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IGCSE PAPER 6 NOTES.
1.MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.
1.1 Variables.
(a)Independent variable.
Is a factor that changes in an investigation.
It is the changed variable.
Also described as the input variable.
(b)Dependent variable.
It is the factor that changes as a result of the independent variable.
It is the measured variable.
(c)Controlled variable.
In an experiment, the dependent variable may be affected by other variable, for example
an enzyme controlled reaction is affected by more than one variable.
Only one variable should be considered as the independent variable in an investigation
and other variable should be kept constant i.e. standardized.
1.2Examples of variables and standardizing methods.
Temperature- thermostatically controlled water bath.
PH-Buffer solution of known concentration.
Light intensity.-Heat-shielded lamp set at constant distance/power.
Wind speed-Fan set at constant distance and power.
Humidity-solid anhydrous calcium chloride.
Other standardized variables include.
Mass.
Concentration.
Volume.
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Source.
Age/size/length.
Storage conditions.
1.3Dependent variables must be measured by proper instruments.
Temperature-thermometer.
Colour- colorimeter
Ph.- indicator/pH meter.
Mass- balance.
Time- clock/stop watch.
Length-ruler.
Volume-beaker/ measuring cylinder/burette/pipette
NB: Read from the bottom of the meniscus.
1.4Quality of measurements.
(a)Accuracy-closeness to true value.
Accuracy is improved by using better instruments.
(b)Precision-closeness to repeated reading.
It is improved by controlling all variables.
(c)Reliability-Confidence in results.
It is improved by repeating and taking the mean.
2.PRESENTATION OF DATA OBSERVATION.
2.1Drawing a table of results.
Draw a table with neat, ruled pencil lines.
Give each column suitable heading (Quantity /SI unit).
Arrange columns in order: independent and dependent variable.
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Round data to some number of decimal places to maintain consistency.
2.2Plotting graphs.
Types of graphs.
Line graph.
Histogram-in this graph bars touch.
Bar chart- in this graph bars do not touch
Independent variable on the x-axis and dependent variable on the y-axis.
Use linear scale with sensible intervals e.g. 1s,2s,5s,10s..
Use as much space of the graph as possible.
Label each axis as fully, according to variable column heading.
NB: Include units for each variable.
For line graphs:
Plot points with x or a dot encircled.
Join successive points with straight line.
If there is a clear relation ,a line of best fit can be drawn but draw this if asked to
do so.
Don’t not extent the line beyond the plotted points i.e. extrapolation.
2.3Making biological drawings.
Use most of the space available to make drawing large enough to show essential features.
Draw clear, single line with sharp HB pencil(keep clean eraser.)
Show overall shape and ensure proportions are correct.
Do not shade or colour.
Label using accurate , straight, horizontal, non-intersecting ruled line.NB:Label the
diagram only when asked to do so.
2.4Mathematical skills.
Mean= sum of data ÷ number of data.
%change=(Final- Initial)/Initial ×100.
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Magnification=Image size/Actual size.
NB: When calculating magnification make sure that the units are the same.
1cm=10mm
1mm=1000micrometers(µm)
3.ANALYSIS,CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION.
3.1 Describing and Interpreting Data.
Describe the overall trend.
Comment on changes in gradient.
Quote figures to support the claim .
NB: Figures must have units.
Draw a conclusion by connecting it to description using theoretical reasoning.
3.2Sources of error in an investigation.
Inaccurate measuring instrument.
Difficulties in controlling standardized variables and dependent variable.
Anomalous readings( owing to inadequate technique).
Inadequate range of concentrations and intervals.
Uncontrolled variables.
4.DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT.
Find the variable which is to be changed( from the question) and mention how you
are going to change it(eg to change temperature, use thermostatically controlled
water bath).
There should be at least five different values of the independent variable ,the values
should be spaced at equal interval.
List all variables that you should have to keep constant throughout the experiment(
e.g. Room temperature, volume of water, insect species).
Mention how long your experiment will last.
Say how you will measure the dependent variable.
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Finally: say repeat the experiment to have at least three readings for each value of
the independent variable and calculate the mean to improve reliability.
NB: Accuracy is improved by using better measuring instruments.
You can mention a control ( e.g.: use of boiled enzyme in an experiment to test for
enzyme activity)
NB:Control sample is a standardized one with the effect of independent variable removed.
