Anatomy & Physiology of Digestion: 10 Facts That

Explain How the Body Absorbs Nutrients

Small Intestine
The small intestine plays a vital role in chemical digestion and water absorption. The digestive
system is a kind of processing plant inside the body. It takes in food and pushes it through
organs and structures where the processing happens. The fuels and nutrients we need are
extracted, and the digestive system discards the rest.

1. Digestion Breaks Down Food to Give the Body Energy

The digestive system includes structures that form the alimentary canal and the accessory
organs of digestion. Digestion breaks down large compounds in food and liquids into smaller
molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The absorbed nutrients include
carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, and vitamins. They are processed, then delivered
throughout the body and used for energy, growth, and cell repair.

2. Digestion Is a 6-Step Process

The six major activities of the digestive system are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical
breakdown, chemical digestion, absorption, and elimination. First, food is ingested, chewed,
and swallowed. Next, muscular contractions propel it through the alimentary canal and
physically break it down into tiny particles. Digestive fluids chemically break down the nutrients
from food into molecules small enough for absorption. Finally, indigestible substances are
eliminated as waste.

3. Structures of the Alimentary Canal Ingest Food and Propel It on a Journey

Through the Body

The alimentary canal is a single continuous tube that includes the oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, and intestines. It is also called the digestive tract or the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract and forms the physical pathway of digestion. Food enters the mouth and is pushed
down the esophagus, into the stomach, and through the intestines. These structures gradually
break down food into molecules that are small enough for absorption and expel the remainder
as waste.
4. The Layers of the Stomach Wall Help It to Churn, Expand, and Contract

The stomach is divided into four regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. It has three
muscle layers. The longitudinal and circular layers are found throughout the alimentary canal
and move food along using peristaltic contractions. The third, oblique, layer in the stomach
churns food to break it down. When all three stomach layers are in motion, the two openings
(sphincters) are closed to keep food in the stomach. The stomach wall also includes rugae,
which are folds that allow the stomach to expand as food enters.

5. The Autonomic Nervous System Plays a Key Role in Digestion

The autonomic nervous system controls peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscle
layers within the alimentary canal wall. Peristalsis is a key function in digestion; it literally gets
the ball rolling. These involuntary contractions push swallowed food down the esophagus,
churn the stomach, and propel chyme through the small intestine and large intestine.

6. The Pharynx Is a Multitasker

The pharynx, or throat, plays a dual role. It is a common passageway for air entering the
respiratory system and for food and fluids entering the digestive system. When food is chewed
into a bolus and swallowed, it moves from the mouth to the oropharynx and then down to the
laryngopharynx. The laryngopharynx is a crossroad where the upper respiratory and upper
digestive tracts diverge. The rear of the laryngopharynx merges with the esophagus to continue
the digestive tract.

7. The Small Intestine Has Three Regions

The small intestine has three regions: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The
duodenum is the uppermost part of the small intestine and only 10–15 inches long. During
digestion it receives chyme from the stomach and bile, enzymes, and other digestive fluids from
the liver and the pancreas. The jejunum is the middle portion of the small intestine (about 2.5
m long and 4 cm wide). The ileum is the lower segment and the longest of the three (about 3.5
m long). Finger-like projections called villi line the interior wall throughout the small intestine.
The villi absorb most of the nutrients broken down by the digestive fluids.

8. The Duodenum Is a Receptacle for Digestive Fluids

Ducts from the pancreas, gall bladder, and liver empty pancreatic juice, bile, and other digestive
fluids into the duodenum. The duodenum is the uppermost part of the small intestine, so it
receives chyme from the stomach. This is where most chemical digestion occurs and where the
absorption of vital nutrients, vitamins, and minerals begins.

9. The Large Intestine Has 8 Regions

The regions of the large intestine are the appendix, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal. The large intestine absorbs water,
electrolytes, and vitamins that remain after chyme is passed from the small intestine. It
compacts and temporarily stores feces for defecation.

10. Digestive Juices Chemically Break Down Food

As food moves through the digestive tract, it is broken down chemically by a variety of digestive
juices secreted by organs of the digestive system. Salivary glands secrete saliva that begins
chemical digestion in the oral cavity. Gastric juice produced by glands in the stomach lining
digest food into chyme. Bile contains bile salts that emulsify fats. Pancreatic juice contains
enzymes and ions that aid digestion in the small intestine and buffers that neutralize stomach
acids. Glands in the intestinal wall secrete intestinal enzymes that further break down chyme.

Mouth
The mouth is made up of the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft palate. The oral cavity is
bounded by the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft palate. These structures make up the
mouth and play a key role in the first step of digestion: ingestion. This is where the teeth and
tongue work with salivary glands to break down food into small masses that can be swallowed,
preparing them for the journey through the alimentary canal.

1. Mechanical Digestion Begins When the Teeth Break Down Ingested Food
The movement of the jaw enables the teeth to grind food into small fragments. The mandible,
or jawbone, is the only bone in the head that moves, and the points where the temporal bones
connect to the mandible make up the only two movable joints in the head. The official name for
chewing is mastication. This is the first step in mechanical digestion.

2. Saliva Moistens Food and Begins the Process of Chemical Digestion

Saliva secreted by salivary glands aids the mechanical and chemical process of digestion. Saliva
is about 99% water and not only moistens food but cleanses the mouth, dissolves food
chemicals so they can be tasted, and contains enzymes that start the chemical breakdown of
starchy foods. There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, sublingual, and submandibular
(also called the submaxillary gland).

3. The Tongue Creates a Bolus so It Can Travel Down the Pharynx and
Esophagus

The tongue manipulates the chewed food into a small mass called a bolus, then moves it to the
oropharynx. The next steps are involuntary: the bolus passes through the pharynx, the
epiglottis closes off the trachea and directs the bolus down the esophagus, and peristaltic
waves move the bolus into the stomach.

Esophagus
The esophagus is the narrowest part of the alimentary canal. The alimentary canal is a single
continuous tube that includes the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and
large intestine. After food is chewed, made into a bolus, and swallowed, the action of the
epiglottis routes the bolus into the esophagus. From there, peristaltic waves propel ingested
foodstuffs through the alimentary canal.

1. The Epiglottis Directs Swallowed Foodstuffs Down the Esophagus

The respiratory and digestive systems share structures in the back of the oral cavity that
connect with both the trachea (of the respiratory system) and the esophagus (of the digestive
system). What prevents swallowed food from “going down the wrong pipe”? With each swallow
a structure called the epiglottis closes over respiratory structures. The swallowed bolus stays on
course and is directed toward the esophagus. One peristaltic wave can be enough to move a
bolus down the esophagus and into the stomach.

2. Peristalsis Is the Contraction of Muscle Tissue That Helps Move and Break
Down Foodstuffs

The walls of the alimentary canal include layers of smooth muscle controlled by the autonomic
nervous system. Alternating contraction and relaxation of these muscles is called peristalsis.
Peristaltic waves push the swallowed bolus down the esophagus. In the stomach, peristalsis
churns swallowed food, mixing it with gastric juices. These mechanical and chemical actions
further break down food into a substance called chyme. It takes about a minute to chew a piece
of food into a bolus and a few seconds to swallow it. Once in the stomach foodstuffs take a few
hours to become chyme.

3. Peristaltic Waves Move Nutrients and Waste Through the Intestines

Most nutrient absorption from the foods we eat occurs in the small intestine. When chyme
passes from the stomach into the small intestine, peristaltic waves shift it back and forth and
mix it with digestive enzymes and fluids. Nutrients from the chyme are absorbed into the
bloodstream through the intestinal walls Peristaltic waves in the small intestine are smaller and
more regular, pushing the chyme for 3 to 6 hours before passing it to the large intestine where
any final absorption takes place. Peristaltic waves help compact and move waste and
indigestible foodstuffs through the large intestine for elimination.

Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body and is an accessory organ of the digestive system. Food
that is chewed in the oral cavity then swallowed ends up in the stomach where it is further
digested so its nutrients can be absorbed in the small intestine. The salivary glands, liver and
gall bladder, and the pancreas aid the processes of ingestion, digestion, and absorption. These
accessory organs of digestion play key roles in the digestive process. Each of these organs
either secretes or stores substances that pass-through ducts into the alimentary canal.

1. Saliva Moistens Food and Begins the Chemical Digestion Process

Six salivary glands, located around the oral cavity, secrete saliva. This substance moves out of
the glands into the oral cavity through ducts. Saliva is 99% water, but also contains enzymes
and proteins that lubricate the oral cavity and begin chemical digestion of food. There are three
pairs of salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and two ducts
(Stensen’s and salivary ducts) on either side of the oral cavity.

2. The Liver Secretes Bile to Emulsify Fats in the Small Intestine

The liver is one of the largest organs in the body and it is continuously producing bile. This
yellowish-brown fluid aids chemical digestion by emulsifying fats in the duodenum. Bile flows
out of the liver into the right and left hepatic ducts, into the common hepatic ducts, and toward
the small intestine to help with digestion and the absorption of fats.

3. The Gall Bladder Stores Bile

If bile is not immediately needed for digestion, it flows up the cystic duct to the gall bladder. The
gall bladder is a green, pear-shaped sac about 10 cm or 4 in. long that stores and concentrates
excess bile secreted by the liver. Bile is released by the gall bladder as needed into the small
intestine.
4. Pancreatic Juice Breaks Down Protein, Fats, and Carbohydrates

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, a mix of digestive enzymes, water, buffers
(bicarbonates), and electrolytes produced by acinar and epithelial cells. Pancreatic juice drains
through the main pancreatic duct (duct of Wirsung) into the common bile duct and then into
the small intestine. There it buffers stomach acids and breaks down protein, fats, and
carbohydrates.

Large Intestine
The large intestine compacts liquid waste into solid waste.

1. Villi That Line the Walls of the Small Intestine Absorb Nutrients

Villi that line the walls of the small intestine absorb nutrients into capillaries of the circulatory
system and lacteals of the lymphatic system. Villi contain capillary beds, as well as lymphatic
vessels called lacteals. Fatty acids absorbed from broken-down chyme pass into the lacteals.
Other absorbed nutrients enter the bloodstream through the capillary beds and are taken
directly to the liver, via the hepatic vein, for processing.

2. The Large Intestine Completes Absorption and Compacts Waste

Chyme passes from the small intestine through the ileocecal valve and into the cecum of the
large intestine. Any remaining nutrients and some water are absorbed as peristaltic waves
move the chyme into the ascending and transverse colons. This dehydration, combined with
peristaltic waves, helps compact the chyme. The solid waste formed is called feces. It continues
to move through the descending and sigmoid colons. The large intestine temporarily stores the
feces prior to elimination.

3. Defecation Eliminates Waste From the Body

The body expels waste products from digestion through the rectum and anus. This process,
called defecation, involves contraction of rectal muscles, relaxation of the internal anal
sphincter, and an initial contraction of the skeletal muscle of the external anal sphincter. The
defecation reflex is mostly involuntary, under the command of the autonomic nervous system.
But the somatic nervous system also plays a role to control the timing of elimination. Diseases
and disorders of the digestive system can involve infection or damage to organs and other
tissues and structures. They may also affect actions of the digestive system, such as the sealing
of the esophagus from stomach acids or the free flow of fluids through the bile ducts.
Symptoms can arise during digestion or may be chronic.

Read on to learn about five of the most common diseases and disorders.

1. Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix.

Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix, a narrow tube attached to the base of the
cecum. Once thought to have no function, the appendix is now known to function as part of the
lymphatic system. A blockage inside of the appendix can cause appendicitis. The main
symptom is pain on the lower right side of the abdomen that gets worse over time. If not
treated, the appendix can burst and spread infection into the abdomen.

All 3D models in the page have loaded

Appendix
Rotate this 3D model to view the appendix's location at the base of the cecum of the large
intestine.

2. Gallstones Form When Substances in the Bile Harden

Gallstones are pieces of solid material that can form from stored bile in the gall bladder. They
range from tiny specks to the size of golf balls. During digestion, gallstones can block the flow of
fluid through the bile ducts. Signs of a gallstone attack include nausea, vomiting, or pain in the
abdomen, back, or just under the right arm.

3. Straining to Have a Bowel Movement Can Cause Hemorrhoids

Hemorrhoids are swollen, inflamed veins around the anus or lower rectum. Straining for bowel
movements can cause hemorrhoids. Pregnancy, diarrhea, and chronic constipation are
contributing factors. They can develop under the skin around the anus (as external
hemorrhoids) or inside the anus (as internal hemorrhoids). Further straining or irritation when
passing stool can damage a hemorrhoid's surface and cause it to bleed.

4. Ulcerative Colitis Causes Inflammation and Sores in the Colon and Rectum

Ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease that affects the large intestine. It causes
inflammation and sores (ulcers) in the innermost lining of the colon and rectum. This leads
most often to abdominal pain or to diarrhea with blood and pus. Ulcerative colitis is a chronic
condition characterized by alternating periods of flare-up and remission, when the symptoms
of the disease disappear.

5. GERD is a Common Diagnosis of Recurring Heartburn

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic disease of the digestive system. GERD
usually occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter, a muscle at the end of the esophagus,
does not close properly. This allows stomach acid to leak back, or reflux, into the esophagus
and irritate it. Symptoms include heartburn, regurgitation, and the taste of stomach fluid in the
back of the mouth.

6. Diverticulosis Occurs When Pouches Form in the Large Intestine.

Diverticulitis Is the Inflammation or Infection of These Pouches

Diverticulosis occurs when small pouches form in the wall of the large intestine. Most people
with diverticulosis don't have symptoms. However, if feces get trapped in the pouches and
bacteria grow, inflammation and infection result. This is called diverticulitis. Most often it
causes abdominal pain. Other symptoms include fever, nausea, and constipation.