres, pyramids, cubes, and polyhedrons. See Figure 1-3. Two-dimensional geo metric shapes are flat. Imagine drawing a shape on a piece of paper. You can draw left and right or up and down, but only in two dimensions. A three-dimensional shape has depth. Consider the difference between a circle and a sphere. A circle is two-dimensional, and spheres are three- dimensional. You should know how to recognize basic geometric shapes and how the geometry of a part can be evaluated to determine dimensional information. 13.1 Circles Circles are two-dimensional objects often encountered in machining, such as when drilling holes or cutting round shafts. A circle is defined as a closed plane curve that is an equal distance at all points from its center point. A circle can be thought of as a closed loop with a center point. If the dis- tance from that center point to every point on the outside is the same, the closed loop is a circle, Figure 1-4. An arc is a portion of a circle. An arc has a start point, end point, center point, and defined direction (clockwise or Copyright Govshean Wileox Co, neSphere Pyramia Torus Rectangle ‘Teangle Chole Figure 1-3, Assorted three-dimensional and two-dimensional geometric shapes. counterclockwise). Many shapes encountered in machining are formed by arcs. For example, a 90° round corner blend represents one-quarter of a circle, The distance from the center point to the edge of a circle or ate is defined as the radius. The radius is frequently used in creating CNC pro- grams and calculating locations. The distance across a circle through the center point is the diameter. The radius of a circle is one-half the diameter. See Figure 1-5. Hole sizes are often defined on a print in terms of diameter, ‘whereas corner blends and other partial circles are defined by radius. When you encounter a circular feature on a print, pay close attention to specifica- tions and verify whether the dimension defines a radius or a diameter, ‘Copyright Gooaheart. Witcox Ca, Ie. Chapter 1 Machining Mathematics for Ming 7 cane Wor Pane ST8 Section 1 CNC Mi Programming 1.780 1780 \ / \ / sommes \ } ( Lf t— saa ——| yee) \S Figute 1-6, A circle isa closed plane ‘Figure 1-8, The radius ofa circle Is the distance from the center point tothe edge of curve defined by a center point that isthe circle. The diameter isthe dstance from edge ta exge through the centerpoint. ‘equicistant from all points on the curve. The radius is one-half the diameter. 13.2 Polygons A polygon is a two-dimensional shape with straight sides. Examples of polygons include triangles, rectangles, pentagons, and hexagons, Figure 1-6. ‘A regular polygon is made up of equal-length sides with equal interior and exterior angles. Many of the machining projects in later chapters make use of polygons. Often, machining involves cutting rectangular blocks or multi-sided objects. The prefix poly means many. Triangles “Triangles are particularly important polygons in machining applications. A triangle is made up of three sides that form three angles. There are several types of triangles that you will commonly encounter in machining work. ‘The following types are defined by the relationship between the sides and angles. © A scalene triangle, Figure 1-7, has no equal sides or equal angles. ‘square Trangle osha loo Fustaar Figure 1-6, Examples of polygonal geometric shapes. As seen here, polygons cen have an unlimited number of sides, ‘Copyright Goodheart-Wilox Co, IncChapter 1. Machining Mathematics for Miling 9 Scalene Triangle Sno sides the same length Gonchesnnoe ane Figure 1-7. A scalene triangle has no equal sides or angles. © An isosceles triangle, Figure 1- angles. «An equilateral triangle, Figure 1-9, has all equal sides and all equal angles. = A right triangle, Figure 1-10, has one 90° angle. A 90° angle is defined as two lines that are exactly perpendicular to each other. On a print, a right triangle is designated by a square symbol in the 90° corner of the triangle. The longest side in a right triangle, called the hypotenuse, is always across from the 90° angle. The right triangle has special mathematical properties that make it advantageous for use in machining, s has two equal sides and two equal All triangles share the same mathematical property: the sum of all three angles must equal 180°. 180 Angle 1 + Angle 2+ Angle 3 The ability to calculate angles without all of the angles defined is often necessary in print reading. Using the previous formula, you can calculate any angle of a triangular shape if you know the other two angles. If you Isosceles Triangle Equilateral Triangle Equal SEE angles a \A {Al sides the Samo length, ‘allanglas the same size ‘Geoshow vices Ptehr once eos abn Figure 1-8, An isosceles triangle has two Figure 1-9. An equilateral triangle has al equal sides anc two equal angles. ‘equal sides and all equal angles. Copyrignt Gooden Witeox Co, ne. Sn) Right Triangle / | | Covcheroc Rate Figure 1-10. A right triangle, denoted by a right angle symbol10 Section 1 CNC Mill Programming wibtact Hypotenuse > anteater Paar Figure 1-11, The sides ofa right triangle ccan be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem. mann ashes er Paar Figure 1-12. Squares and rhombuses hhave four equal sides. A square has four right angles, while a rhombus has no right angles. Because all four sides of the square are equal, the presence of ‘one right angle, indicated by the rignt angle symbol, implies that all four angles measure 90°. Rhombus Rectangle 7 b d ‘ovate es Faber Figure 1-13. A rectangle has four right angles and two sets of equal sides. have a triangle where you know one angle is 45° and another angle is 55°, calculate the third angle as follows: 180° — Angle 1 Angle 2 = Angle 3 180° - 45° - 65° = Angle 3 0° = Angle 3 Right triangles have a unique characteristic defined by the Pythago- rean theorem. The Pythagorean theorem states that, in a right triangle, the square of one side pius the square of the second side is equal to the square of the hypotenuse, Figure 1-11: a tbiect Consider the following example. In the triangle shown in Figure 1-11, side a measures 2” and side b measures 1.5”. What is the length of side c? ate beaet 2.8% 0° 442.28" 202 c=v6 225" To solve this problem on your calculator, press the following keyst 2AaSeAe ‘The last input key takes the square root. This last step changes c? to the desired solution, ¢ or 2.5”. {As shown in these examples, using standard algebra, you can calculate any side of a right triangle if you know the other two sides. Additional mathematical methods for working with right triangles and finding all of their sides and angles are covered later in this chapter. Quadrilaterals A quadrilateral is a four-sided, two-dimensional polygon. Note that the prefix quad means four and indicates the number of sides. Quadrilater- als are among the most commonly machined shapes and include squares, rectangles, and rhombuses. Mathematically, or geometrically, these three different quadrilaterals all have specific properties. + A square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right (90°) angles. * A rhombus has four equal sides but no right angles. Compare a ‘square with a shombus, Figure 1-12. Notice the right angle symbol in the square. + A rectangle is also a four-sided object with four right angles, Figure 1-13. However, rectangles do not have four equal sides. Instead, they have two pairs of equal sides. Notice that each of these shapes has parallel sides and that the oppo- site sides are equal in length. Squares, rhombuses, and rectangles are all parallelograms. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are both parallel and equal. ‘Copyright Goodhear-Wilox Co, neChapter 2 1.3.3 Lines Lines are important geometric features in machining. With the exception of commands for machining circular features, most CNC machining com- mands are along a line. A line is a continuous, straight, one-dimensional geometric element with no end. This means a line is infinite. It is impossible to machine an infinitely long part. When the term line is used in machining, ic actually refers to a line segment. A line segment is a line with a defini- tive beginning and end, Line segments, like lines, do not curve or waver. A curved line is an arc, partial circle, or spline. Aline that touches an arc or circle at exactly one point is referred to as, a tangent line. Ifa line crosses or touches an arc at more than one point, it is not tangent, but intersecting, Figure 1-14. 1.4 Angles Most machining requires a good working knowledge of angles. An angle measures the rotational distance between two intersecting lines or line seg- ments from their point of intersection (or vertex). Angles are usually given in degrees, Figure 1-15. There are 360° in a circle (one degree is 1/360 of a circle). A straight line passing through the center point of a circle divides the circle in half and forms two semicircles, each representing 180°. See Figure 1-16, There are four common types of angles: © A right angle measures exactly 90° between two intersecting lines. When two lines intersect and form a right angle, Figure 1-17, all other angles of intersection are also 90°. Notice that the sum of the angles is 360°. = An acute angle measures less than 90°, Anything less than a right angle is an acute angle, Figure 1-18, = An obtuse angle measures more than 90°, Figure 1-19, Notice that the second leg of the angle intersects the first at an angle greater than a right angle, Line 2 a Figure 1-16. A circle contains 360°. A line passing through the center point of the circle civides the circle in half and estan er Atear forms two semicircles. Each semicircle is 2 180° are. (Copyigt Goodneart Wilax Co, Ie Figure 1-17, Two lines intersecting at 90° angles. Machining Mathematics for Ming 11 ape, ne \ \ no h tangent / I ota eshte Figure 1-14. A circle displaying a tangent and nontangent (intersecting) line. ‘or vortox Figure 1-15. Two lines intersecting at known angles, $ ovate ier iter Figure 1-18. An acute angle is one that is less than 90°,12 Section 1 CNC Mil Programming Gexchaut coe as Figure 1-19. An obtuse angle 's one that is more than 90° 80° Cat aR re 1-20. When one supplementary angle is known, the other supplementary ‘angle can be caleulated by subtracting the known angle from 180°. ‘Cehaa es P Figure 1-21. An unknown angle can be calculated by subtracting its known complementary angle from 90° © A straight angle measures exactly 180°, A straight line represents a straight angle. Refer to the horizontal line shown in Figure 1-16. 1.4.1 Supplementary Angles Supplementary angles are two angles that add up to 180°, Recall that a straight angle is 180°, When one straight line intersects another at an angle, the angles on the opposite sides of the vertex are supplementary. If one angle is known, the other can be calculated. For example, if one line intersects another at 50°, calculate the second angle as follows. See Figure 1-20. 80" + x= 180" x= 180° - 50° x= 130° ‘The prints used in a normal machining environment do not define every feature. In fact, it is incorrect to overdimension an object on a print. Often, one angle is defined, and you must calculate the second or supple- mentary angle. 1.4.2 Complementary Angles Complementary angles are two angles that add up to 90°, Problems involy- ing complementary angles normally start with a 90° angle that has been intersected by a line. You can find the missing angle that completes the 90° angle ifthe other angle is known, Figure 1-21. In this example, the given angle is 25°. What is the complemen- tary angle? In Figure 1-22, the right angle symbol in the lower-left corner indicates 2 90° angle. Ifthe known angle is 34°, what is the complementary angle? 90° = 34° +x 90° 34° =x 56° As you move forward with print reading, you will see prints that have right angles or right triangles, Often, the print may define only one angle. You can calculate unknown angles using the principles previously cussed as well as basic trigonometry. 1.5 Trigonometry ‘Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships between the sides and angles of triangles and with functions of angles. Essentially, trigonometry is the mathematics of triangles and angles. This text focuses on right triangles. Copyright Goodhoset Witox Co, ine.The three fundamental principles for working with right triangles are: * Right triangles always have one angle of 90°. = The sum of all three angles in a triangle is 180°, The Pythagorean theorem states that a? + b? Stare by reviewing the parts of right triangles, Figure 1-23. Immedi- ately, you should identify each triangle as a right triangle because it has the right angle symbol. The hypotenuse, or longest side, is directly actoss from the right angle and is designated by the letter H. The other two sides are named based on their relation to a given angle or for the angle for which you are trying to solve. They are called the oppo- site side and adjacent side, indicated by the letters O and A, respectively, Figure 1-24. ‘The mathematical relationships between sides and angles are given by three trigonometric function: = The sine of a given angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse. = The cosine of a given angle is the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse. = The tangent of a given angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side, “SOHCAHTOA® is a helpful mnemonic for remembering the defini- tions of sine, cosine, and tangent and the mathematical calculations to solve for right triangle sides and angles. djacent H = hypotenuse tangent posite A= adjacent Opposite (0) Hypotenuse (H) Adjacent (A) Fypotenuse (H) Opposite (0) Adjacent (A) Trigonomerric functions can be used to determine all of the sides and angles of a right triangle. Sine, cosine, and tangent calculations can be made using reference tables or a scientific calculator. Although reference tables are helpful tools, the probability of error increases with manual cal- culations. The quickest and most accurate calculations are made with a calculator. First, identify what sides and angles you know and what you are trying to find. Then, choose the appropriate formula and use the cor- rect calculator inputs. The following is an example of finding the length of a side in a right triangle when one angle and one side are known. The first step is to iden- tify the sides. The side opposite the right angle is always the hypotenuse. Sine (sin) = Cosine (cos) = Tangent (tan ‘Copyright Goodhearttilox Coie Chapter 1 Machining Mathematics for Miling 13 Se Va Figure 1-22. A complementary angle is easily calculated when @ right angle iS elven (a5 shown by the right angie symbol) and one of the complementary angles is known, Plight angle Hypotenuse, H Figure 1-23. The right angle symbol denotes a right angle. The side directly ‘across from the 90° angle in aright triangle is the hypotenuse. ane Programmer Trigonometric Calculations Ona scientific calculator, the sine of a given angle is cal- ‘ulated by entering the angle and then pressing the SIN key. The COS and TAN keys are used in the same manner to calculate cosine and tangent.14° Section 1 CNC Mil Programming s i H é 38° fe N ‘Adjacent (A) A Pa z= j # ‘Opposite (0) 8 cca cox Pbiser Figure 1-24, The opposite and adjacent sides of aright triangle are determined relative to the known angle, A—This right triangle has one angle defined as 38° ‘The side directly opgosite that angle is known as the opposite side. The side of the triangle that is next to or touching the 38° angle is called the adjacent side. B— This is the same triangle, but the known ‘angle is now 52° and the opposite and ‘acjacent sides change positions. 2.78 Ca, H nae Figure 1-25, A right triangle with one known side and one known angle. The side opposite the known angle is the opposite side. The side touch- ing the known angle is the adjacent side. In Figure 1-25, the length of the hypotenuse and one angle are known. To calculate the opposite side, use the sine funetion. The known angle (5°) is represented as ain the formula: Opposite (0) SI @= Fypoienuse AT 1.788" =0 To solve this problem using a calculator, press the following keys: 55 SIN Xm = ‘The adjacent side in Figure 1-25 can be calculated using the cosine function. The known angle (55°) is represented as ain the formula: - _Adacent 605 2= Hypotenuse TAT 0s 55 x Hypotenuse (H) = Adjacent (A) 5736 x 2.179 =A 1.250" =A To solve this problem using a calculator, press the following keys: The following summarizes the calculator inputs used for sine, cosine, and tangent formulas when solving for one side of a right triangle. These formulas are used when one angle and one side are known. The first two formulas were used in the previous examples. Use the appropriate input based on the side and angle you know. L.Hyp [2 Ang! SIN 2) Copp) 2. Hyp x Angi COS = (Adi) 3.Ag} Ang! TAN |=) (Opp) 4.0pp + Ang! SIN = (Hyp) 5. Adj. Ang! 668 |= Hyp) 6.0pp |) Ang! TAN |= (Adj) Other trigonometric functions are used when you know two sides of a right triangle and need to find an angle. The inverse sine, cosine, and tangent functions are used to find an unknown angle relative to two known sides. On a typical calculator, the inverse trigonometric functions are labeled SIN“, COS*, and TAN". These are typically second functions located on or above the SIN, COS, and TAN keys. Second functions on a calculator are accessed by pressing the second function key before pressing Copyrigt Goodhear-itcox Co, nethe appropriate key. The second function key may be color coded and is. typically labeled 2nd or Shift. The inverse trigonometric functions are also known as arcsine, arc- cosine, and arctangent. In the following formulas, ~1 denotes an inverse function. The angle to be calculated is represented as a. fogle2= sin: (22201) Ascent (A) Ale a= oss! (Hemet) Angle a= tan: (See The first step in solving for an unknown angle in a right triangle is to identify the two known sides. In Figure 1-26, there are two known sides. Since the known sides are the opposite and adjacent sides, the inverse tan= gent function is used to solve for the unknown angle: 1 { Onpasite (0) Angle a= ton (Se) 10) 2500 Angle @='an* (0.7) Angle a= 34,992" Angle a= tan? ‘To solve this problem using a calculator, press the following keys: 17s + 28 = (24 Tan ‘The following summarizes the calculator inputs used for inverse sine, cosine, and tangent formulas when solving for an unknown angle, These formulas are used when two sides are known. Use the appropriate input based on the sides you know. 1.0pp 1) Hyp |=) 2 SiN 2.ad) Gl oo ES 3.0pp + Adj = 2% TAN As previously discussed in this chapter, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to calculate a side of a right triangle when you know two sides. First, identify the sides you know. Then, select one of the following formu- Jas and calculate the unknown side. Use the appropriate calculator inputs based on the given information for the triangle. LAdj 38 + Opp x = VE (Hyp) 2.Hyp = Opp = A (Ad) 3. Hyp [be (EY adi Ik |S) Copm Copyright Goocheart. Wilcox Co, ne: Chapter Machining Mathematics Ming 15) — aa LL ave . | / alacant (A) f | 2500 Figure 1-26. right tr angle with two known sides and an unknown angle to solve Saion 1 CNC Mil Programming 3.200 Figure 1.27. A right triangle with two known sides and one unknown side to solve, The unknown side is the hypotenuse. In Figure 1-27, two sides are known and the hypotenuse must be calcu- lated. When considering how to label the two known sides, it is irrelevant which side is defined as opposite or adjacent. To understand why, look at the Pythagorean theorem equation: aan Side c is always the longest side, or the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse must always be identified in this manner. In comparison, sides a and can have an interchangeable order in the equation. Just as 6 + 3=9 and 3+ 9, the designation of opposite and adjacent will not affect the final answer Since the unknown side in this example is the hypotenuse, use the follow- ing calculator formula and key entry. Calculator formula: Ad + Opp x = VK (Hyp) Key entry: S220 Ee Solution: 1,2502 + 3.2002 = 3.435 1.6 Bolt Circles A common feature found on a machining print is the bolt circle. A bole circle is a theoretical circle on which the center points of holes lie in a circular pattern of holes. The holes in the pattern are equally spaced, with equal angles between holes. Common examples are the bolt circle for the lugs on a car’s wheel and the holes on a bolted joint between pipe flanges. Figure 1-28 illustrates a circular pattern of six holes on an 8” diameter bolt circle, Notice that each hole is positioned at che same distance from the theoretical arc center and each hole is 60° apart. A set of six holes equally spaced in a 360° circular pattern creates 60° spacing. ‘To create a CNC program, you will need to calculate each hole position from the center of the theoretical arc. In the example shown in Figure 1-28, the theoretical arc is defined by an 8” diameter bolt circle. Each hole posi- tion can be determined by making right triangle calculations. First, identify the right triangles that can be created for use in calculations. Figure 1-29 shows the triangle for one of the hole positions. I is mathematically possible to calculate the position, or two unknown sides, for each triangle using the trigonometry formulas. However, there is an easier way to make the calculations using a calculator. As you will learn in Chapter 2, the calculations can be used to plot X and Y coordinates for the hole locations. Chapter 2 explains how to use coordinates in the Cartesian coordinate system. For now, making calculations is sufficient. Figure 1-29 shows the X and Y coordinate distances corresponding to the sides of the right triangle. ‘Copyright Goodheart Wilox Co, InChapter 1 Machining Mathematics for iting 17 Sy) Goosnesn oa Peer Figure 1-28, An 8” diameter bolt circle locating six holes in a 360° citcular pattern, ‘The holes are the same distance from the theoretical arc center and equally spaced This creates 60° separation between holes. ‘Agjacent side ‘Ccoordinate measurement) osha eo Fuser Figure 1-29. A right triangle used to celculate the position of a hole in @ circular hole pattern, ‘There are two numbers that must be known before you start your calcula- tions. The first number is the radius of the theoretical arc the holes are centered on. In this example, the radius is 4”, or half the diameter of the 8” bolt circle. ‘The second number is the angular position of each hole that is being calculated. ‘Copyright Goodheart Wilox Co, Iegramming 180° o Figure 1-30. Angle positions on a circle with 0° oriented at 3 o'clock, There is a standard in CNC programming that also applies for these calculations. As previously discussed, there are 360° in a circle. Figure 1-30 shows the 0°, 90%, 180°, and 270° angle positions on a circle in a default orientation. The zero angle position (0°) is oriented at 3 o'clock. The angle position rotates counterclockwise, with 12 o'clock representing 90°, 9 o'clock representing 180°, and 6 o'clock representing 270°. With this ori- entation, the following bolt circle formulas can be utilized. Angle 008 |x Radius |=) (coordinate) Angle SIN |x) Rocus |) (Y coordinate) With this information, you can now calculate the X and ¥ coordinate positions of the holes. See Figure 1-31. The following calculations are for the holes identified as Hole #1 and Hole #2. These coordinate calculations are based on measuring from the center of the bolt circle. The radius is 4”. The angular position of Hole #1 is 0° and the angular position of Hole #2 is 60°. Hole #1 X coordinate: Angle GOS x Radius |= (X coordinate) ocosx4=4 Hole #1 Y coordinate: ‘Angle SIN |x Radius = (Y coordinate) OSINx4=0 Hole #1 is located at x4, YO. coahau oo Fubar Figure 1-31. Bolt citle formulas can be used to calculate coordinates for the hole: centers, The coordinate position of Hole #1 is located at O° and Hole #2 is located at 60° copyright GoodeatWilox Co, Ine.Hole #2 X coordinate: Angle O08 |x| Redius | 0 coordinate) 4600S x4=2 Hole #2 Y coordinate: Angle SIN |¥ Recius (=) (Y coordinated 60 SIN x4 = 3.464 Hole #2 is located at X2, ¥3.464, 1.7 Milling Speeds and Feeds ‘When cutting material on a CNCmilling machine, the relationship between how fast the spindle turns and how fast the cutting tool moves across the material is vitally important. Machine shops try to get parts cut as quickly as possible. In addition, tooling reacts differently at different speeds and feeds. For example, if you turn an end mill very slowly and feed it into the material rapidly, the tool may suffer a catastrophic failure and shatter. Conversely, if you run an end mill at a high speed but feed it slowly, it takes excessive time to cut the material and can dull the cutting edges of the tool. Calculating speeds and feeds in the modern machining environment is one of the most overlooked and miscalculated aspects of machining. For- tunately, there is a relationship between the material, the cutting tool, and the machine that can be easily calculated. Every CNC programmer should be able to accurately calculate a tool's proper speed and feed. ‘The first factor in calculating speeds and feeds is the cutting tool. The machining industry today primarily uses tools made from solid carbide, 80 this is the material assumed in this text. When working with other cutter materials, consult manufacturer specifications. Milling calculations also depend on the diameter of the cutter and how many cutting edges it has. ‘The next important factor is the type of material being cut. Stainless steels do not cut as easily as aluminum, for example, Different materials have different rates of material removal and require careful consideration of cutting speeds. Cutting speed is a measure of the tool’s movement in feet per minute, It is expressed in surface feet per minute (sim) and is com- monly referred to as surface footage. In simple terms, surface footage refers to the number of linear feet a point on a rotating tool travels in one minute. Tooling manufacturers provide charts with recommended cutting speeds for common materials. On a chart, recommended speeds are expressed in ranges of values, These values are obtained through empirical testing, Cutting speeds can vary based on the tooling manufacturer, so it is best to get the range of recommended values directly from the manufacturer. See the Reference Section in this text for information on recommended cutting speeds for common materials. Surface footage is used in calculating the spindle speed. The rotating speed of the spindle is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Copyright Gooshear Wilox Co, Ine Chapter 1 Machining Mathematics for Ming From the Programmer Speeds and Feeds Calculating the correct spindle speeds and cutting feeds is the best way to make your tools last as long as possible. Too slow of feed means the tool is cutting for longer amounts of time to do the same amount of work. ‘Too fast of feed means the tool does not have enough time to cut, and can fail on the cutting edge, Often the best resource for speed and feed settings can be the tool distributor or a tool- ing engineer. Always calculate speeds and feeds to remain as efficient as possible, 19{ONG Mil Programming emt Perea) Calculating Spindle Speeds The mathematical constant 3,82 is used in the calculation for spindle speed. This value is the result of dividing the ‘number of inches per foot by pi: 12/3.14 = 3.82. ‘The following examples are used to calculate the speed of two different end mills with two different types of materials. Consider a 1/2” end mill cutting aluminum at 700 sfm and a 3/8” end mill cutting 304 stainless steel at 450 sim, The formula for calculating spindle speed, measuted in rpm, is given below: "om = jr EY Calculate the speed for the 1/2” (.500") end mill for cutting aluminum. 3:82 5700 = 5348 rpm The speed for this operation is 5348 rpm. Remember this number for use in calculating the feed. Now, calculate the speed for the 3/8” end mill for cutting stainless steel. 382% 450. — 4584 1pm Now that you know the speed, you can calculate feed rate. The for- mula for feed rate, measured in inches per minute (ipm), is given below: Feed Rate (ipm) = rpm x Chip Load x Number of Cutting Edges (Flutes) Feed rate depends on chip load and the number of cutting edges as well as spindle speed. Chip load refers to the actual thickness of the chip being cut o: the depth of each cutting edge as it passes through the material. Chip load is measured in inches per tooth and varies with each cutter, but will generally range from .005” to .010”. Any end mill, whether solid carbide or inserted, will have multiple cutting edges, or flutes. A flute is the recessed ‘groove along a cutting edge allowing for chip removal. Tools with more flues can feed faster, but have less clearance space for chip removal and a smaller internal web, making them weaker in heavy cuts. Return to the previous example and calculate the feed rate for each cutter, The 1/2” end mill used for cutting aluminum has a speed of 5348. pm and three flutes. Calculate the feed rate as follows: 5348 rpm x .007 x3 = 2.3 ipm Now calculate the feed rate for the 3/8" end mill used for cutting stain less steel. This cutter has two flutes. ‘4584 rpm x .007 x 2 = 64.2 pm “The feed rate for this operation is 64.2 ipm at a speed of 4584 rpm. Copyright Goedhear-Witeox Co, IneChapter 1 Review Summary = A good working knowledge of math principles is needed to create CNC milling programs. = A scientific calculator is a useful tool for making machining calculations, = To convert a fraction to decimal format, divide the denominator into the numerator. = To ensure a proper level of accuracy and ease of language, machinists express decimals in the thousandths and ten thousandths place. = When evaluating a print, machinists identify basic geometric shapes and evaluate part geometry to determine dimensional information. ‘= Four common types of triangles encountered in machining work are scalene, isosceles, equilateral, and right triangles. = The Pythagorean theorem states that, for a right triangle, the square of one side plus the square of the second side is equal to the square of the hypotenuse. Right triangles can be solved for all sides and all angles using standard formulas. ‘= Supplementary angles are two angles that add up to 180°. Complementary angles are two angles that add up t0 90°. = The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right triangle and is always across from the 90° angle. = Basic trigonometry is used to solve for sides and angles in a right triangle. © Cutting speed is a measure of a tool's movement in feet per minute and is expressed in surface feet per minute (sfm), Surface footage is used in calculating the spindle speed, which is measured in revolations per minute (rpm). = Feed rate is calculated based on the spindle speed, the chip load, and the number of cutting edges on the tool. Copyright Go reartnieox Co, Ine Review Questions Answer the following questions using the information provided in this chapter. Know and Understand 1. Most prints used in manufacturing today are dimensioned in A. fractional inches B, decimal inches . millimeters D. centimeters The position three places to the right of the decimal point is called the place. A, hundredths B. tenths ten thousandths D. thousandths 3. Trwe or False? A circle is a closed plane curve that is an equal distance from its center point to all points. 4, The distance across a circle through the center point is the __, “A. length B. width C. diameter D, radius 5. Examples of ___ include triangles, rectangles, pentagons, and hexagons. A. pyramids B. polygons C. thombuses D. trapezoids 6. The ___ triangle has no equal sides or equal angles, A, isosceles B. equilateral C, obtuse D. scalene 7. A right triangle must contain one A. 30° B. 45° Cc. 60° D. 90° angle. 218. Trwe or False? The sum of all angles in any triangle is 90°. 9. The Pythagorean theorem is written as_ 10. An acute angle is defined as _. A. greater than 180° B. equal to 90° . greater than 0° D, less than 90° 11, True or False? Two angles are complementary if they add up to 180°, 12. _is defined as a branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships between the sides and angles of triangles and with functions of angles. A. Solid modeling B, Plane geometry C. Pythagorean theory D, Trigonometry 413. The longest side in a right triangle, or the side directly across from the right angle, is called the A. apex B, adjacent side hypotenuse D. opposite side 14. True or False? Besides the hypotenuse, the other two sides in a right triangle are called the opposite and the adjacent. 15. __is a measure of a too!’s movement in feet per minute and is expressed in surface feet per minute (sf). A. Chip load B, Feed rate C. Spindle speed D, Surface footage Apply and Analyze 1, Convert 3/32 to its decimal equivalent. Round to the nearest thousandth. 2. Convert 1 3/16 to its decimal equivalent. Round to the nearest thousandths. 22 3. Identify the following geometric shape. Assume all sides are equal. 4, Identify the following geometric shape. Assume all sides are equal. — 5. List and briefly describe the four types of triangles discussed in this chapter. 6. Use the Pythagorean theorem to solve for the unknown side of this right triangle. 11500 1 1250 7. Use the Pythagorean theorem to solve for the unknown side of this right triangle. 2.92, [1675 —> Copyright Goochear-Wilcox Co, ne8, Identify the unnamed side of this right triangle. PSX ‘Adjacent 9, Label all of the sides of this right triangle. 52° L. 10, Use a calculator to solve for the missing angle of this right triangle. oN 11, Use a calculator to solve for the missing side of this right triangle. Give answer to the nearest thousandths. LZ, (eyright Goochoart-Wileox Co, In. 12. Use a calculator to solve for the two missing angles of this right triangle, Round answers to the nearest whole angle, A 4250 é JI fe-1780-+1 13. Using a 5/8" diameter end mill, what is the correct speed, in rpm, for cutting aluminum at 750 surface feet per minute (sfm)? 14, When cutting mild steel in a milling machine with a calculated speed of 3726 rpm, what is the feed rate in inches per minute (ipm)? Assume .005” chip load with a 3-flute end mill. Critical Thinking 1, Take a look around your home, school, or workplace and identify various geometric shapes. Can you measure and calculate any irregularities in these shapes? How do these irregularities affect the construction of these shapes? Consider how right triangles are used in everyday life. Consider the construction of your home, the school building, or other built structures, such as a storage shed. Determine the approximate angle ofa roof or calculate the length of a diagonal between two walls that meet at 90°, 3. Depending on metal composition and cutting tools used, recommended cutting speeds can vary. How does this impact your machining time? Why does this make it so important to analyze materials and cutting tools? 23Cartesian 2 Coordinate System 'and Machine Axes for Milling |Chapter Outline 2.1. Introduction 2.2 Number Line 2.3. Two-Dimensional Coordinate System 2.4. Three-Dimensional Coordinate System 2.5 Absolute and Incremental Positioning 2.6 Machine Home and Work Origin 2.7 FourAxis Machines 2.8 Five-Axis Machines 2.9 Polar Coordinates ‘Opie aening pooch z1b/Suttsckcom Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you willbe able to: * Describe how the Cartesian coordinate system is applied in CNC milling Identity the four quadrants in a two-dimensional coordinate system. * Plot X and ¥ coordinate positions in a two-dimensional coordinate system. * Plot coordinates in three-dimensional space using the X,Y, and Z axes. ‘= Explain the relationship between machine home and the work origin. ® Describe the machining capabilities and configurations of fouraxis milling machines. ® Descrite the machining capabilities and configurations of fve-axis miling machines, * Identify the axes defining rotational movement on four-axis and five-axis milling machines. * Use polar coordinates to plot points defining angular relationships between features. Key Terms 341 miling Incremental postioning rotary absolute positioning machine hore trunnion Cartesian corcnate ain work ens stem polar coordinates work origin full fouraxis milling26 Section 1 CNC Mil Programming Figure 2-1, The organization of rows and columns in a vending machine is. 2 common example of the Cartesian coordinate system, 2.1 Introduction ‘The basic principle of creating any CNC program is positioning a tool at a known location and moving that tool to a series of defined locations. The system used to plot and calculate machine positions and movement is known as the Cartesian coordinate system. The Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane with a pair of alphanu- meric coordinates. This system is named for its developer, French scientist and mathematician René Descartes. An influential philosopher, Descartes is considered the father of analytic geometry. His developments led to the coordinate plotting system that is widely used today. ‘An example of the Cartesian coordinate system in use is a vending machine. See Figure 2-1. When you purchase a snack or beverage from a vending machine, you select the row of the item you want and then the ‘umber in that row. Specifying two points of intersection tells the machine where to locate your item. 2.2 Number Line To understand how points are located in the Cartesian coordinate system, look at the simple number line shown in Figure 2-2. A number line is a straight line with numbered divisions spaced equally along the line. The zero mark in the middle of the line establishes the starting point and is known as the origin. The numbered divisions along the line are located in relationship to the origin. The numbers can have any defined value and unit format. For example, each number can represent one inch, one foot, ‘or one mile. In this example, the numbers represent whole number inches. The numbers to the right of the origin are positive numbers. The num- bers to the left of the origin are negative numbers. Movement in the right direction is positive and movement in the left direction is negative. The numbers define the amount of linear movement in a given direction, For ‘example, moving five units to the right of the origin represents a movement of 5” in the positive direction. Moving three units to the left of the origin represents a movement of 3” in the negative direction. These distances are represented by Point 1 and Point 2 in Figure 2-2. Specifying distances in relation to a known origin is a basic way to describe tool movement. ‘The horizontal number line shown in Figure 2-2 establishes a single axis of movement. In CNC programming, additional axes are used to define the direction of the cutting tool. “a a woe 7554924012048 67890 Se a orga = Negative direction Posttve direction Figure 2:2. A number line measures distance and direction. Point 1 represents ‘2 movernent of 5" from the origin in the positive direction. Point 2 represents a movement of 3” from the origin in the negative direction. Copyright Goccnear-Wieox Co, IeChapter 2. Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Miling 27 2.3 Two-Dimensional Coordinate System A number line represents a single axis of travel. However, all CNC machines have at least two axes of travel. Adding a second number line establishes the second coordinate axis in the Cartesian coordinate system. See Figure 2-3. In this system, the horizontal axis is designated as the X axis and the vertical axis is designated as the Y axis. The X and Y axes intersect at the origin and are perpendicular to each other (oriented at 90°), Points representing distances from the origin are specified with X and Y coordinates. The coordinate system origin is designated as XO, YO and can be located anywhere in space. This system allows the programmer to define the location of the workpiece and the direction of tool movement. ‘As shown in Figure 2-3, the coordinate system is divided into four quadrants. Coordinates are specified as positive or negative based on their location from the origin. A coordinate to the right of the origin has a posi- tive X value and a coordinate to the left of the origin has a negative X value. In Figure 2-3, notice that each quadrant has positive or negative X and Y values based on its location in relation to the origin. The quad- rants are numbered 1-4 in a counterclockwise direction. Coordinates in the upper-right quadrant have a positive X value and positive Y value. Y axis 40 Quadrant 2 (02) 8 Quadrant 1 (21) KY aK 8 7 6 Quadrant 3 (03) e ‘Quadrant 4 (24) SY 9 KY 10 Figure 2-3. A two-dimensional coordinate system has two axes designated as the X axis ‘and Y axis. The axes intersect at the origin and divide the system into four quadrants, Points ae located in relation to the ovigin and have positive or negative values besed ‘on their location from the origin. ‘copyright Goodheur Wieox Co, Ine28 81. ONG Mil Programming uu Berita Coordinate Entry Format The X axis coordinate value does not need to be first in the program, but the X and Y movernent to each position must be on the same line to create a direct move to the next position when movernent is along both axes. Specify- ing the X value first, followed by the ¥ value, is common practice in programming. This is the format used in this, textbook Coordinates in the upper-left quadrant have a negative X value and posi- tive Y value. The X and Y axes establish a theoretical flat plane known as the XY plane, On a milling machine, if the XY plane is considered to be parallel to the machine table, the X axis represents the horizontal movement of the machine table from side to side, The Y axis represents the movement of the table from front to back. As discussed in the next section, a third axis, the Z axis, represents the movement of the spindle. The Z axis is used in a three-dimensional coor To define movement in a CNC machine, a series of coordinate points is communicated to the machine through a program. The points are used by the machine to travel in a straight line from point to point. Figure 2-4 shows a series of points specifying the exact path of travel. Each point has an X,Y coordinate measuring its distance from the origin. Point 1 is 6” from the origin in the positive X axis direction and 3” from the origin in ‘ion. This coordinate is expressed as X6, Y3. Point is 7” from the origin in the negative X direction and 6” from the origin in the positive Y direction. This coordinate is expressed as X-7, Y6.To create movement from Point 1 to Point 2, then to Point 3, and then to Point 4, the CNC program is written as follows: X6. ¥3. (Point 1) X-7. ¥6. (Point 2) X-4. ¥-3. (Point 3) XB. Y-7. (Point 4) (Peer nucke Coordinate Format ‘As shown in Figure 2-4, Cartesian coordinates are commonly written in the format X,Y, However, in CNC programming, this format is not used. Entries for XYZ coordinates are expressed as decimals. For example, in the CNC program, the coordinate entry X6. Y3. represents Point 1 in Figure 2-4, Notice that this format does nat require a trailing zero in the decimal. For example, the coordinate X6.0 is shortened to X6. Similarly, a leading zero is not required for decimal values below zero. For example, the coordinate Z-.5 does not requite a leading zero. Older controllers did not accept the decimal point programming format and entries were read in ten thousandths of an inch, For exemple, the entry X6 represented ,0006" and the entry X60000 represented 6”. Machines today use decimal point programming. This is the format used through- ‘out this textbook. 2.4 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System ‘The Cartesian coordinate system is not limited to two-dimensional space. A third axis can be designated to show height or depth in three-dimen- sional space. The third axis is designated as the Z axis. Figure 2-5 shows a three-dimensional coordinate system. In this system, there are three axes of positional movement and a third coordinate is specified for the position along the Z axis. Points representing distances from the origin are specified CCopyight Goosheart.cox Co, neChapter 2 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Miling 29 axe ° 3 7 pai ¢ xm vie $ \ 3 ers \ 2 38.13 409376 Karis Origin (X0, YO) Points X46, Y3 “SePoint ¢ x6, Y-7 ‘ooshea sr Pon Figure 2-4, Plotted coordinates representing the oath of travel in @ CNC program. sto ecateen er Ptenar Figure 2-5. A third axis, designated as the Z axis, is used in the three-cimensional coordinate system.The importance of defining the correct coordinates can- nnot be expressed enough. A missed minus sign or decimal point can cause a catastrophic machine failure or part dam- age. Be careful plotting the points and entering them into the CNC program. with X, ¥, and Z coordinates. On a milling machine, the Z. axis represents the movement of the spindle toward or away from the workpiece. To put this additional axis in perspective, consider that the Z origin, ‘or zero location, is at a top comer of the part to be machined. Anything below this position is in the negative Z direction, and anything above this position is in the positive Z direction. The Z axis allows for coordinate positioning of different heights of material in three-dimensional space. Figure 2-6 shows a block of material that is 4” wide, 2” long, and 1” in height. Based on the position of the block in relation to the origin, coordi- nates for the three points on the block are plotted as follows: Point 1 =X-4. YO. 20. Point 2 If the block is repositioned in the coordinate system, the X, Y, and Z positions change. In Figure 2-7, the size of the block is the same as in the previous example, bur the relationship to the origin has changed. The same three points on the block are plotted as follows: Point 1 =X-2. ¥2. 21 Point 2 = X-2. YO. 20. Figure 2-6. Inthe three-dimensional coordinate system, point locations are specified with X, ¥, and Z coordinates in relation to the origin, Copyright Goosear-ileoe Co, neFigure 2-7. The block of material has different X, ¥, and Z coordinates after moving it toa new position, 2.5 Absolute and Incremental Positioning ‘The coordinates specified for point locations in the previous examples are based on absolute coordinate entry. Absolute coordinates are measured in relation to the origin (XO, YO, ZO). In a CNC program, moves specified with absolute coordinates are referred to as absolute positioning moves, ‘meaning that they represent absolute measurements in reference to the origin. Absolute positioning is the appropriate method of movement for ‘most purposes. A second way to specify movement is to use incremental positioning, Incremental positioning refers to measuring from the current location to a second location, Incremental coordinates represent a relative measurement from the current position of the tool, not from the origin, Incremental coordinates are also called relative coordinates because they are located relative to the previous coordinate. See Figure 2-8. The exam- ple shows the same path of travel defined in Figure 2-4, but with coordi- nates specified using incremental positioning. Compare the two location methods. Referring to the incremental coordinate for Point 1, the previous location is considered to be the origin. Note the positive and negative val- uues corresponding to the entries for Points 2, 3, and 4, Point 2 is 13” from Point 1 in the negative X direction and 3” from Point 1 in the positive Y direction. Coordinates must be entered carefully in the program when using incremental positioning because if an incorrect position is specified, each successive move will be incorrect, (Copyright Goochear-Wieox Co, ne. an Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Miting 31 San32. Section 1 CNC Mill Programming Positioning Mode Although itis possible, and sometimes preferred, to pro- gram in inctemental moves, ‘most CNC programs are writ ten using absolute positioning. ‘An origin, or zero point, is established, and all machine ‘or tool movements are made relative to that zero point. Making sure you know where ‘the machine is located and where it is headed is critical in CNC programming. ais 10 Incremental Coordinates ° Move to Point 1X8. ¥3 ds Move to Point2.X-13. ¥8 Move to Points X3.¥-9, Move to Point 4 X®. Y-4 Figure 2-8. Coordinates defining a path of travel using incremental positioning. Incremental coordinates are measured relative to the previous coordinate location. Incremental positioning is sometimes used when a print uses a chain of dimensions to define linear distances between features. In addition, incre- mental positioning can be used with special programming methods to cre- ate arcs. Chapter 3 covers the programming commands used to establish absolute and incremental movement. 2.6 Machine Home and Work Origin Ina CNC milling operation, the machine controller must know where the ‘material, or part, is located. This is achieved by measuring the distance from the machine's home position to the part origin location. Every mill- ing machine has a fixed location called machine home. This position varies based on the machine type and manufacturer and can be anywhere within the work envelope of the machine. On a three-axis milling machine, this position is most often located at the limit of the positive X axis travel, the positive Y axis travel, and the positive Z axis travel. This would position the machine table to the far left and completely forward with the spindle at its highest position. A typical three-axis milling machine home position is shown in Figure 2-9. Ina part setup, the part material is secured, and the distance from machine home to the work origin is then measured. The work origin repre- sents the X0. Y0. location on the part and is positioned at a suitable point based on the part geometry and dimensions. The distance from machine Copyright Goosheart- cox Co, neChapter 2 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Aes for Miling 33 Machine home Figure 2-9, Machine home isa fixed position usually located atthe limits of machine travel along the positive X axis, sitive ¥ axis, and positive Z axis. home to the work origin is entered into the controller as the work coor- te system origin. The CNC program is written using this same origin position. Figure 2-10 shows a typical machine setup with a vise used to hold a piece of material to be machined. 2.7 Four-Axis Machines ‘A three-axis milling machine has three axes of movement designated as the X, Y,and Z axes. A four-axis milling machine adds another axis for use in CNC milling. A rotary is a rotating unit that establishes a fourth axis and Work origin, Vise & Machine home. ‘osha ee Pte Figure 2-10. A workpiece secured to a milling table using avise. The work origin defines ‘the X0, YO location on the part and is located in relation to the machine home position Conyright oodheent Wilsx 0, in.34 Section 1 CNC Mill Programming allows for rotation of the workpiece. In a program, the amount of rota- tional movement is expressed in degrees. There are a number of types of rotary devices in the manufacturing industry. A rotary can be integrated directly into the CNC mil, or it can be a stand-alone unit that can be removed from the machine. A rorary table is shown in Figure 2-11. This unit can stand up vertically or be mounted horizontally on the milling table. The Tslots on the circumference of the table are used for mounting work. Another common type of rotary is a collet indexes, Figure 2-12. The collet allows direct holding of round stock on the outside of the mate- rial. An indexer can be mounted horizontally or vertically in most cases, depending on the machining required. Figure 2-11, A platter-syle rotary table provides @ fourth axis for machining, Gonthoe er Pe? Figure 2-12. collet indexer mounted on a milling machine. Copyright Goodnean-Witcox Co, IeChapter 2 Cartesian Cootcnate System and Machine Axes for Ming On a milling machine, an axis of rotation parallel to the X axis is com- monly designated as the A axis. Rotation about the A axis is in a positive oor negative direction. The point of rotation is through the center point of the spindle on the rotary device. The positive or negative rotational direc- tion is based on the mounting orientation of the device. When looking along the positive X axis, positive rotation is clockwise. Figure 2-13 shows a platter-style rotary table and its direction of rotation. ‘The process of positioning a rotary axis at a fixed angular position and completing three-axis milling operations is known as 3 + 1 milling. In a typical 3 + 1 milling operation, the rotary device is programmed to rotate the part to a fixed position. Then, the cutting tool is engaged to machine the part. Additional sides of the part can be machined in the same man- ner by rotating the work to different positions. In this type of machining, the axis of rotation is fixed while movement of the cutting tool occurs along the X, Y, and Z axes. In full four-axis milling, the rotary axis is in motion at the same time tool movement occurs along the X, Y, and Z axes. Continuous linear and rotational movement allows for machining more complex parts in a single setup. Figure 2-14 shows a cylindrical part held in place by a collet rotary device and the rotational direction around the A axis. This part has a slot machined on the outer surface. Simultaneous linear and rotary motion is used in machining the slot because it is rotated 10° from the center axis of the part. This work setup is an example of full four-axis milling. The setup permits synchronous rotation of the part and linear movement of the cutting tool. When programming a rotary movement, an address code is used to specify the machine axis. Rotation about the A axis is defined with the A letter code. The rotational movement can be specified individually or in combination with other axis movements. For example: » A90, Rotates the A axis in a positive 90° rotation. = A-60. Rotates the A axis in a negative 60° rotation, = A40. Y1. X2. Rotates the A axis in a positive 40° rotation while simultaneously moving in the X and Y axis directions. ‘axis otation Figure 2-13. A rotary table mounted to a milling table permits rotation of the workpiece. The axis of rotation is designated as the A axis, (Copyright Goodheart 35 SECTION 11_ GNC Mil Program: ‘Axis rotation Figure 2-14, A part requiring rotational slot machining. 2.8 Five-Axis Machines AA five-axis milling machine has five axes of movement. Multiaxis machines can have different configurations, but five-axis milling usually refers to ‘machines with three axes of linear movement and two axes of rotary move- ment. The five-axis milling machine is rapidly becoming the most utilized tool in the modern machine shop. It provides versatility and speed and has the ability to machine complex parts with fewer operations, thus reducing costs, It also adds complexity to programming and setup. There are a number of ways a five-axis machine can be configured. “The rotary axes can be fully integrated into the machine, or they can be part of an add-on device that is removed when not in use. Figure 2-15 shows a small add-on unit that saves space and can be easily removed when not needed. This is a side-mounted, two-axis rotary unit with a tilt- ing rotary table. Other machines can be factory built with multiaxis capability. A five- axis CNC milling machine is shown in Figure 2-16. In five-axis milling, the two axes defining rotational movement are typically designated as the A axis and B axis. However, whether an axis is Baxi rotation. ‘A xis rotation Figure 2-15, An adé-on rotery unit maunted to a milling machine. The unit provides ‘hwo rotary axes for five-axis milling. copyright Goodhssrt Wilcx Co Ie.Chapter 2 Cartesian Coordinate System and Machine Axes for Ming Flgure 2-16, A five-axis machining center. designated as A or B may depend on the setup or factory controller con- figuration. For specific details on the machine configuration, refer to the operator's manual. Figure 2-17 shows an add-on unit used in a five-axis milling configu- ration. This unit is a side-mounted rotary with a tilting rotary table. This configuration allows the workpiece to be rotated to different positions along two axes and seduces the amount of setups required. Figure 2-18 shows another add-on rotary unit called a trunnion. A trunnion is a rotary table that allows for rotation in one or two axis direc- tions. The trunnion in Figure 2-18 allows for rotation around the A axis and B axis. This unit contains a platter for mounting work. The saddle Baxi rotation ‘axis rotation Genco eon Paioar Figure 2-17, A compact rotary unit mounted on a milling machine for five-axis ‘machining. The unit is light and easy to install and remove as required con 37 SO3B. Section 1 CNC Mill Programming Figure 2-18, A trunnion table with two rotary axes mounted to a conventional machining table. rotates from a horizontal to a vertical position around the A axis and the platter rotates independently around the B axis. In a program, address codes are used to specify motion for each machine axis. Each of the five axes can be programmed for individual movement or combined movement with other axes. Rotational movement is expressed in degrees. For exampl «= A90. B45. Rotates the A axis and B axis simultaneously. = B45.X.5. Rotates the B axis 45° while moving .5” in the X axis direction. # A10, B-20. X.2 Y-.$ Z-.25. Moves all axes synchronously. 2.9 Polar Coordinates Some prints may specify part dimensions based on angular relationships between features. For example, the center points of holes in a bolt circle are defined by a radius and an angie. Coordinate locations for hole centers inci cular patterns are commonly defined with polar coordinates. Polar coordinates are coordinates that reference a linear distance and an angle. Polar coordinates are specified in relation to a known point, such as the center point of a circle Figure 2-19 shows an example of polar coordinate dimensioning used to locate a hole. A linear dimension specifies the distance from the first hole to the second hole and an angular dimension specifies the polar angle from the zero angle position. As discussed in Chapter 1, the zero angle position is oriented at the 3 o’clock position. Angles are measured in a counterclockwise direction from this position. Figure 2-20 shows an example of a print where a 1” diameter bolt circle is defined for four holes in a circular pattern. In a program, polar coordi- nates are used to specify the hole locations for drilling. The center point of the pattern is used as the origin for coordinates. The holes are located by specifying a radius value and an angular position relative to the center of the pattern. The use of polar coordinates eliminates the need to mathematically calculate each hole position, thus simplifying the programming process and alleviating the possibility of calculation errors. Using Cartesian coordinates ‘would require manual calculations to be made with trigonometric functions ‘copyright Goodneart tox Co, te‘oodtaae vee Putaer Figure 2-19. Polar coordinates define the location of a feature by specifying a linear distance and angular direction. In this example, the work coordinate system origin is located at the top-left corner of the workpiece. But the center of the bolt circle is located at X2, Y-2.5, By programming that position and using specialized codes for polar coordinate programming, the four holes in the pattern can be drilled by giving the radius and angular position. Different types of controllers use different codes for polar coordinate progtamming. Although bolt circles are 2 common use for polar coor- dinate positioning, there are other instances where this technique could prove useful. Polar coordinate programming and other methods used for machining holes in milling operations are covered in Chapter 10. |, | oles eh oO ein | / Lgoues: EQUALLY SPACED 91 BOLT CIRCLE ‘Geoahaa osPubtene Figure 2-20. A part with a circular pattern of holes located on 2 1” diameter bolt circle. Polar coordinates are used in programming to machine the holes. copyright GoodhearWiox Co,Chapter 2 Review Summary = The Cartesian coordinate system is used to locate points representing X and Y values relative to the origin, = A two-dimensional coordinate system is made up of X and Y axes and is divided into four quadrants. = A three-dimensional coordinate system has a third axis designated as the Z axis. + Absolute positioning refers to specifying moves with absolute coordinates measured in relation to the origin, + Incremental positioning refers to specifying moves, with coordinates measured in relation to the current position. ‘= Machine home is a fixed location on a milling machine that usually represents the limit of the positive X axis travel, the positive Y axis travel, and the positive Z axis travel. + The work origin represents the XO. YO. location on the part and is measured relative to the machine home position. + A rotary is a unit that establishes a fourth axis on a milling machine and allows for rotation of the workpiece. * Ona milling machine, an axis of rotation parallel to the X axis is commonly designated as the A axis. * In full four-axis milling, the rotary axis is in motion at the same time tool movement occurs along the X, Y, and Z axes. In five-axis milling, the two rotary axes are in motion while tool movement along the X, Y, and Z axes occurs simultaneously * Polar coordinates are commonly used to define coordinate locations for hole centers in circular patterns, Review Questions Answer the following questions using the information provided in this chapter. Know and Understand 1, The Cartesian coordinate system was develuped by A. Ray Cartesian B, Carte Desysteme C. René Descartes D. Remy Descarme 2. On a number line, the starting point is known as A. the origin B, point zero C. coordinate home D, machine home 3. True or False? The most common method used to program a CNC machine is incremental positioning. 4, A two-dimensional coordinate system is made up of the axes, A,X and Z B. AandZ Cc. AandB D. X and Y ‘Copyight Goodhean-Witeox Co, Ie5. In the figure below, in which quadrant is the solid box located? ts 2 sos-o7e-549241% 2945678910 —PPe A. Quadrant 1 B, Quadrant 2 C. Quadrant 3 D. Quadrant 4 (Copyright Goodheart Wilox Co, Ine 6. In the figure below, what is the coordinate for the center point of the solid circle? 10-9-8.7-6-5-492-4 1 2945678910 eA X axle ALXS.Y-S. B. X-5, Y-S. C.XS.YS. D.X-5.Y5. 7. On a milling machine, which axis represents the movement of the spindle in relationship to the workpiece? A. Aaxis B. Baxis C.Y axis D.Zaxis 48. In the figure below, what is the coordinate of Point 10. 1 on the block of mate A. XO. Y2.Z1. B. X-2, YO. Z1. C, X2. ¥2. Z0. D. X-2. YO. Z0. . True or False? A rotary unit on a four-axis milling machine establishes an axis of rotation. On a milling machine, the axis that establishes rotation about the X axis is commonly designated asthe __axis, A. Baxis B. Z axis C. Aaxis D, X axis 11. True or False? The rotary axes on a five-axis milling machine can be fully integrated into the machine, or they can be part of an add-on device. 12. True or False? A five-axis milling machine is normally designated with X, Y, Z, B, and C axes. 13. Using polar coordinates, what is the angle and distance from the center of the bolt circle to Point 1? Point 1 Lano.es EQUALLY SPACED | 1 BOLT CIRCLE . 30° and 0” 30° and .5” 30° and 1” . 60° and 1” voPrPE ‘Copyright Gooden. Wieox CineApply and Analyze 1, What is the purpose of using the Cartesian coordinate system in CNC programming? 2. What are the three designated axes of movement on a three-axis milling machine? 3, Explain the additional benefit provided by a four- axis milling machine in comparison to a three-axis milling machine. 4. Why are five-axis milling machines becoming more widely used, and what benefit do they provide to a machine shop? 5. What is the benefit of using polar coordinates in a program to specify locations of holes in a circular pattern defined by a bolt circle? Critical Thinking 1. The Cartesian coordinate system has important uses in the machining industry and other industries, including mechanical design and engineering. What are some examples in everyday life where coordinate systems are used to designate distance and direction? (copyright Soodheart Wilcox Co, nc. 2, Sketch a map of your home. Designate one direction as the X axis direction and designate a second direction at 90° to establish the Y axis direction. Start from an origin position, such asa point near the front door, and map out the distance and direction to different rooms, such as the kitchen and dining room. Select one of the rooms and plot coordinates to locate items such as furniture and appliances. What is the most logical location for the origin of coordinates based on the layout of the room? 3, Describe the benefits of four- and five-axis machining. Why is the ability to rotate work a benefit? What are some examples of common parts that might benefit from four- or five-axis machining?| Preparatory Commands: G-CodesChapter Outline 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Using G-Codes in a Program 3.3. G-Code Commands 3.3.1 GOO: Rapid Positioning 3.3.2. GOI: Linear Interpolation 3.3.3 G02 and G03: Circular Interpolation 3.3.4. G20 and G21) Measurement Modes 3.3.5 G90 and G91: Absolute and Incremental Positioning 3.3.6 G40, G41, and G42 Cutter Compensation 3.3.7 G54: Work Offset 3.4 Startup Blocks Chap ocanin pat ea SseanShoesck.con Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you willbe able to: = Explain the purpose of preparatory commands. Identify the most common G-code commands for milling operations. = Identify G-code groups and their purpose. = Understand the difference between modal and nonmodal commands. ‘= Describe the purpose of the GOO and GO1 movement commands. ‘= Identify coordinates specitied in absolute positioning and incremental positioning mode. = Explain the use of cutter compensation commands. Key Terms absolute positioning Incremental positioning preparatory command address linear interpolation startup block block modal commend word G-code onmodal command work offset 4546 Section 1 CNC Mil Programming 3.1 Introduction ‘A CNC program is a series of letters and numbers that, when combined, create action from the milling machine. A letter and number grouping, used to execute a command in a program is called a word. The letter preceding the number in a word is called an address. An address is a single-letter character that defines what a machine should do with the numerical data that follows. Addresses are used in programs to designate commands and ‘machine functions. The most commonly used program address is the letter G, or G-code. A G-code identifies a preparatory command. The purpose of the preparatory command is to prepare the machine controller, or preset the machine, into a specific state of operation. This chapter covers the most commonly used preparatory commands in CNC mill programming. A G-code positioning command by itself will not create any motion or ‘movement, but it places the machine in the operational mode for the pro- gram entries that follow. Conversely, the machine will not operate without the operational mode being set. For example, the line of machine code below, by itself, will not create any movement from the machine. x8. ¥3. Although there is a designated set of coordinates to a target position, the controller has not been put into an operational mode. Is this a rapid move or a move at a feed rate? Are these coordinates in inches or in metric units? Are the coordinates specified in absolute or incremental positioning mode? These questions cannot be answered without an accompanying G-code address. 3.2 Using G-Codes in a Program Once the machine is preset into a specific operating mode with the appropriate G-code command, a motion or movement can occu. For example, the GO command creates straight-line movement. The programming example shown in Figure 3-1 moves the machine from its current location, the origin, to the XS. Y3. position. The GO1 code commands a linear move in a straight line, The single line of code shown in Figure 3-1 is called a block. A block isa single word or a series of words forming a complete line of CNC code. Notice that F20. appears at the end of the block as the last word. The address code F designates the feed rate. The programmed feed rate is used by the G01 command and must be specified. The feed rate is the rate at which the cutting tool moves into the material in inches per minute (ipm).. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Most G-code commands are modal commands, meaning once they are turned on, the machine stays in that condition until the mode is canceled or until a subsequent command changes the machine’s condition, Figure 3-2 shows series of straight-line movements programmed with the G01 command. All of the movements are ina linear direction and occur in succession because the GOL command is modal and presets the mode of operation to straight-line movement, 3.3 G-Code Commands ‘The table in Figure 3-3 lists the most commonly used G-code commands. It is not a complete list, and some codes are specific to certain controller Copyright Gooanea sileox Co, oe| Chapter Preparatory Commands: G-Coues 47 98785492 $345678 910 Geosrean ier Pte Figure 3-1. The GOL command initiates straight-line movement. Its used in the fine of code shown to move the machine from its current location to the XB. Y3. location, Y exis 0987455 ‘cornea os Pte Figure 3-2. Using the GO1 command te carry out a series of straight-ine movements. ‘The GO1 command is @ modal command and remains in effect until canceled. Copyright Goocheart. Wilcox Co, Ine11 1 ONG Mil Programming Commonly Used G-Codes GOO Rapid positioning Modal G02 Linear interpolation in feed mode Medal G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW) Modal G03 Circular interpolation countercloclwse (CCW) Modal G04 Dwell in mitiseconds Nonmodal G09 Exact stop check Nonmodal G10 Programmable offset setting mode Nonmodal G11 Cancels G10—Programmable offset setting mode cancel Nonmodal G15 Polar coordinate command cancel (Fanuc) » Modal G16 Polar coordinate command (Fanuc) Modal G17 XY plane designation Modal G18 XZppane designation Modal G19_YZ plane designation Modal 620 US Customary units of input Modal G21 Metric units f input Modal 628 Machine zero return Nonmodal 629—_—Retura from machine zero Nonmodal 630 Machine zero return Nonmedal G31 Skip function Nonmodal G40 Cutter compensation cancel Modal G41 Cutter compensation lft Modal G42 Cutter compensation right Modal G43 Tool length offset—pesitve Modal G44 Tool length offset—negatve Modal G49__Tool length offset cancel Modal 50 Scaling function cance! Modal GBI Scaling function Modal 652 Local coordinate system setting Nonmodal G53 Machine coordinate system Nonmodat G54 Work coordinate offset 1 Modal G55 Work coordinate offset 2 Modal G55 Work coocdinate offset 3 Modal G57 Werk coordinate offset 4 Modal 658 Work coordinate offset 5 Model 59 Work coordinate offset 6 Modal G60 Unidirectional positoni Nonmodal G61 Exact stop made Modal G62_—_Automatie corner override mode (Fanuc) Modal G63” Tapping mode (Fanuc) Modal G64 Cutting mode (Fanuc); cancels G61 (Hees) 665 Custom macro cal G66 Custom macro medal call (Fanuc) G67 Custom macro modal call cance! (Fanuc) Figure 3-3, G-code commangs used in programming, Some machine-specific codes are not listed. (Copyright Goodheant Wilcox Co In.Chapter 3 Preparatory Commands: G-Codes 49 G68 G69 G70 G71 72 G73 G74 76 G80 csi a2 83 cas as a6 a7 cas cao G90 oot 92 698 99 110-6129 Coordinate system rotation Coordinate system rotation cancel Bolt hole circle (Haas) Bolt hole are (Haas) Balt holes along an angle (Hees) High speed peck ailing cycle Left hand threading cycle Fine boring cycle Canned cycle cancel Drilling cycle Spot drilling cycle Full retract peck dling cycle Right hand thread drilling cycle Boring cycie—bore in, bore out Boring cycle—bore in rapi¢ out Back boring cycle (Fanuc) Boring cycle—bore in, dwell, rapid out (Fanuc) Boring cycle—bore in, dwell, bore out (Fanuc) Absolute positioning mode Incremental positioning mode Set work coordinate shift amount Return to initial level in canned cycle Return to R level in canned cycie ‘Additional work coordinate system locations Figure 3-3, (Continued) Moda Modal Nonmodal Nonmodal Nonmodal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Modal Nonmodal Modal Modal Modal types. Consult your machine manufacturer's technical manual or website for exact G-codes that are available. Many of these codes will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters. In a CNC program, multiple G-code commands can be used in the same block of code, as long as they do not have conflicting functions. For example, a block written as G90 G54 GOO X12. Y-6. is a valid line of code. Referring to the G-code commands in Figure 3-3, this line is easily deciphered: = G90, Establishes absolute positioning mode. * G54, Designates work coordinate offset 1 as the work coordinate system. * G00, Places the machine in rapid positioning mode. ‘This line will instruct the machine to move to the absolute coordinate position X12. Y-6. in the G54 work coordinate offset in full rapid mode. ‘The G-code commands in this block define the positioning mode for how coordinates are located, establish the work offset, and define the mode of movement for the cutting tool. The functions of these commands do not conflict with each other. In CNC programming, G-codes are organized into specific groups by function. The group designation identifies modal G-code commands that ‘Copyright Goodheart Wieox Ca, neMm. 1 CNC Mit Progaming Tum Petites G-Code Entry Format (On many machines, G-code commands beginning with a zero in the digit portion can be shortened to a single digit fol- lowing the letter G. For exam- pile, GOO can be shortened to G0 and GOI can be shortened to G1. This altemate format ‘may not be recognized on older machines. cannot be in effect at the same time. Multiple G-codes from different groups ‘can be placed on the same block of code, but no two G-codes from the same group can be specified on the same block. G-codes belonging to the same group are associated with the same function. For example, a block that, states G01 G40 G41 D1 X-1 is invalid. The G40 and G41 commands are both related to the same function: cutter compensation. Cutter compensa- tion commands are used to compensate for the too! diameter by offsetting the tool to the left or right of the programmed cutting path. The G40 and G41 commands have conflicting functions. The G40 command cancels cu ter compensation and G41 initiates cutter compensation left. If conflicting G-codes are used on a single block of code, the machine’s alarm will activate, G-code groups are listed in the table in Figure 3-4. Not all of the groups are listed, as some pertain only to lathe operations. The number of groups and the group numbers vary by controller type. Generally, G-code groups are numbered from Group 00 to Group 25. Group 00 consists of nonmodal commands. A nonmodal command is only active in the block in which it appears and terminates as soon as the function is complete. All other G-code commands are modal and remain in effect until they are can- celed, or a new G-code command places the machine in a different mode of operation. 3.3.1 G00: Rapid Positioning ‘The G00 (or GO) command is only used when the tool is not engaged into the part. This command will move the machine in full rapid movements. This command is commonly used when going to the home position or G-Code Groups Motion commands G00, G01, G02, G03 Dimensioning mode G90, G91 Cutter radius offset G40, G41, G42 Canned cycles G73, G74, G76, GBO, G81, G82, G83, G84, G85, G86, G87, 688, G89 Scaling cancel G50 Cutting modes G61, G62, G63, G64 Coordinate rotation G68, G69 Figure 3-4,G-code groups. ‘Copyright Goose Wileox Co, Ie.Chapter 3_Prepartory Commands: G-todes 51 G00 x6. Figure 3.5, The GOO command sets the machine to rapid movement, Shown is @ programmes rapid move tothe X6. postion coming away from the home position. Figure 3-5 shows a rapid move to the X6. position. Caution should be used when programming movement along multiple axes simultaneously. When a machine is moving in full rapid mode, a block Safety Note of code with both X and Y coordinates may not necessarily move on a straight line to that position, depending on the machine. Older machines When using the GOO com- may move at the same rate along each axis to the nearest position first. See aNd, be cautious of any. Figure 3-6. possible collisions with this ‘movement. GOO is a modal ‘command, so all movements. 3.3.2 G01: Linear Interpolation following it will be in full rapid The G01 (or G1) command is used when entering a piece of material while 942 untl itis canceled. cutting, and when exiting a cut. This command creates linear movement from the current position toa specified position. Linear interpolation refers to determining a straight-line distance by calculating intermediate points between a start point and end point. The G01 command is followed by a ° (G00 x12. 6, Figure 3-6, Depending on the machine, raaid movement programmed along two axes with the GOO command may not occur along a straight ine, Shown is a programmed move to X12. Y6. Notice that the mavement of the machine was to the closest axis position first. ‘Copyright Godheart:Wilox Co, nection 1 CNC M Programming feed rate command (F command) to designate the rate at which the cutting, tool moves into the material in inches per minute (ipm). See Figure 3~ When more than one axis of movement is programmed on a single block of code, the G01 command will make a direct linear move to the specified coordinates, The example in Figure 3-8 shows a move to X12. Y6. 3.3.3 G02 and G03: Circular interpolation ‘The G02 (G2) and GO3 (G3) commands produce radial or circular tool movement at a specified feed rate, The GO2 command produces a clock- wise rotation, and the G03 command produces a counterclockwise rota- tion. See Figure 3-9. ‘When programming a G02 or G03 command, it is common to use 4 G01 command first to position the tool at the start point of the radius or arc, then use the G02 or G03 command to complete the arc. The ares generated can be partial arcs or full circles, depending on the code. Since these are modal commands, the GO1 command will need to follow the G02 or G03 command to return the machine condition to linear interpola- tion mode. Programming methods using the G02 and G03 commands are explained later in this text. 3.3.4 G20 and G21: Measurement Modes The G20 and G21 commands set the type of working units used by the machine. CNC machines can read programs in US Customary units or metric units. In the US Customary system, also known as the English (or Imperial) system, the basic unit of linear measurement is the inch. Most prints for manufacturing in the United States are dimensioned in decimal inches. On metric prints, dimensions are commonly specified in millime- ters, Itcan be beneficial to program in one unit format over another. For ‘example, ifthe print is dimensioned in metric units, itis logical to write the CNC code in the same units. ‘The G20 command sets the machine to use US Customary units. The G21 command sets the machine to use metric units, Using the G21 com- mand means that the lines of code and specified offsets will be based on G01 x-6.F50. wate eon Pblaar Figure 3-7. The GO1 command creates linear movement. Shown is a programmed move to the X-6. position. A feed rate command (F command) follows the GO1 command and specifies the rate at which the cutting tool moves into the material ‘Copyight Goodhesr- Wilcox Co, IeChapter 3. Preparatory Commands: G-Coces ub Got X12.¥6. F89, ‘ia Figure 3-8 The GO1 command creates straight-line movement to the specified So . j cr f Gos CCounterclockwise arc Clockwise are tT Figure 3-9, The G02 and GO3 commands produce motion in a circular path. The G02 command generates a clockwise rotation, and the GO3 command generates counterclockwise rotation, metric units. Always make sure to specify the correct code for the unit format. On some machines, the G20 and G21 commands check that the machine control has been set to the correct mode for the program and will produce an alarm if the units are not set correctly. 3.3.5 G90 and G91: Absolute and Incremental Positioning There are two basic ways to define coordinates for locating machine posi- tions and movement. The G90 and G91 commands set the positioning mode used to locate coordinates. The G90 command sets the current posi- tioning mode to absolute positioning, In this mode, coordinate values are measured from the coordinate system origin (XO. Y0.). The origin rep- resents a fixed point from which coordinates are located. This method Copy Goodhean- Wilcox Co, ine Cea Be aware that if tool off- sets are specified while the machine is in inch mode and then the program uses a G21 ‘command, the offsets will not automatically convert. For example, the machine will read a 15” offset as a 15, mm offset. This is potentially dangerous and can result in a machine crash. Always specify the appropriate unit format for machining and do not use more than one unit format in a Program.54 locates absolute coordinates and is the appropriate positioning method for most purposes. The G91 command sets the current positioning mode to incremental positioning. In chis mode, coordinate values are measured from the current point to the next point. Incremental coordinates represent a relative mea- surement from the current position of the tool, not from the coordinate system origin. Incremental coordinates are also called relative coordinates because they are located relative to the previous coordinat Figure 3-10 shows coordinates located with each positioning method. The coordinates are represented as Point 1 and Point 2. Each point rep- resents a possible destination position for the cutting tool. The tool start, position is the coordinate X7. YS. A block of code written as G90 G01 X-6. Y-5. F50, will take the tool to Point 1. The G90 command specifies absolute positioning and locates the coordinate in relation to the coordinate system origin. Point 1 is the absolute coordinate X-6. Y-S. A block of code written as G91 G01 X-6, Y-5. F50. will take the tool to Point 2. The G91 command specifies incremental positioning. The same X-6. Y-S. coordinate is used, but the coordinate is an incremental ra +19 +8 +8 tr +6 Too! stat postion 4s 46 13 +2 40997854924 2045678900 aoe ee Goorin system org Xaxls at Point 2 Point ¢ 6 Figure 3-10. The G90 and G91 commands provide two different ways to locate coordinates for tool moves. The G90 command activates absolute positioning mode ‘and moves the tool from its current position (the start postion) to an absolute position ‘measured from the origin. The coordinate entry X-6. Y-5. moves the tool to Point 1. The G91 command activates incremental positioning made and moves the tool from its current position an incremental amount in the specified axis direction. The coordinate entry X-6. Y-8. lacates the toal at Point 2. This changes the cutter path and results in a different finish location for the move, Copyright Goodhear cox Co, necoordinate located in relation to the current position of the tool. The cur- rent position is the tool start location, not the origin. This locates Point 2 six units in the negative X axis direction and five units in the negative Y axis, direction from the X7. Y5. tool start location. Notice that using the G91 command results in an entirely different cutter path and finish location. ‘Moves defined with absolute positioning are used for most program- ming applications. Incremental positioning moves must be programmed carefully because if an incorrect coordinate position is specified, all sub- sequent moves will be incorrect. Incremental moves are used when it is appropriate to specify coordinates relative to the current position. A prac- tical use for incremental positioning in a program is drilling a pattern of holes aligned along a straight path, as explained in Chapter 10, 3.3.6 G40, G41, and G42: Cutter Compensation The G41 and G42 commands are used to offset the tool to the left or right of the programmed cutting path, When programming coordinate positions in a CNC program, the centerline of the spindle is being moved to those points. The machine does not consider the diameter of the cutting tool being used. To offset the center of the tool and allow the tool edge to fol- low the correct path, the G41 or G42 command is used. Each command uses the stored radius offset setting for the cutting tool. The G41 command activates left-hand cutter compensation and the G42 command activates right-hand cutter compensation. If the tool is cutting on the left-hand side of the material, the G41 command is used. The G42 command will offset the tool to the right-hand side of the part or piece of material. The offset direction of the tool is determined by viewing the tool from behind as it moves in the cutting direction. See Figure 3-11. The G41 and G42. commands are modal commands and will continue to offset the tool for any additional moves until canceled. The G40 com- mand cancels the G41 or G42. command, Additional explanations and examples of the G41 and G42 commands and other G-code commands executed for specific programs are provided later in this text, , LL = ——~pirection of cutor Direation of cuter — G41 command G42. command Cutter compensation left Cutter compensation right costes ea Aer Figure 3-11. The G41 command offsets the too! to the left of the programmed cutting path. The G42 command offsets the tool to the right of the programmed cutting path. “The offset direction corresponds to the side of the part machined when viewing the tool from behind in the direction of the cutting path. (Copyright Goodneart Wax Co, Ie. ae Perel G41: Left-Hand Cutter Compensation In most contour milling operations, the cutting tool is positioned to cut material on the left side of the part. Most milling programs created for these operations use the G41 command to establish left- hand cutter compensation. ShyMil Programming 3.3.7 G54: Work Offset AAs previously discussed, the work coordinate system (WCS) defines the X0. YO. origin location of the part. In CNC programming, the work coor- dinate system can be defined as a work offset. A work offset is a coor dinate setting that establishes the location of the work origin relative to the machine home position. Coordinates for a work offset are entered by the operator into the machine during setup. The appropriate work offset command is used in the program to designate the work coordinate sys- tem. For example, the G54 command is used to activate work coordinate offset 1 as the work coordinate system. This command is commonly used when machining a single part. On most machines, itis possible to set a number of work offsets referenced to specific programming commands. The GSS, G56, G57, G58, and G59 commands are additional work offset commands used for this purpose. Multiple work offsets are defined when several parts are to be machined in one program. During setup, each work- piece is secured and work offsets are defined to establish a different work origin for each part. 3.4 Startup Blocks Most CNC programmers will begin new programs with a startup block. This block, also referred to as a default block or safety block, cancels any machine conditions left from the previous program or establishes a new starting condition for the current program. Canceling modes that may have been previously active prevents errors and helps ensure the machine will start and operate safely. A startup block usually contains the appropriate commands to set the unit format and positioning mode. While this practice can vary from programmer to programmer, a typical startup block could be written as G90 G80 G17 G40 G20. The commands are read as follows: = G90, Establishes absolute positioning mode = G80, Cancels a previously active canned cycle. * G17. Designates the XY plane for machining, * G40. Cancels cutter compensation. = G20, Places the machine in inch mode. Copyright Goosnear- Wilcox Co, Ic