ASEXUAL & SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION is essential to survival and continuation of species. It is the ability of organisms to produce their own kind. It is either sexual reproduction or asexual
reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - it is the process of producing offspring from one parent, without the union of gametes (sex cells). It does not depend on sperm and egg
cells. Certain plants use ROOTS, LEAVES, AND STEMS in asexual reproduction. In animals, asexual reproduction does not use special sex organs. Any part or cell can
give rise to offspring. However, only the simpler form of animals such as SPONGES AND HYDRA use asexual reproduction. One parent cell may produce one or more
offspring that are identical to it. It does not involve a change of genes (materials that carry the traits of an organism). This type of reproduction is the main form of
reproduction for unicellular organisms.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
1. Vegetative Reproduction - It is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or a specialized
reproductive structure. It is where a new individual, known as the offspring, is produced from a single parent.
Types of Vegetative Reproduction
A. Tuber - It is swollen part of an underground stem. It bears a number of nodes or “eyes” Examples: potatoes and dhalias
B. Rhizome - It is an underground horizontal stem, where each node gives rise to a new plant. Example: Ginger
C. Corm - It is a vertical underground stem. It thickens as it continues to grow. Example: Taro (gabi)
D. Bulb - It is a special bud that is thick and fleshy. It serves as storage of food during the period of dormancy to enable plants to survive adverse conditions. Examples:
Onions and Water hyacinths
E. Suckers or Sprouts - It gives rise to new plants. Examples: Cherries and Apples
F. Runner or Stolon - It is a stem that grows below the ground, forming adventitious roots at the nodes and forming a new plant from the buds. Examples: Strawberry
and Grasses
G. Adventitious Buds - They are usually dormant. But when they come in contact with the soil, they develop into new plantlets. Example: Kataka-taka leaf
2. Binary Fission - Unicellular organisms reproduce through binary fission. The cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell continues to grow until it
becomes as large as the parent cell. Examples: Bacteria, Protist, Amoeba, Paramecium
3. Budding - The parent cell produces a bud on its surface. A new individual develops as an outgrowth or bud from specialized areas of the body of the parent organism. The
bud will separate from the parent and become a new individual. Examples: Yeast, Hydra, and Sponges
4. Spore Formation - The black, round structure at the tip of a stalk is called spore case which contains the spores. A spore is a reproductive cell capable of developing into a
new individual without fusion with another reproductive cell. Spore formation in Rhizopus - When the spore case opens, the tiny spores are released and may be carried by
wind or water. Once the spore lands on a favorable environment, it develops into a new organism. Examples: Molds and Ferns, Fungi and Mushroom
5. Regeneration/Fragmentation - The parent organism can be divided into many pieces and each piece will develop into a complete individual.
Fragmentation- An organism splits into fragments. Examples: cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), lichens and sponges. Examples: Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae, lichens,
sponges)
Regeneration - The process can replace an injured or lost body part. Examples: Sea stars (starfishes) and Planaria (flatworm)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - it is mode of reproduction that involves two parents. Parents produce reproductive cells called gametes through meiosis.
Fertilization - gametes from the two parents unite in a process called fertilization. The fertilized cell is referred to as a zygote which develops into a new organism.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MICROORGANISMS
Through the process of conjugation such as bacteria and spirogyra

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Pollination - brings together the gametes of a flower and it occurs when a pollen grain of the right kind lands on the
stigma of the pistil. Each pollen forms a tube that grows down through the pistil and reaches the ovule in the ovary. One
of the nuclei in the pollen tube unites with the egg nucleus in the ovule to form a zygote. The other sperm nucleus
combines with another bigger nucleus in the ovule which develops into the endosperm.
Examples: Flowering Plants such as Gumamela and Roses
Flowers are the reproductive parts in angiosperm (flowering plants)
The two essential parts of the flowers are the accessory organs and reproductive parts.
PARTS OF A GUMAMELA FLOWER (HIBISCUS)

Accessory Organs - are not directly involved in reproduction. Their function is to protect and attract possible
pollinators.
Perianth is the outer part of the flower, which is composed of corolla and calyx.
1) Corolla is made of petals, which are colorful modified leaves in the flower. It also protects the inner part of the flower.
2) Calyx is made of sepals, which are modified leaves that protect and enclose the flower especially during the bud stage.
Reproductive Organs - are directly involved in reproduction. These are composed of the stamen and pistil.
Male Reproductive Organ of a Flower
 Stamen - the collective name of stamen is called androecium. The male reproductive part of the flower. It contains the anther and the filament.
 Anther - contains the pollen grains (sperm cell). Filament it holds the anther. It has vascular bundle which transports sucrose to provide nutrients needed for cell division.
Female Reproductive Organ of a Flower
 Pistil - the collective name of pistil is called gynoecium. The female reproductive part of the flower. It contains the stigma, the style and the ovary.
 Stigma located at the tip of the pistil, the hairy part where pollen grains are received. It secretes a sugary fluid to stimulate the germination of pollen grains
 Style serves as a bridge from the stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary is where ovules are contained. Ovules contain egg cell.
Pollination - it is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.… it is classified as self-pollination or cross-pollination.
1) Self- Pollination - it is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
2) Cross-Pollination - it is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower. It is only applicable to same species. It needs
pollinators (wind & insect)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS & ANIMALS
Sexual Reproduction - it involves the fusion or union of gametes from the male and female organisms. The fusion of two different gametes (egg and sperm) is called
fertilization. The two types of fertilization are external fertilization and internal
fertilization.
1) External Fertilization - It takes place outside the body. Occurs in aquatic
environments. Example: Fishes, amphibians, shrimps, crabs, oysters,
squids, sea urchins and sea cucumbers
2) Internal Fertilization - It takes place inside the body. Occurs in terrestrial
environments.
Three types of internal fertilization
a. Oviparity - it is the process of producing an egg that is developed and
hatched outside the body. Oviparous animals are birds, reptiles and fishes.
b. Ovoviviparity - it involves producing an egg inside the maternal body,
wherein it stays until it is ready to hatch. Ovoviviparous animals are
sharks and skates.
c. Viviparity - it involves producing live young from the mother’s womb.
Viviparous animals are mammals, reptiles and fishes.

Ecosystems - It refers to the community or group of living things interacting with each other and to the physical environment.
Two Components of Ecosystem
1. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS refers to non-living things and chemical elements in the ecosystem, abiotic components usually found in the lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere. Examples are water, soil, air, sunlight, and minerals.
2. BIOTIC COMPONENTS are living things or organisms in the ecosystem which are capable of reproduction. Examples are animals, plants, microorganisms, and other
similar organisms.
How do biotic components influence each other?
Biotic components or organisms depend on each other for food and other necessities essential to life. Species can have many different types of interactions with each
other, some interactions help both species, some help just one of the species, and some can be negative for one or both species. All these interactions are needed to maintain
balance in an ecosystem.
Ecological Relationship - describe the interactions between and among organisms within their environment. Interactions may have positive, neutral or even negative influences
on interacting populations.
FIVE ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS - Symbiosis means “to live together “and happens when two species have a close relationship with each other.
1) Mutualism - It is a symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit from the relationship. Examples: Plants and Pollinators, Ants and Aphids
Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Description
Mutualism + + Both species benefit from the interaction
2) Parasitism - It is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits (parasites) while the other organism is harmed (host). Example: Mosquito and human

Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Description

Parasitism + - The parasite derives its nourishment from the second organism, its
host, which is harmed.

3)Commensalism - It is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits (commensal) while the other organism is not affected (host).
Example: Birds and Trees, Orchid attached on the branch of tree
Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Description
Commensalism + 0 One species benefits from the interaction, while the other is
unaffected by it.
NON-SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
4) Predation - A relationship where one organism benefits while the other organism is eaten. An animal that kills and eat other animals is called a predator. An animal
that is killed and eaten by its predator is called a prey. Prey animals are usually smaller and less powerful than the predator that eats them. In community, predator
compete with other predators for prey animals. In wild, a predator’s prey may be another prey’s predator.
Examples: Zebra eaten by Lion

Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Description

Predation + x One species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey.

5) Competition - While two populations use the same resources, they participate in a biological interaction called competition. Resources which different populations
compete such as food, nesting sites, light, habitat, nutrients, and water.
TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPETITION
a. Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species.
Example: Two male birds compete for mates in the same area.
b. Interspecific competition occurs between members of different species.
Example: Predators of different species (Lion and Fox) may compete for the same prey (rabbit)

Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Description

Competition - - Two or more species compete for a resource that is in short supply.
EFFECTS CHANGES IN ABIOTIC FACTORS ON THE ECOSYSTEM
Abiotic factors are non-living parts of the environment that have a major influence on living things. They can help determine things like how tall trees grow, where
animals and plants are found, and why birds migrate. The most important abiotic factors include water, sunlight, oxygen, soil, and temperature.

Abiotic Description Impact on Biotic Components

Factors
Water It is a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen All living things need water. Plants must have water to grow. Even plants that
and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. It is one of the most live in the desert need a little bit of water to grow. Without water, animals
plentiful and essential compounds. It is often said that “water is life.” become weak and confused, and they can die if they do not rehydrate.
Sunlight It is the main source of energy on Earth, which makes it an extremely Sunlight is necessary for
important abiotic factor. photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water to oxygen (O2) and sugar – food for the plants that later becomes food
for animals. Without the sun, plants could not live, and without plants,
animals could not live as well.
Air It is the general name for the mixture of gases that makes up the Earth's Air contains oxygen, without oxygen, humans would not be able
atmosphere. to live. This is true for the many other living things that use oxygen. Oxygen
is produced by green plants through the process of photosynthesis and is
therefore directly linked to sunlight.
Soil It is often considered an abiotic factor since it is mostly made up of small Plants use their roots to get water and nutrients from the soil. Soils are
particles of rock (sand and clay) mixed with decomposed plants and different from place to place –this can be a big factor in which plants and
animals. animals live in a certain area.
Temperature It is an abiotic factor that is strongly influenced by sunlight. Temperature plays an important role for animals that cannot regulate their
body temperature, such as reptiles. Unlike humans, whose normal body
temperature is usually around 37 degrees Celsius, reptiles (such as snakes and
lizards) cannot maintain a constant body temperature.

Disrupting Ecological Balance

Human activities also affect the ecosystem. Damaging activities such as chopping of trees, using dynamite in fishing, open-pit mining, and throwing of wastes in the
bodies of water and land are some examples that disturb the ecosystem. Our country is rich in minerals like nickel, gold, and copper. However, because of this abundance, many
people want to utilize them thus, our environment suffers. If left untouched, a given ecosystem can restore balance by itself. However, ecosystems on Earth remain susceptible to
natural and man-made causes which inflict changes that may bring about disruptions. Such disruptions result in changes to the community of organisms and/or extinction of
other organisms, leading to degradation of the environment or disturbance of the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Pollution is a process in which substances that are introduced to the environment change their condition, causing harm to organisms dwelling in it. Substances that
harmful organisms are called pollutants.

Importance of protecting the World’s Ecosystems

Why do we need to protect the natural ecosystems?
Below are some of the reasons:
1. Natural ecosystems supply the food.
2. Natural ecosystems supply the medicine.
3. Natural ecosystems harbor the organisms.
4. Natural ecosystems supply the world with
industrial products.