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P R I VAT E P I L O T C E R T I F I C AT E
Everything You Need To Know
Aeronautical Experience Use of navigation systems,
Required for Private Pilot Certificate facilities, and radar services
§ 61.109 3 hours of flight training with an authorized
instructor in a single-engine airplane in
40 hours of total flight time preparation for the practical test, which
20 hours of flight training from an authorized must have been performed within the
instructor preceding 2 calendar months.
10 hours solo
Eligibility Requirements
5 hours solo cross-country time § 61.103
1 solo cross-country flight of 150 (or more)
17 years old
nautical miles total distance, with full-stop
landings at 3 points; AND one segment of Read, speak, and write in English
the flight consisting of a straight-line Receive logbook endorsement from an
distance of more than 50 nautical miles authorized instructor who:
between the takeoff and landing locations. Conducted the training for the
3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an knowledge exam or reviewed the
airport with an operating control tower person’s home study course
(Each involving a lap in the pattern) Pass the required knowledge test on the
3 hours of cross-country flight training aeronautical knowledge areas listed in § 61.105
3 hours of night flight Receive flight training and a logbook
endorsement from an authorized instructor
1 cross-country flight over 100 nautical
who:
miles total distance
Conducted the training in the areas of
10 takeoffs and landings to a full stop
operation listed in § 61.107 (b) that apply
(Each involving a lap in the pattern)
to the aircraft rating sought
3 hours of flight training in a single-engine
Airplane controlling and maneuvering solely Certified that the person is prepared for
by reference to instruments. the required practical test
Must Include: Meet the aeronautical experience requirements
of this part
Straight and level flight
Comply with the appropriate sections of this
Constant airspeed climbs
part that apply to the aircraft category and
and descents
class rating sought
Turns to a heading
Hold a U.S. Student Pilot Certificate,
Recovery from unusual
Sport Pilot Certificate, Recreational Pilot
flight attitudes
Certificate, or a Private Pilot Certificate in a
Radio communications different category or class of aircraft.
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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Recency Requirements Other Endorsements
§ 61.57 (a)
Tailwheel Endorsement § 61.31(i)
Can not carry passengers unless within the
Does not require a minimum number of
preceding 90 days…
hours.
You have accomplished 3 takeoffs and
Requires specific maneuvers to be
3 landings.
demonstrated:
Must be the sole manipulator of the
Normal and crosswind takeoffs and
controls in the same category and class
landings
of aircraft flown.
Wheel landings
If it’s a tailwheel aircraft, landings must
be to a full stop. Go-around procedures
These may be accomplished in a full flight Complex Endorsement § 61.31(e)
simulator or flight training device as long For airplanes with retractable landing
as it is… gear, flaps, & controllable pitch propeller.
Approved by the administrator for Does not require a minimum number of
landings; AND hours.
Used in accordance with an Required to log and receive ground and
approved course conducted by a flight training from authorized instructor.
training center certified under
Part 142 High-Performance Endorsement § 61.31(f)
Night Takeoff and Landing Experience § 61.57 (b) For airplanes with an engine of more than
No person may act as PIC carrying passengers 200 horsepower.
during the period of 1 hour after sunset and Required to log and receive ground and
ending 1 hour before sunrise, unless within flight training from authorized instructor.
the preceding 90 days that person has made:
At least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full High-Altitude Endorsement § 61.31(g)
stop within that time period For airplanes with a service ceiling or
That person acted as sole manipulator of maximum operating altitude, whichever
the flight controls is lower, above 25,000 ft. MSL
In aircraft of the same category, class, Required to log and receive ground and
and type flight training from authorized instructor.
Training must include these subjects:
High-altitude aerodynamics and
meteorology
Respiration
Quick Note: Hypoxia & high-altitude sickness
“Calendar Months” means counting the month Duration of consciousness without
as a whole, without referencing a specific day of supplemental oxygen
the month. So “Six months from December 2nd“ Effects of prolonged usage of
Would be June 2nd and “Six calendar months from supplemental oxygen
December 2nd is June 30th Causes and effects of gas expansion
Incidents of decompression
Other physiological aspects of
high-altitude flight

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Limitations as a Private Pilot Requirements to Solo
§ 61.113 § 61.87
May not pay less than the pro rata share of the An Aeronautical Knowledge Test
operating expenses of a flight with passengers, (Not the FAA Knowledge Test)
provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport
Airspace rules and procedures for the
expenditures, or rental fees.
airport being used
With some exceptions, no private pilot may act as
Flight characteristics and operational
pilot in command of an aircraft that is carrying
limitations for the make and model of
passengers or property for compensation or hire;
the aircraft to be flown
nor may that person, for compensation or hire,
act as pilot in command of an aircraft. Must be administered by the student’s
Instructor
The exceptions
The instructor must review all the
A private pilot MAY act as pilot in command
incorrect answers before authorizing
for hire or compensation in connection with
the flight
any business or employment IF:
Pre-solo flight training
The flight is only incidental to that
business or employment AND Must have received and logged training
for the maneuvers and procedures for
The aircraft does not carry passengers
the aircraft flown
or property for compensation or hire
Demonstrate proficiency and safety to
A private pilot MAY act as pilot in command of a
an instructor in the make and model of
charitable, nonprofit, or community event flight.
aircraft to be flown
A private pilot, who is an aircraft salesperson and
Maneuvers and procedures
who has at least 200 hours of logged flight time
may demonstrate an aircraft in flight to a Must have received and logged flight
prospective buyer. training for the following:
A private pilot may act as PIC of an aircraft towing Demonstrate proficiency and safety to
a glider or unpowered ultralight vehicle. an instructor in the make and model of
aircraft to be flown
Preflight
Taxiing or surface operations
(Including run-ups)
Takeoffs and landings
(Including normal and x-wind)
Straight and level flight, and
turns in both directions
Climbs, with/without turns
Airport traffic patterns
(entry and departure procedures)
(Continued on next page…)

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
(Continued from previous page…) Soloing at Night
Collision avoidance, wind-shear A student pilot may not operate an aircraft
avoidance, wake turbulence avoidance in solo flight at night unless that student pilot
has received:
Descents, with/without turns
(high and low drag configurations) Flight training at night including takeoffs,
approaches, landings, and go-arounds
Flight at various airspeeds
at night at the airport where the solo
(from cruise to slow flight)
flight will be conducted
Stall entries from various altitudes and
Navigation training at night in the vicinity
power combinations
of the airport where the solo flight will
(recovery initiated at the first indication of
take place
a stall + recovery from FULL stall)
An endorsement in the student’s logbook
Emergency procedures and equipment
for the specific make and model aircraft
Malfunctions
to be flown for night solo flight within the
Ground reference maneuvers preceding 90 days of the date of the
Approaches to a landing area with solo flight
simulated engine malfunctions
Slips to a landing Endorsements Needed to Solo
Go arounds Essential ones:
Endorsement Requirements Pre-Solo Knowledge § 61.87 (b)
Must have received an endorsement in the Pre-Solo Flight Training § 61.87 (c)
student’s logbook for the specific make and Initial Solo § 61.87 (n)
model aircraft to be flown within the 90
days preceding the flight As Needed Endorsements:
Each additional
90 calendar-day period § 61.87 (p)
Solo Flight at Night § 61.87 (o)
Take-Offs and Landings at the airport
within 25 nautical miles § 61.93 (b)(1)
Solo in Class B § 61.95 (a)

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 NTSB Reporting Accident vs. Incident
National Transportation Safety Board Aircraft Accident § 830.2
(NTSB)
An occurrence associated with the
The NTSB is NOT the FAA, and they operation of an aircraft which takes place
have their own rules when it comes to between the time any person boards the
accident and incident reporting. aircraft with the intention of flight and all
such persons have disembarked, and
which any person suffers death or serious
injury, or in which the aircraft receives
substantial damage.
“Serious Injury” is defined as…
Hospitalization for more than 48 hours,
commencing within 7 days from the
date of the injury was received
A fracture of any bone
(except simple fractures of fingers,
toes, or nose)
Severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle,
or tendon damage
Internal organ injury
Second or third-degree burns, or any
burns affecting more than 5 percent
of the body surface
Substantial damage is defined as…
Damage or failure which adversely
affects the structural strength,
performance, or flight characteristics
of the aircraft.
Note: A prop strike is NOT considered
substantial damage.
Aircraft Incident
An occurrence other than an accident,
associated with the operation of an
aircraft, which affects or could affect the
safety of operations.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
Instrument Rating Required Special Flight Permits
§ 21.197
When acting as PIC in IFR
weather conditions § 61.3 May be issued in these specific scenarios
When carrying passengers for Flying an aircraft to a base where
compensation or hire on cross-country § 61.133 repairs, alterations, or maintenance
are to be performed, or to a point of
Flight in Class A airspace § 91.135 storage.
Flight in Special VFR between sunset Delivering or exporting an aircraft
and sunrise § 91.157
Production flight testing of new
production aircraft
What You Need to Have With You Evacuating aircraft from areas of
§ 61.3 impending danger
Pilot certificate issued by the FAA Conducting customer demonstration
flights in new production aircraft that
Photo identification (1 of these) have satisfactorily completed production
Driver’s license flight tests.
Government identification card
Category, Class, and Type
U.S. Armed Forces identification card (For Airmen)
Official Passport Category
Credential that authorizes unescorted The broadest classification of aircraft
access to secure areas of an airport Examples: Airplane, Rotorcraft, Glider,
Medical Certificate and Lighter than air

Class of medical must match the Class

operational privileges being exercised Classification of aircraft within a category
Radio Operator Permit Examples: Single-engine, Multiengine,
Land, Sea
Only if operating outside of the U.S.
Type
Specific make and basic model of aircraft
Change of Address
Examples: C172, P28, C182, B737
§ 61.60
You have 30 days to update your information
on IACRA.FAA.gov

(day) (night)

Fuel from Fuel for Fuel for

Minimum Fuel an additional an additional
Requirements
departure
to + 30 Minutes 45 Minutes
§ 91.151
destination calculated at calculated at
normal cruise normal cruise
speed/alt. speed/alt.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
Preflight Self Assessment Required Aircraft Maintenance Inspections
§ 91.17, AIM 8-1-1 “AV1ATES”
“IM SAFE” A - Annual Inspection § 91.409
I - Illness Every 12 Calendar Months
M - Medication V - VOR Check § 91.171
S - Stress Every 30 Days
A - Alcohol 1 - 100 Hour Inspection § 91.409
F - Fatigue Required if flying for hire
E - Emotion/Eating A - Altimeter § 91.411
Every 24 Calendar Months
Preflight General T - Transponder § 91.413
“PAVE” Every 24 Calendar Months
P - Pilot E - ELT § 91.207
A - Aircraft Every 12 Calendar Months
V - EnVironment Battery must be replaced after more than 1
E - External Factors hour of cumulative use
- or -
If 50% of the usable battery life is expired
Required Aircraft Documents
S - Static System § 91.411
§ 21.5, 91.103, 91.1, 91.203
Every 24 Calendar Months
“ARROW”
A - Airworthiness Certificate
R - Registration Confirmation of airworthiness is the
R - Radio Operator License (for international flights) responsibility of the Pilot-In-Command
O - Operating Limitations & Information (in AFM)
W - Weight and Balance Data (aircraft specific) Minimum Required Equipment for VFR Flight
§ 91.205
“A TOMATO FLAMES”
Decision Making & Risk Management A - Altimeter
“DECIDE” T - Tachometer for each engine
D - Detect a change has occurred O - Oil Temp indicator for each engine
E - Estimate the need to counter the change M - Manifold pressure gauge for each engine
C - Choose what is the desired outcome A - Airspeed Indicator
I - Identify the solutions T - Temp gauge for each liquid cooled engine
D - Do the necessary actions O - Oil pressure gauge for each engine
E - Evaluate the effects of the actions F - Fuel quantity gauge for each fuel tank
L - Landing gear position lights
A - Anti-collision lights (aircraft certified after 03/11/96)
M - Magnetic compass
E - ELT
S - Safety belts/shoulder harnesses

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Minimum Required Equipment for Operating with Inoperative Equipment
VFR Night Flight § 91.213
All day VFR + “FLAPS” Is the equipment required by:
F - Fuses (spare set) An Airworthiness Directive (AD)
L - Landing light (if for hire) Regulations for type of flight operation
A - Anti-collision light VFR Day certification requirements
P - Position lights (navigation lights) An operational equipment list
S - Source of power (such as battery)

Yes
Preflight Planning Info Required Flying is NOT PERMITTED without
§ 91.103 a special flight permit
“NW KRAFT”
N - NOTAMs No
W - Weather reports and forecasts Flying is PERMITTED, so long as:
K - Known traffic delays equipment is removed
R - Runway length of intended use - or -
A - Alternatives available deactivated and placarded
F - Fuel requirements “inoperative”
T - Takeoff and landing performance data pilot/mechanic determines safe to fly

If the aircraft has a Minimum Equipment List

(MEL), refer to the MEL guidance.
Types of 30 Day VOR Checks
§ 91.171
(with acceptable tolerances)
VOT - +- 4° Required Test Flight
§ 91.407 (b)
Repair Station - +- 4°
No person may carry any person (other than
VOR Ground Checkpoint - +- 4°
crewmembers) in an aircraft that has
VOR Airborne Checkpoint - +- 6° undergone maintenance affecting flight
Dual VOR Cross-Check - +- 4° characteristics unless a test flight has been
Above a Prominent Ground Landmark completed and logged by someone with at
On a selected radial at least 20 NM from a VOR least a private pilot certificate.
flying at a “reasonably low altitude” +- 6°

Magnetic Compass Errors

“DV MONA”
D - Deviation
V - Variation
M - Magnetic dip
O - Oscillation
N - North/South turn errors “UNOS”
(Undershoot North/Overshoot South)
A - Acceleration errors “ANDS”
(Accelerate North/Decelerate South)

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Speed Review
V-Speeds
Airspeed VA - Design maneuvering speed
Indicator VS - Stall speed, clean configuration
VSO - Stall speed, landing configuration
Markings VS1 - Stall speed, specific configuration
VF - Design flap speed
VLE - Max landing gear extended speed
White Arc - VFE - Max flap extended speed
Flap operating range. VNO - Max structural cruise speed
min is VSO and max is VFE VNE - Never exceed speed
Green Arc - VX - Best angle of climb
Normal operating range. VY - Best rate of climb
Starts at VS1 & ends at VNO VG - Best glide speed
VREF - Calculated final approach speed
Yellow Arc -
Caution range.
Fly only in smooth air with caution. Max Airspeeds in the United States
Relative to VA § 91.117

Red Line - 250 kts - Below 10,000 ft MSL

Warning range. VNE. 200 kts - Under Class B airspace, or
Structural damage possible. inside a VFR corridor through Class B
200 kts - At or below 2,500 ft within
Types of Speeds 4 NM of Class C or D airport
Mach 1.0 or Higher - (speed of sound)
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - Speed indicated on above 10,000 ft MSL § 91.817 (a )
the airspeed indicator
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Indicated airspeed
corrected for instrument and position errors
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - Calibrated Types of Altitudes
airspeed corrected for compressibility error
Indicated Altitude - Uncorrected altitude
True Airspeed (TAS) - Actual speed through
indicated on the altimeter when barometric
the air. Equivalent Airspeed corrected for
pressure is set to current pressure setting.
non-standard temperature and pressure
Pressure Altitude - Altitude corrected for
Mach number - The ratio of True Airspeed
non-standard pressure.
relative to the local speed of sound
Density Altitude - Pressure altitude corrected
Groundspeed - Actual speed across the ground.
for non-standard temperature.
True Airspeed corrected for wind conditions.
True Altitude - Altitude above Mean Sea Level
Critical Mach - Lowest Mach number at which
(MSL).
the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches the
speed of sound. Absolute Altitude - Altitude above ground level
(AGL).

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Aeromedical Factors
Hypoxia
A condition of the body in which the tissues are starved of oxygen.
Hypoxic Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole.
Hypemic Hypoxia: Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport a sufficient
amount of oxygen to the cells in the body.
Stagnant Hypoxia: Results when the oxygen-rich blood in the lungs is not moving, for one
reason or another. Blood is not moving, so oxygen is not delivered to the tissues.
Histotoxic Hypoxia: The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen.
Solution: Don an oxygen mask if one is available and descend immediately to the lowest
practical altitude.
Hyperventilation
The excessive rate and depth of respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the
blood.
Symptoms of hyperventilation are similar to those of hypoxia. It is important to correctly diagnose
and treat the proper condition. But when in doubt, treat it as hypoxia and get to a lower altitude
as soon as possible.
Solution: Slow your breathing and increase carbon dioxide intake by breathing into some kind
of bag.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Exposure to a colorless, odorless, tasteless deadly gas caused by the combustion of carbon
based materials. Usually airplane exhaust getting into the cabin.
Symptoms usually start with drowsiness and come on quickly.
Solution: Turn the cabin heat off, ventilate the cabin as much as possible, open a window if
you’re able, land as soon as possible.

Types of Medicals § 61.23 Second Class Medical:

First Class Medical: Required for Commercial Pilot Certificate

Required for Airline Transport Pilot Valid for 12 calendar months

regardless of age
Valid for 12 calendar months if the pilot is
under age 40 Once this time period lapses, it reverts
to 3rd class privileges.
It then reverts to 3rd Class privileges
Third Class Medical:
Valid for 6 months if the pilot is 40 and over
Required for Private Pilot, Flight Instructor,
It then reverts to 2nd Class privileges or Student Pilot
for 6 months
Valid for 60 calendar months (5 years)
After that 6 months lapses, it reverts to if the pilot is under age 40
3rd class privileges
Valid for 24 calendar months if the pilot is
40 and over
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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
BasicMed:
Alternate way for pilots to fly without holding an FAA medical certificate as long
as they meet certain requirements;
Eligibility Requirements:
Possess a U.S. Driver’s license, have held a medical after July 14, 2006
Get a physical exam with a state-licensed physician, using the Comprehensive
Medical Examination Checklist
Complete a BasicMed medical education course
Aircraft Requirements:
Any aircraft authorized under federal law to carry not more than 6 occupants
Max certificated takeoff weight of not more than 6,000 pounds
Operating Requirements:
Carries not more than five passengers
Operates under VFR or IFR, within the United States, at less than 18,000 ft.
and not exceeding 250 knots.
Flight not operated for compensation or hire

Spatial Disorientation and Illusions

The Leans
Most common illusion during flight.
Caused by a sudden return to level flight following a gradual and prolonged turn that went
unnoticed by the pilot.
The pilot may lean in the direction of the original turn in a corrective attempt to regain the
perception of a correct vertical posture.
Coriolis Illusion
Occurs when a pilot has been in a turn long enough for the fluid in the ear canal to move at the
same speed as the canal. This creates the illusion of turning or accelerating on an entirely
different axis.
The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to correct
the aircraft’s perceived attitude.
Graveyard Spiral
Occurs in a prolonged coordinated, constant-rate turn. As the fluid in the ear settles, the pilot
forgets they are turning.
When the disoriented pilot recovers to level flight, the pilot will then experience the sensation of
turning in the opposite direction. The pilot then returns the plane to its original turn, losing
altitude in the process.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
Somatogravic Illusion
A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff, creates the illusion of being in a
nose-up attitude.
The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude.
Inversion Illusion
An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can create the illusion of tumbling
backward.
The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, which may intensify
the illusion.
Elevator Illusion
An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in an updraft, can create the illusion of being
in a climb.
The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude.
False Horizon
Attempting to the align the aircraft with either a sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon,
an Aurora Borealis, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, or certain geometric patterns.
The disoriented pilot may place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude.
Autokinesis
When flying in the dark, a stationary light may appear to move if it is stared at for a prolonged
period of time.
The disoriented pilot may attempt to align the aircraft with the perceived moving light, potentially
causing them to lose control of the aircraft.

Effects of Alcohol

Regulations
Part 91 requires that blood alcohol level be less than .04 percent and that 8 hours pass between
drinking alcohol and piloting an aircraft. “8 hours bottle to throttle.”
Alcohol can greatly impair the efficiency of the human body.
As little as one ounce of alcohol can decrease the speed and strength of muscular reflexes,
lessen the efficiency of eye movements while reading, and increase the frequency at which
errors are committed.
The body requires about 3 hours to rid itself of all the alcohol contained in one mixed drink
or one beer.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 National Airspace System

60,000 MSL

Class A
18,000’ MSL

14,500’ MSL

Class E (everywhere else)

Class B
1,200’
Class G AGL
Non-towered 700’
Class C
airport with AGL
instrument Class D
approach

Class G

VFR Cloud Clearances

Class A None None

Class B 3 SM Clear of Clouds

Class C 3 SM
500 ft. below
Class D 3 SM 1,000 ft. above
2,000 ft. horizontal
Less than 10,000 MSL 3 SM
Class E 1,000 ft. Above, 1,000 ft. below
At or above 10,000 MSL 5 SM 1 statute mile horizontal

Day 1 SM Clear of Clouds

Up to 1,200 AGL
Night 3 SM
500 ft. below
More than 1,200 AGL
Day 1 SM 1,000 ft. above
Class G Less than 10,000 MSL
2,000 ft. horizontal
Night 3 SM

More than 1,200 AGL 1,000 ft. Above, 1,000 ft. below
And at or above 10,000 MSL 5 SM 1 statute mile horizontal

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
Airspace Entry Requirements Equipment Required Minimum Pilot Requirements

A ATC Clearance IFR Equipped Instrument rating

B ATC Clearance Two-way radio, Private Pilot Certificate

Must hear the words transponder with - or -
“Cleared into the Bravo” altitude reporting Recreational Pilot Certificate if all
capability § 61.101 requirements are met
- or -
Note: Most Class B’s
have a Mode C veil Sport Pilot Certificate if all
which requires an § 61.325 requirements are met
operable radar beacon - or -
transponder with Student seeking Private Pilot
automatic altitude or Recreational/ Sport Pilot
reporting and operable certificates if all § 61.95 or § 61.94
ADS-B Out equipment. are met

C Two-way radio Two-way radio, No specific requirement

communication prior transponder with
to entry altitude reporting
Must hear your tail capability
number or callsign

D Two-way radio Two-way radio No specific requirement

communication prior
to entry

E None for VFR No specific requirement No specific requirement

G None No specific requirement No specific requirement

Additional ADS-B Out Requirements

Class E airspace at or above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding airspace at and below 2,500 feet AGL
Within 30 nautical miles of a Class B primary airport (the Mode C veil)
Within and above Class C airspace (Not required below a Class C shelf)
Class E airspace over the Gulf of Mexico, at and above 3,000 feet MSL, within 12 nm of the
U.S. coast

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Missing or Broken Transponder
Prior to operating an aircraft NOT equipped with a transponder in Class B airspace, a request for a
deviation must be submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least 1 hour before the proposed flight.
If the transponder fails during the flight in Class B airspace, a request must be immediately made
and a transponder requirement deviation may be issued to allow the flight to continue through the
airspace.

Electronic Devices
§ 91.21
No person may operate, nor may any operator or pilot in command of an aircraft allow the operation
of, any portable electronic device on any civil aircraft:

- Does not apply to -

1.) Portable voice recorders

2.) Hearing aids
3.) Heart pacemakers
4.) Electric shavers
5.) Any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not
cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft in which it is to be
used.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Types of Aircraft Icing
Rime Ice
Rough, milky, opaque ice.
Formed by the instantaneous or very rapid freezing of
super cooled droplets as they strike the leading edges.
Rough surface can decrease aerodynamic efficiency, but
it is lighter than clear ice.

Clear Ice
Glossy, transparent ice formed by the relatively slow
freezing of super cooled water.
Denser, harder, and sometimes more transparent than
the rime ice.
Harder to remove than rime ice.

Mixed Ice
Combination of clear and rime ice.
Roughness and weight can have an effect on aerodynamics.

Frost
Ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when the temperature and dew point are
below freezing.
Usually forms in clear, stable air with light winds.
Needs to be removed from all airfoils before takeoff.
A heavy coat of hard frost can cause a 5 to 10 percent increase in stall speed.
Even a small amount of frost on airfoils can make it impossible to become airborne at
normal takeoff speed.

Icing Intensities

Trace Light Moderate Severe

Icing perceptible. Icing clearly visible. Even short encounters Rate of accumulation
Not hazardous Anti-icing/deicing can be hazardous. is such that
unless encountered equipment Anti-icing/deicing deicing/anti-icing
for an extended removes/prevents equipment must be equipment fails to
period of time. accumulation. used, or diversion. reduce the hazard.
Diversion is mandatory.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Anatomy
Rudder
Of An Airplane
Primary flight control surface
that controls rotation about
the vertical axis. “Yaw”

Trim Tab
Adjusted by the pilot to
relieve elevator pressure

Elevator
Primary flight control surface
that controls movement about
the lateral axis. “Pitch”

Horizontal Stabilizer
Fixed wing section that provides
Stability for the aircraft.

Flaps
High-lift device used to reduce stall
speed of an aircraft wing at a given
weight.
Ailerons
A movable part of the airplane wing
that allows the aircraft to roll
around it’s longitudinal axis. “Roll”

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Four
Lift
Drag
Forces
st
Of Flight
Thru Types of Drag
Parasitic: Drag produced by the motion of an
Gravity

object through a fluid.

Induced: Drag that arises from the development
of lift.

Forces in a Turn

Horizontal Lift Centrifugal Force

Angle of Attack
Camber line
Relative wind
Bernoulli’s Principle
Basic principle that allows for the creation of lift.
States that an increase in the speed of a fluid Chord line
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure (Elements of an airfoil)
or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy.
As air passing above the wing accelerates, it creates
an area of low pressure above the wing. This pressure
differential pushes the wing upward.
The pressure difference creates an upward lifting
force.

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Vertical Lift
To
Normal Turn
tal
Lif
Centrifugal force equals horizontal lift

t
Centrifugal Force

Horizontal Lift
To
Gravity

ta
lL
oa
d

Vertical Lift
To
tal
Slipping Turn

Lif
t
Centrifugal force is less than horizontal lift
Centrifugal Force

Horizontal Lift

Tot
al L
Gravity

oa
d
Vertical Lift
To

Skidding Turn
tal
Lif
t

Centrifugal force is greater than horizontal lift

Centrifugal Force

Horizontal Lift
Gravity

To
tal
Lo
ad

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 Load Factor

Load Factor is the proportion (at a given bank angle) between lift and weight in a level turn.

It is measured in Gs, which is a unit of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on a body at rest
and indicates the force to which a body is subjected to when it’s accelerated.

60°

Centrifugal Force 1.73 G’s

Gravity 1G
Lo
ad
Fa
cto
r2
G’s

4 Left Turning
Tendencies
1.) Torque
As the airplane’s propeller turns to the right
(clockwise), the plane rotates around the
longitudinal axis to the left.
On the ground, especially on takeoff roll,
the rotation puts pressure on the left
landing gear.

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2.) Gyroscopic Precession
This mostly applies to tailwheel aircraft
A force applied to a gyroscope manifested
90° ahead in the direction of rotation.
The propeller acts as a gyroscope when it
Spins.
This results in a force on the right side
(90° ahead) pushing the nose to the left.

3.) Spiraling Slipstream

The prop wash from the propeller spirals
around the airplane in a corkscrew pattern,
eventually hitting the vertical stabilizer.
This causes a yawing motion to the left.

4.) P-Factor
A propeller is an airfoil and creates lift
like a wing.
When increasing the angle-of-attack (like in a climb)
the right side of the propeller creates more lift than
the left side.
This causes the plane to yaw to the left.

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 Stalls
Definition of “Stall”
A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the wing’s surface brought on
by exceeding the critical angle of attack. It can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed.
Stalls in Different Flight Situations
There are 3 different flight situations in which the critical angle of attack is most commonly
exceeded:
Approach (Power Off) : As airspeed decreases, the angle of attack must be increased to
retain the lift required for maintaining altitude. Eventually, an angle of attack is reached
which results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft.
Departure (Power On) : Critical angle of attack can be reached at any speed. An example
of this would be trying to out climb an obstacle at the end of the runway. Speed does not
Matter, when the critical angle of attack is exceeded a stall is imminent.
Turning: Since angle of attack must be increased as bank increases, the plane gets closer
to exceeding it’s critical angle of attack.
Accelerated Stall: A stall that occurs at an airspeed higher than normal because of a higher
load factor imposed on the aircraft.

Aircraft Stability

Static Stability
Initial tendency, or direction of movement, back to equilibrium.
Positive Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed.
Neutral Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new condition after
it’s equilibrium has been disturbed.
Negative Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the original
state of equilibrium after being disturbed.

Dynamic Stability
Initial tendency to return to equilibrium that the aircraft displays after being disturbed from its
trimmed condition.
Positive Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in
amplitude and, because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium
state.
Neutral Dynamic Stability: Once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor
increases in amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency.
Negative Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and
becomes more divergent.

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 Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF)
Highest elevation within a quadrangle, Sectional Charts
including terrain and other vertical obstacles
(towers, mountains, etc…) rounded to the
nearest 100’ plus 300’.

Bravo Shelf Altitudes

These numbers indicate the altitudes in MSL for
the particular Class B airspace layer they are
nestled within. This one in particular indicates that
Class B airspace exists between 7,000 ft. MSL Obstruction Elevation Figures
and 12,500 ft. MSL. Many obstacles show two separate altitudes,
one on top and one in parenthesis below it.
The one on top is published as MSL, and the
one below it in parenthesis is the same height,
but in AGL.

Name of the airport with (Identifier)

Dashed blue lines indicate a Class D airport.
This is a TOWERED airport and requires clearance
to pass through this airspace. “Control Tower” with it’s primary frequency
Frequency is 120.9
Star symbol indicates the existence of a Means that the tower is NOT open 24/7
rotating or flashing airport beacon. C Means the tower frequency is also CTAF

Small dot indicates there is a ATIS frequency is 128.4

NAVAID located on the field.

998 ft. Field elevation

Means lighting is in operation from sunset
to sunrise
Means lighting limitations exist
Longest runway is 6000 ft.
(usable length may be less)
122.95 is the frequency for the aeronautical
advisory station

Morse code for “PDK”. Two runways with right hand traffic pattern
Tick marks around the sides
indicate there is fuel available Underlined frequency means
at the airport. there is no voice capabilities.

This is the “Class D Ceiling” meaning

class D airspace exists from the
surface to 3,500 ft. MSL.
Class D Airport
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Airports with at least 1 hard
surfaced runway of 1,500’ or Class C airports always have two layers and generally
longer, show the runway extend up to 4,000 feet above field elevation.This layer
layout like this. starts at 2,400 ft. MSL and ends at 4,600 ft. MSL.

Shaded area here indicates that below the Class C

shelf, Class E airspace exists down to 700 ft. AGL.
below that, it becomes Class G to the surface.

This non shaded area with the dashed

lines indicates that Class E airspace
extends all the way to the surface.

This designates a non-charted 20 NM

ring around the Class C called the
“Procedural Outer Area”.
Although not required, participating pilots
should contact this frequency when
passing within 20 NM of the Class C
airport.

This is the inner most layer of the Class C airspace.

It extends from the surface to 4,600 ft.

Class C Airport
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Page 24
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 “Mode C Veil” exists 30 nautical miles around
Class B airports. It extends from the surface up
to 10,000 ft. Aircraft operating within this
airspace must be equipped with an operable
radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting capability and operable ADS-B
equipment, except with express permission.

In order to enter Class B airspace, pilot must

hear the words “Cleared into the Bravo,” just
having two-way radio communication is not
sufficient.

Class B airspace consists of multiple

shelves and usually extends up to
10,000 ft. above field elevation.

Class B Airport

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 Prohibited Area
Special use airspace where you are
NOT PERMITTED to fly. Violating this
could mean being intercepted by military
aircraft.

Space Launch Activity Area

Area with high activity of space
Military Operations Area (MOA) launches.
Special use airspace designed to separate civilian
Aircraft from military aircraft. These are not always
active and do not always encompass the same
altitudes. VFR aircraft ARE PERMITTED to fly through
active MOAs but it’s not encouraged and they should
use extreme caution.

Restricted Area
Special use airspace where flying is not
wholly prohibited, but subject to restrictions.
A pilot cannot pass through a restricted
area without contacting the controlling
agency.

Restricted areas are not always active.

When they are HOT they are active, and

when they are COLD they can be flown
through without permission.

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 National Security Area
Areas designated for increased security
and safety of ground facilities. Defined with
specific vertical and lateral dimensions. Pilots
are requested to avoid these areas, but they
are not prohibited. These can be changed to
Prohibited Airspace when needed, and pilots
will be notified via NOTAM.

Alert Area
Areas designated for high volumes of pilot
training or an unusual type of aerial activity.
Pilots are permitted to fly through alert areas,
but must use extreme caution.

Warning Area
Areas defined dimensions, extending from 3 NM
outward from the coast of the U.S. These areas
contain activity that might be hazardous to
aircraft. Pilots are permitted to fly through these,
but like alert areas, should use extreme caution.

From the library of www.GroundSchool.com

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
 Systems

Ignition System Magnetos

Detonation: An electrical generator that uses
permanent magnets to produce periodic
An uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the
pulses of alternating current.
fuel-air mixture within the cylinder’s
combustion chamber. Generates an electrical current
completely independent of the aircraft’s
Could be caused by a lower fuel grade
electrical system.
than recommended
Operation of the engine with extremely high Operates whenever the crankshaft is
manifold pressures in conjunction with low rotating.
RPM.
Operation of the engine at high power Note:
settings with an excessively lean mixture.
Even with the ignition switch in the OFF
Preignition: position, if the ground wire between
Occurs when the fuel-air mixture ignites prior the magneto and the ignition becomes
to the engine’s normal ignition event. disconnected or broken, the engine
could accidentally start if the propeller
Usually caused by a residual hot spot in the is moved with residual fuel in the lines.
combustion chamber.
Causes the engine to lose power and
produces high operating temperatures. Fuel-Air Mixture

Spark Plug Fouling: The ratio of the “weight” of fuel to the

“weight” of air in the mixture to be burned.
Occurs when low engine operating
temperatures are coupled with running Leaning the fuel mixture at cruise
a rich mixture. altitude promotes optimal engine
performance.
Leaning before taxiing prevents spark
Propellers
plugs from fouling.
Fixed-Pitch:
Blade angle is built into the blade itself.
Once the propeller has been built, the
angle can’t be changed.
Constant-Speed Propeller:
Controllable-pitch propeller whose pitch
is automatically varied in flight by a governor.
Two controls: The throttle and the propeller
control.
Once an RPM is selected, a governor automatically
adjusts the propeller blade.

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 Preventive Maintenance & Inoperative Equipment

Preventative Maintenance § 43.3 (g)

Definition:
Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacements of small standard parts not
involving complex assembly operations.
Part 43, Appendix A, Part C:
Contains a list of appropriate actions the pilot is permitted to do themselves
The pilot is allowed to perform preventative maintenance, so long as it is NOT being used for
Part 121, 123, or 135 operations
Life Limited Part
Any part for which a mandatory replacement limit is specified in the type design, the instructions
for continued airworthiness, or the maintenance manual.
Example: Wing bolts on a King Air 200 are limited to 15 years
Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
A document and method aircraft operators use to obtain relief from FAA regulations requiring that
all equipment installed on the aircraft be operative at the time of flight.
Aircraft-specific and spells out which pieces of equipment may be allowed to be inoperative along
with any procedures that are required.

Flying with inoperative equipment

Flying WITHOUT a minimum equipment list: Missing/ inoperative equipment must NOT
Be part of the VFR-day type certification instruments.
Be indicated as REQUIRED on the aircrafts equipment list, or on the equipment list of the flight
operation being conducted.
Be required to be operational by an airworthiness directive.

The inoperative instruments and equipment must be:

Removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control placarded,
and the maintenance recorded.
Deactivated and placarded “inoperative.”
If deactivating it requires maintenance, it must be logged.

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 Weight and Balance
Datum
Imaginary vertical plane or line from Arm
which all measurements of arm are Horizontal distance in inches from
taken. the reference datum line to the CG.

25”
100”
50”

Moment
Product of the weight of an
item multiplied by its arm.
(Moment = Weight x Arm)

Fulcrum
The point at which
a lever balances.

Types of Weights
Standard Empty Weight
Weight of an empty airplane INCLUDING it’s Effects of Forward vs. Aft CG
unusable fuel, operating fluids, and engine oil Forward CG
Basic Empty Weight More stable (longitudinal stability)
Standard Empty Weight + operational equipment.
(this is the starting point of weight and balance) Less fuel efficient (more drag)
Useful Load Higher stall speed
Total usable fuel, cargo, passengers, and (higher angle of attack)
drainable fuel Good stall recovery characteristics
Max Ramp Weight Aft CG
Maximum allowable weight for ground operations
Less stable (longitudinal stability)
Max Takeoff Weight (MTOW)
Maximum allowable weight for takeoff More fuel efficient (less drag)
Max Landing Weight Lower stall speed
Maximum allowable weight for landing. Bad stall recovery characteristics
(Usually a structural limit and is often lower (more difficult spin recovery)
than maximum takeoff weight)

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 Right of Way Rules
§ 91.113
Catch all:
Regardless of flight rules, vigilance
shall be maintained by each person
operating an aircraft so as to
“see-and-avoid” other aircraft.
In Distress
An aircraft in distress has the
right-of-way over all other traffic.
Head ON
Each pilot shall alter course to the right
Overtaking
The aircraft being overtaken has the Head On
right-of-way.
The aircraft overtaking must alter course
to the right to pass well clear
Landing
Aircraft on final or landing have the
right-of-way over all others
When two aircraft approaching the same
runway, the plane with the lower altitude
has the right-of-way
Converging
Aircraft of the same category,
(except head on) the aircraft on the other’s
RIGHT has the right-of-way. Overtaking
A balloon has the right-of-way over
any other category aircraft
A glider has the right-of-way over
an airship, powered parachute,
weight shift control aircraft, airplane,
or rotorcraft
An airship has the right-of-way over
a powered parachute, weight shift
control aircraft, airplane, or
rotorcraft
An aircraft towing or refueling
another aircraft has the right-of-way
over ALL other engine-driven Converging
aircraft

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 Preflight Briefings
AIM 5-1-1

All of these briefings can be obtained by calling a Flight Service Station (FSS)
at 1-800-WXbrief or by visiting www.1800WXbrief.com

Standard Briefing
Used any time you are planning a flight and have not received all the required flight information.
Once you give the briefer your flight Information, they will provide the following information in this
sequence.
1.) Adverse Conditions
Significant weather that could potentially alter or cancel the flight.
2.) “VFR Flight Not Recommended”
They will use this phraseology if conducting the flight under VFR is unlikely. This is
advisory in nature and the final decision to fly rests with the pilot.
3.) Synopsis
A brief statement of weather movements and weather systems along the route.
4.) Current Conditions
Reported current weather conditions from METARs, PIREPs, and other sources.
5.) En Route Forecast
Forecasted weather along the route in order from departure, en route, and descent.
6.) Destination Forecast
Forecasted weather for your ETA. Any significant changes within the last hour as well.
7.) Winds Aloft
Provided using degrees of a compass, and the briefer will interpolate wind directions
and speed between levels to supply the most accurate prediction for your planned
altitude.
8.) Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs)
“D NOTAMs” which pertain to navigational facilities that are part of the National Airspace
System (NAS). This where you will get updated on Special Use Airspace (SUA) along
your route.
There are many more types of NOTAMs that should be reviewed before conducting a
flight. Pilots are encouraged to check all NOTAMs at www.NOTAMS.aim.faa.gov.
9.) ATC Delays
Any known traffic delays or flow control advisories.

Abbreviated Briefing
Used any time you need to update a previous briefing, get supplemental information, or when you
only need one or two specific items.
Tell the briefer what information you already have and let them know what you’re looking for
specifically.

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Outlook Briefing
Used any time you are getting a briefing for a flight six or more hours in the future.
The briefer will provide available forecast data.
This is for planning purposes only, you should STILL obtain a standard or abbreviated briefing prior
to departure.

Inflight Briefing
Used any time you are in the air and need an update to the information you currently have.
Contact the nearest Flight Service Station (FSS) by radio.
You can get any type of briefing here and en route advisories are available upon request.

Note:
Remember that these are real people and are here to help you. After you get a briefing, it is
encouraged to ask any questions you may have about flight information along your route.
They will help you make sure nothing gets overlooked.

Flight Planning & Navigation

Definitions:
Pilotage Speed
Navigation by using visual landmarks Velocity of the aircraft
Dead Reckoning Heading
Navigation by estimated ground speeds The direction the aircraft is pointed
and timing from a known point Drift Angle
Position Difference between the course
A known geographic spot, determined and heading
either visually or by electronic means
Direction
An angular distance from a reference
point Tools Needed:
Course
The aircraft’s intended path Navigation Charts (Sectionals)
Track Plotter
The aircraft’s actual flight path over E6B Flight Computer
the ground (or electronic flight computer)
Time
Elapsed or as the time of day in
“Zulu Time”

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 FLIGHT PLANNING
Day Before Step-by-Step
1. Spread out charts and determine your route:
Route: Direct is best (but sometimes it doesn’t make sense for the flight)
If possible, use victor airways, obvious visual landmarks, and navigational aids
like VORs whenever possible
Mark and consider identifiable checkpoints along the way
Airspace: Avoid restricted/ prohibited airspace or special use airspace (when possible).
mark all airspace classes you’ll be flying through and plan accordingly for altitudes.
Terrain: Consider all terrain along the route of flight. Make sure you have at least 2,000 feet
of clearance above obstacles and terrain. Also make sure the terrain and obstacles along
the route does not exceed the service ceiling of the aircraft.
Airports: Check all airports along the route of flight. Asses them for fuel availability, runway
lengths, and NOTAMs.
Fuel: How much are you landing with? What airports along the plan have fuel services and
are they 24 hours? What fuel indication would you divert for?
Emergencies: Check for all suitable landing sites along your route in case of emergencies.
Avoid long distances over lakes, heavily wooded areas, or open water.
Night: If you’re planning a flight at night, use easy to see landmarks like highways and
cities. Pack a flashlight, extra batteries, and emergency supplies. Pay special attention to
mountainous terrain, weather, emergency landing sites, airport lighting, and bodies of water.
(Water is particularly hard to see when the moon isn’t bright or there is an overcast layer
above)

2. Use a pencil and plotter to draw your intended flight path.

3. Start to fill in your navigation log.

Start with your departure airport
Weather will be added later with the most current information

4. Mark first checkpoint on sectional chart

Should be easily identifiable and about 10-15 miles from departure airport
Usually coincides with the “Top-of-Climb” (TOC)
TOC is where the airplane will reach its cruising altitude
Determined by the climb performance calculated from charts in the POH
You will mark winds and temperatures for this later with updated information

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5. Mark each of your next checkpoints along the route.
These should be evenly spaced
Should have clearly visible land references
Should have a checkpoint every 15-20 miles or so
If the checkpoint can be identified by Nav Aids:
Mark the name of the Nav Aid and it’s frequency
Mark cross radials
Mark OBS settings
Whether it will be a “To” or “From” indication

6. Check communication requirements and write them down.

Airspace communication requirements and frequencies
Flight service frequencies along the route
Make sure you know who you’ll be in contact with at all times

7. Mark each altitude you plan to cross your checkpoints.

Your altitude should be chosen in regard to the direction you’ll be traveling
East = odd altitude + 500
West = even altitude + 500
Note:
Other altitude considerations This is called the “Hemispherical Rule” and
only applies when flying above 3,000’ AGL
Winds aloft
Airspace
Duration of flight
Performance
Terrain
Emergencies

8. Use your plotter to mark the true course for each leg.

9. Use your plotter to find the distance between checkpoints and enter the value in the “leg dist.”
box.

10. Use the chart to find the Magnetic Variation for each leg.

11. List airport information and draw a small diagram.

Mark any NOTAMs such as runway closures or taxiway closures
Mark the traffic patterns for each airport

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Day Of 1. Go to aviationweather.gov and request a “standard briefing.”

2. Use METARs, TAFs, and Winds Aloft to calculate takeoff, climb, en-route and descent
performance.

3. Use your gathered weather data to calculate Wind Correction Angles (WCA) and
Ground Speed (GS)
Tip: Winds aloft are given in True Course and in knots. You may need to convert to
magnetic course.

4. Use current weather data to determine if the flight can be made safely
Consult NOTAMs, TFRs, Area Forecast, Prog Charts, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, Convective
SIGMETs, PIREPs (The MOST accurate of all your resources), and TAFs

5. Calculate when/ where TOC will occur and fill in appropriate boxes
Ground Speed
Time
Fuel Burn
Magnetic Heading

6. Calculate when/ where Top of Descent (TOD) will occur

7. Using the “Compass Deviation Card” from your specific airplane, calculate your Compass
Heading (CH) from your Magnetic Heading (MH)

8. Do your performance sheet and calculate your weight and balance for each leg

9. Finish filling out your Nav Log

Groundspeed
CH Formulas

MH TH = TC +/- WCA
Time between waypoints MH = TH +/- VAR
Time en-route CH = MH +/- DEV
Fuel consumption MC = TC +/- VAR
Fuel required
Power settings for cruise to set in flight

10. Finalize your chart by making the flight plan in color or thick marker and circle your checkpoints.
Tip: Highlighter works best so that you don’t cover anything up on your sectional chart

11. File your flight plan and obtain a weather briefing

Review NOTAMs, TFRs, and all pertinent data

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 Night Operations
Definition of “Night”
The time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil
twilight, as published in the Air Almanac, converted to local time.
Definition of “Civil Twilight”
Morning civil twilight begins when the geometric center of the sun is 6 degrees below the
horizon and ends at sunrise. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the geometric
center of the sun reaches 6 degrees below the horizon. Usually between 20-35 minutes after
sunset or before sunrise.
Definition of “Sunrise and Sunset”
Sunset occurs when the upper edge of the sun - called the “upper limb” - sinks just under the
horizon.
Sunrise occurs when the upper limb rises just above the horizon.

“Night” Begins “Night” Ends

(1 hr after sunset) Night (1 hr before sunrise)
- Must have landing currency -

Begin logging End logging

night hours night hours

Sunset Civil Twilight Civil Twilight Sunrise

Position lights and anti-collision Position lights and anticollision
lights (if equipped) must be turned ON lights (if equipped) may be turned OFF

Night Takeoff and Landing Experience § 61.57 (b)

No person may act as PIC carrying passengers during the period of 1 hour after sunset and
ending 1 hour before sunrise, unless within the preceding 90 days that person has made:
At least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop within that time period
That person acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls
In aircraft of the same category, class, and type
Logging Night Flying
You can log night time anytime between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of
morning civil twilight. Plane must be night VFR equipped.
Lighting Rules
From sunset to sunrise position lights and anti-collision lights (if installed) are required to be
turned on.

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Reading a METAR

Aviation routine weather reports. These provide snapshots in time of terminal weather.
Issued every hour, usually :55 - :59 past the hour.

Date/Time Present Weather Temperature & Dew Point

Airport Wind Visibility Sky Condition Altimeter Setting

KATL 171652Z 31013KT 1 1/2SM -RA BR BKN006 BKN012 OVC024 13/12 A2991 RMK A02 SFC VIS 3
SLP127 CIG 004V008 P0003 T01280117
Remarks
Remarks Cont.

Translated:
KATL
17th of the month at 16:52 Zulu
Wind is from 310 degrees at 13 knots
There is 1 ½ statute miles of visibility
Light rain and mist
3 ceiling layers: Broken at 600 ft., Broken at 1,200 ft., and Overcast at 2,400 ft.
13 degrees celsius outside temperature and 12 degrees celsius dew point
Altimeter setting of 29.91 inches of mercury
Remarks:
A02 - The site is automated and has a precipitation sensor.
SFC VIS 3 - Surface visibility from a predetermined point is 3 statute miles
(However, 1 ½ SM is controlling)
SLP127 - Sea Level Pressure in hectopascal. 127 = 1012.7 hPa
CIG - Lowest level ceiling layer is 400 ft. but variable to 800 ft.
P0003 - Hourly precipitation amount, 00.03 inches in the last hour
“T” for temperature (0 for positive or 1 for negative) 12.8 degrees celsius air temp. /
(0 for positive or 1 for negative) 11.7 degrees celsius dew point

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Copyright 2023, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.1.1
Reading a TAF

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast

Expected weather conditions at an airport
Issued at least 4 times per day
Valid for a 24 or 30 hour period

Date/Time of Report Wind Present Weather Optional Weather Data

Airport Date/Time Range Visibility Sky Condition

KATL 171538Z 1715/1818 21010KT 4SM SHRA BR BKN006 OVC025 WS020/22040KT

FM171700 21010G20KT 4SM BR OVC010 From Group of Weather
TEMPO 1717/1721 3SM -SHRA BR OVC003 Temporary Group of Weather
FM180000 25005KT P6SM BKN015
FM181100 25004KT 3SM BR OVC009

Translated:
KATL
17th of the month at 15:38 Zulu
Report is from the 17th at 15:00 Zulu to the 18th at 18:00 Zulu
Wind is from 210 degrees at 10 knots
Visibility is 4 statute miles
Showering rain and mist
Ceilings are broken at 600 ft. and overcast at 2,500 ft.
Low level wind shear at 2,000 ft. from 220 degrees at 40 knots
Weather Change Indications:
From the 17th at 17:00 Zulu - wind 210 degrees at 10 knots gusting 20 knots,
visibility 4 statute miles, mist, cloud layer overcast at 1,000 ft.
Temporarily from the 17th at 17:00 Zulu to the 17th at 21:00 Zulu, visibility 3 statute miles,
light showering rain and mist, cloud layer overcast at 300 ft.
From the 18th at 00:00 Zulu - wind 250 degrees at 5 knots, visibility greater than
6 statute miles, cloud layer broken broken at 1,500 ft.
From the 18th at 11:00 Zulu - wind 250 degrees at 4 knots, visibility 3 statute miles, mist,
cloud layer overcast at 900 ft.

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Other Codes in a TAF or METAR

Intensity Symbols: Descriptor: Obscuration:

“ - “ Light MI - Shallow BR - Mist
“No Sign“ Moderate BL - Blowing SA - Sand
“ + “ Heavy BC - Patches FG - Fog
SH - Showers HZ - Haze
Precipitation:
PR - Partial FU - Smoke
DZ - Drizzle
DR - Drifting PY - Spray
IC - Ice Crystals
TS - Thunderstorm VA - Volcanic Ash
RA - Rain
FZ - Freezing DU - Widespread Dust
PL - Ice Pellets
Other:
SN - Snow
SQ - Squall
GR - Hail
FC - Funnel Cloud
SG - Snow Grains
SS - Sandstorm
GS - Small hail/ Snow pellets
+FC - Tornado/Waterspout
DU - Dust Storm
PO - Well Developed Dust/Sand Swirls

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 Phases of a Thunderstorm

Cumulus Mature Dissipating

Air that is warmer than its Characterized by the presence Downdrafts prominent in
environment starts to rise. of both updrafts AND downdrafts. this phase.
As the warm, moist air rises, The downdrafts cause Anvil top begins to weaken.
it cools and condenses to form evaporative cooling.
Towering cumulonimbus
cumulus clouds.
When the downdraft hits the clouds turn into wispy,
Creates strong updrafts. ground, it has nowhere to go non-threatening clouds.
so it spreads out in all directions.
If the cloud reaches the Downdrafts of cool air
freezing level, supercooled Anvil shape forms when water reduce temperature and
water molecules form. molecules are pushed into the convection from below.
higher parts of the cloud.
Hail can be formed and intense
cloud-to-ground lightning is
present.

Microburst

Localized column of sinking

air (downdraft) within a Wind Shear
thunderstorm and is usually
less than or equal to 2.5 miles A change in wind speed and/or direction over a
in diameter. short distance.
Winds can reach speeds of Causes headwind and tailwind change which quickly
100 mph or higher. alters the flight path of an airplane.
Pilots should avoid these at Most dangerous at low levels near the ground.
all costs.
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 Light Gun Signals

Aircraft on Aircraft in Vehicles and

the Ground Flight Ground Personnel

Steady Green Cleared for Takeoff Cleared to Land Cleared to cross; Go

Flashing Green Cleared to Taxi Return for Landing N/A

Give way to other

aircraft and continue
Steady Red Stop circling Stop
Taxi clear of landing area
- or - Airport unsafe Clear the
Flashing Red Runway in use DO NOT LAND taxiway/runway

Return to starting Return to starting

Flashing White point on airport N/A point on airport

Alt. General warning signal General warning signal General warning signal
Red and Green exercise extreme caution exercise extreme caution exercise extreme caution

Airport Beacons

Flashing
White and Green Civilian Land Airport

Flashing
White and Yellow Water Airport

Flashing
White, Yellow, and Green Heliport

Two Quick White Flashes

One Green Flash Military Airport

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 Airport Signs and Markings

Taxiway/Runway Runway Safety Area Obstacle

Hold Position Free Zone Boundary
- or - Exit boundary of runway
protected areas.
Runway/Runway
Hold Position
ILS Critical Area Boundary
Hold short of runway.
Exit boundary of ILS
critical area.
Runway Approach
Hold Position
Hold short for aircraft
on approach. Taxiway Direction
Defines direction & designation
of intersecting taxiway(s).
ILS Critical Area
Hold Position
Hold short of ILS Approach
critical area. Runway Exit
Defines direction & designation
of exit taxiway from runway.
No Entry
Identifies paved areas where
aircraft entry is prohibited.
Outbound Destination
Defines directions to takeoff
runways.
Taxiway Location
Identifies taxiway on which
aircraft is located.
Inbound Destination
Defines directions for
arriving aircraft.
Runway Location
Identifies runway on which
aircraft is located.
Taxiway Ending Marker
Indicates taxiway does not
continue.
Runway Distance Remaining
Provides remaining runway
length in 1,000 feet increments.
Direction Sign Array
Identifies location in conjunction
with multiple intersecting
taxiways.

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 Terms and Definitions

A/FD Airport/ Facility Directory Hg Mercury

AAF Army Airfield HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator
AC Advisory Circular IAP Instrument Approach Procedure
ACL Aeronautical Chart Legend IFH Instrument Flying Handbook
AD Airworthiness Directive IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ADM Aeronautical Decision Making ILS Instrument Landing System
AFB Air Force Base IR Instrument Route
AFH Airplane Flying Handbook ISA International Standard Atmosphere
AGL Above Ground Level L/D Lift-to-drag ratio
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual L/D Max Maximum Lift-to-drag ratio
AIRMET Airman’s Meteorological Information Mb Millibar
AME Aviation Medical Examiner MB Magnetic Bearing
ATC Air Traffic Control MEF Maximum Elevation Figure
ATCO Air Taxi/ Commercial Operator METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report
AVW Aviation Weather MH Magnetic Heading
AWS Aviation Weather Service MOA Military Operations Area
BHP Brake Horsepower MSL Mean Sea Level
CAT Clear Air Turbulence MTR Military Training Routes
CDI Course Deviation Indicator MVFR Marginal VFR
CFI Certificated Flight Instructor NAS National Airspace System
CG Center of Gravity NM Nautical Mile
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter NMAC Near Midair Collision
ETE Estimated Time En route NOTAM Notice To Air Mission
FA Area Forecast NTSB National Transportation
Safety Board
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
OAT Outside Air Temperature
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
OBS Omnibearing Selector
FBO Fixed-Based Operator
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical
FL Comp Flight Computer PHAK Knowledge
FSDO Flight Standards District Office PIC Pilot In Command
FSS Flight Service Station PIREP Pilot Weather Report
GPH Gallons Per Hour PPH Pounds Per Hour

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RB Relative Bearing
RMI Radio Magnetic Indicator
RNAV Area Navigation
SD Radar Weather Report
SFC Surface
Significant Meteorological
SIGMET Information
SL Sea Level
SM Statute Miles
ST Standard Temperature
SVFR Special VFR
TACAN Tactical Air Navigation
TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
TAS True Airspeed
Telephone Information Briefing
TIBS Service
UTC Coordinated Universal Time “Zulu”
Beyond Learning
VFR Visual Flight Rules
www.GroundSchool.com
VHF Very High Frequency
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
VORTAC Colocated VOR and TACAN
VOT VOR test facility
WFO Weather Forecast Office

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