Mor

alandci
ti
zenshi
pEducat
ion 2021

Chapt
erThr
ee

Et
hical
Deci
sionMaki
ngandMor
alJudgment
s

3.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion

Onehast
omakedeci
sionsaboutwhi
chdesi
ret
osat
isf
yandwhi
cht
ogi
ve
uporpost
pone.How t
omakear
ightorcor
rectdeci
si
onandbywhat
st
andar
dthatonedeci
sioni
sri
ghtandanot
herwr
ongi
sal
way
sapuzzl
e.
Oneoft
hef
unct
ionsofmor
ali
tyi
stogi
vegui
dancei
ndeal
i
ngwi
tht
hese
puzzl
es.Ont
heot
herhand,t
her
ear
eal
way
sconf
li
ctsamongpeopl
e.I
tis
al
way
sapr
obl
em f
orasoci
etyt
omai
ntai
nor
derandt
opr
eventorsol
vet
he
conf
li
ctsamong peopl
ereasonabl
y.Anot
herf
unct
ion ofmor
ali
tyi
sto
pr
ovi
depr
inci
plesandr
ulest
hatar
eaccept
abl
etoev
ery
oneandencour
age
peopl
etol
i
vet
oget
herpeacef
ull
yandcooper
ati
vel
y.Thi
schapt
erai
mst
o
i
ntr
oduceet
hical
deci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocessandt
heneedt
obemor
al.

3.
2.Chapt
erObj
ect
ives

Af
terr
eadi
ngt
hischapt
er,
student
swi
l
lbeabl
eto:

I
dent
if
ythemor
alf
oundat
ionswebaseouret
hical
standar
ds.

 Under
standt
hosest
andar
dshow t
heyappl
i
edt
ospeci
fi
csi
tuat
ions
wef
ace.

 I
dent
if
yhowgoodet
hical
deci
sionmade.

 Under
standwhyweneedt
obemor
al.

3.
3.HowCanWeMakeEt
hical
Deci
sionsAndAct
ions?

I
nreall
i
fecondi
ti
onswemaygetdi
ff
icul
ti
est
oal
way
sdot
her
ightt
hing.

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 Mor
alandci
ti
zenshi
pEducat
ion 2021

Whatweof
tenconsi
der
edasr
ightandcor
rectmi
ghtputusi
ndi
ff
icul
t
condi
ti
onwi
thot
her
sandaf
fectoursoci
alr
elat
ionadv
ersel
y.I
ndi
vi
dual
s
coul
dgi
vet
hei
rownj
ust
if
icat
iont
otest
if
ythatt
heyar
eRi
ghtorcor
rect
!We
of
tencl
aimt
hatwemaker
ightdeci
sionandact
ions.Wer
egr
etwhenwe
makewr
ongdeci
sionandact
ion.Theet
hicalnat
ureofouract
ionand
deci
sion,howev
er,i
sver
ymuchdependentuponournot
ionof`
`Good’and
`
`Bad,
``Ri
ghtand`
`wr
ong`
`.

Bef
ore goi
ng t
o di
scussi
on ofet
hicaldeci
si
on and act
ion we must
di
ff
erent
iat
einst
rument
algoodsandi
ntr
insi
cgoods.I
nst
rument
algoods
ar
ethi
ngswhi
chweconsi
dergoodordesi
rabl
efort
hei
rresul
t-
forwhat
t
heyl
ead t
o.On t
heot
herhand,i
ntr
insi
cgoodsar
ethi
ngswhi
ch we
consi
dergoodnotbecauseofwhatt
heyl
eadt
obutbecauseofwhatt
hey
ar
eint
hemsel
ves:t
hisar
econsi
der
edaswor
thhav
ingorper
usi
ngnot
mer
elyaswayofget
ti
ngot
hert
hingsbutbecauseoft
hei
rowni
ntr
insi
c
nat
ure.

Ther
efor
eont
hebasi
soft
heabov
eexpl
anat
ionwecani
dent
if
ythi
ngsas
i
nst
rument
all
yandi
ntr
insi
cal
l
ygoodandbadi
nasoci
etyoursoci
ety
.One
oft
hekeyt
asksofet
hicalr
easoni
ng,gener
all
y,i
stoanal
yzeandcr
it
ical
l
y
consi
dert
hev
alueswehol
dandt
hecl
aimswemakei
nrel
ati
ont
othe
per
cei
vedobl
i
gat
ionst
hatwemi
ghthav
etowar
dsoneanot
her
.

3.
3.1.Et
hical
Pri
nci
plesandVal
uesofMor
alJudgment
s

Thet
heor
eti
calst
udyofet
hicsi
snotnor
mal
l
ysomet
hingt
hatmanypeopl
e
woul
dregar
d as bei
ng necessar
yin or
derf
ort
hem t
o conductt
hei
r
ev
ery
day act
ivi
ti
es.Whi
l
e pr
ovi
ding mor
alj
udgment
s and putet
hical
pr
inci
ples,sy
stemat
ical
l
yexami
nedet
hicalf
ramewor
ksar
emor
eusef
ul
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t
hancar
ryar
oundsetofday
-to-
day‘
rul
esoft
humb’t
hati
nfl
uenceand
gov
ernourbehav
ior
.

Forexampl
e,consi
dert
hei
deat
hati
tiswr
ongt
oki
l
l.Doest
hismeant
hat
capi
talpuni
shmenti
swr
ong?I
sitwr
ongt
oki
l
lani
mal
s?I
ski
l
li
ngi
nsel
f-
def
encewr
ong?I
sthet
ermi
nat
ionofpr
egnancywr
ong?I
seut
hanasi
a
wr
ong?I
fwet
ryt
oappl
yourev
ery
daynot
ionsofr
ightandwr
ongt
othese
quest
ions,st
rai
ght
for
war
danswer
sar
enotal
way
sfor
thcomi
ng.Weneed
t
o ex
ami
ne t
hese quest
ions i
n mor
e det
ail
;and we need t
heor
eti
cal
f
ramewor
kst
hatcanhel
pust
oanal
yzecompl
expr
obl
emsandt
ofi
nd
r
ati
onal
,coher
entsol
uti
ons t
othose pr
obl
ems.Whi
l
stsome peopl
e
at
temptt
odot
hiswor
kindi
vi
dual
l
y,f
ort
hemsel
ves,phi
l
osopher
sat
tempt
t
ofi
ndgener
alanswer
sthatcanbeusedbyev
ery
onei
nsoci
ety
.

Thi
nkaboutasi
gni
fi
cantdeci
siont
haty
ouhav
emadet
hathadanef
fect
(
eit
herf
orgoodorbad)ont
hel
i
vesofot
herpeopl
e.

 Howdi
dyouar
ri
veaty
ourdeci
sion?

 Wasy
ourdeci
sionbasedexpl
i
cit
lyoni
deasofwhatwasr
ightand
wr
ong?

 Tr
yto exami
ne and r
ecor
d pr
eci
sel
ythe j
ust
if
icat
ions f
ory
our
deci
sion.

 Cany
oui
dent
if
yanyunder
lyi
ngpr
inci
plesorr
uleswhi
chy
ouusedt
o
r
eachy
ourdeci
sion?

3.
3.2.Mor
ali
ntui
ti
onsandCr
it
ical
Reasoni
ng

Thest
udyofet
hicsi
nvol
vesr
easoni
ngaboutourf
eel
i
ngs.I
not
herwor
ds,
it

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 Mor
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ion 2021

i
nvol
vesmaki
ngsenseofandr
ati
onal
i
zingouri
ntui
ti
onsaboutwhati
s
‘
ri
ght
’or‘
good’
.Al
lsoci
eti
esar
echar
act
eri
zedbyt
hei
rownet
hicali
deas
–expr
essedi
nter
msofat
ti
tudesandbel
i
efs–andt
hei
rowncust
oms
(
thei
rnot
ionsofwhati
sconsi
der
edcust
omar
y).Suchcust
omsandl
aws
cani
nfl
uencet
heconsci
encesandt
hemor
alsent
iment
soft
hosel
i
vingi
na
soci
ety
,asi
ndi
vi
dual
sacqui
rei
deasandat
ti
tudesf
rom t
hei
rfami
l
iesand
f
rom t
hei
rwi
dersoci
ety
.Et
hicsasksust
otakeast
epbackf
rom t
hese
i
nfl
uencesandi
nst
eadt
oref
lectcr
it
ical
l
yonoursent
iment
sandat
ti
tudes

Rat
ional
i
zat
ion

Et
hicsi
nvol
vesat
tempt
ingt
ofi
ndv
ali
dreasonsf
ort
hemor
alar
gument
s
t
hatwe make.Mostpeopl
e al
ready hav
e gener
ali
deas – orwhat
phi
l
osopher
scal
l‘i
ntui
ti
ons’or‘
presumpt
ions’–aboutwhatt
heyt
hinki
s
‘
ri
ght
’or‘
wrong’
.Butaphi
l
osophi
calappr
oacht
oet
hicsr
equi
respeopl
e
t
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yaboutt
hemor
ali
deast
hatt
heyhol
d,t
osuppor
torr
efut
e
t
hosei
deaswi
thconv
inci
ngar
gument
s,andt
obeabl
etoar
ti
cul
ateand
expl
aint
her
easonsandassumpt
ionsonwhi
cht
hosear
gument
sar
ebased.
Rat
ional
i
zat
ionoccur
swhenweusewhatatf
ir
stgl
anceseem t
obe
r
ati
onal
orcr
edi
blemot
ivest
ocov
erupourt
rue(
andper
hapsunconsci
ous)
mot
ives.

Ty
pesofr
easoni
ng

Ther
ear
ethr
eef
ormsofcr
it
ical
reasoni
ng:

1)Reasoni
ngbyAnal
ogy
:expl
ainsonet
hingbycompar
ingi
ttosomet
hing
el
set
hati
ssi
mil
ar,
alt
houghal
sodi
ff
erent
.Inagoodanal
ogy
,thesi
mil
ari
ty
out
wei
ghst
hedi
ssi
mil
ari
tyandi
scl
ari
fyi
ng.

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2)Deduct
iveReasoni
ng:appl
i
esapr
inci
plet
oasi
tuat
ion.Fori
nst
ance,i
f
ev
eryper
sonhashumanr
ight
s,andy
ouar
eaper
son,
theny
ouhav
ehuman
r
ight
sli
keev
eryper
son.

3) I
nduct
ive Reasoni
ng: i
nvol
ves pr
ovi
ding ev
idence t
o suppor
ta
hy
pot
hesi
s.Thegr
eat
ert
heev
idencef
orahy
pot
hesi
s,t
hemor
ewemay
r
elyoni
t.

3.
3.3.Et
hicsandRel
i
giousFai
th

Ther
eisanot
heri
mpor
tantar
gumentt
hatpeopl
eusewhenmaki
nget
hical
ar
gument
s:r
eli
giousf
ait
h.Formanypeopl
e,’
mor
ali
tyandr
eli
giousf
ait
hgo
handi
nhand’
.

Rat
hert
hanr
ely
ingonr
ati
onalar
gument
s,somepeopl
evi
ew act
ionsas
bei
ngr
ightorwr
ongi
nter
msofwhet
hert
heyar
ecommandedbyagod.
Somemor
alphi
l
osopher
sdonotv
iew ar
gument
sbasedonr
eli
giousf
ait
h
asbei
ngr
ati
onal
l
ydef
ensi
ble.Theybel
i
evet
hatwecandet
ermi
net
hrough
r
ati
onalr
efl
ect
ionwhati
sri
ghtandwr
ong.I
fagodcommandsonl
ywhati
s
r
ightt
hen,
logi
cal
l
y,t
hismakesdi
vi
necommandsunnecessar
y;wear
eabl
e
t
o know what i
s r
ight or wr
ong wi
thout r
ely
ing on any di
vi
ne
commandment
s,aswecanuser
ati
onal
ref
lect
ion.

Howev
er,f
ait
h-based ar
gument
s ar
erel
evantt
o mor
alphi
l
osophyf
or
sev
eralr
easons.Forast
art
,peopl
edonotal
way
sagr
eeonwhati
sri
ghtor
wr
ong.I
tisnott
her
efor
ecl
eart
hatwecandet
ermi
newhati
sri
ghtand

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ion 2021

wr
ongsi
mpl
ythr
oughr
ati
onalr
efl
ect
ion.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,gi
vent
hatsomany
peopl
eint
hewor
lddol
ookt
orel
i
gionf
ormor
algui
dance,weshoul
dnot
under
est
imat
etheabi
l
ityof‘
themor
alt
eachi
ngsofar
eli
gioust
radi
ti
on[
…]
t
oper
suadet
hepubl
i
ctoembr
aceahi
ghermor
alst
andar
d’.Whi
l
ewemay
i
nsi
stt
hatmor
alpr
inci
plesanddeci
sionsshoul
dbej
ust
if
iedbyr
ati
onal
ar
gument
s,andt
husconsi
der
ati
onofr
eli
giousar
gument
sshoul
dnotbe
excl
udedf
rom t
hest
udyofet
hics.

3.
3.4.Test
ingmor
alar
gument
s

Cr
it
icalr
easoni
ngi
saboutaski
ngquest
ionswhenev
erany
onegi
vesusa
r
easont
osuppor
tanar
gument
.Whatki
ndofr
easoni
ngar
etheyusi
ng?I
f
t
heyar
eusi
ngapr
inci
plet
osuppor
tthei
rar
gument(
deduct
iver
easoni
ng)
,
t
hen whatki
nd ofpr
inci
plei
sit
?Ist
hepr
inci
pler
ati
onal
?Ift
heyar
e
pr
ovi
dingev
idencet
osuppor
tthei
rar
gument(
induct
iver
easoni
ng)t
heni
s
t
he ev
idence r
eli
abl
e? Hav
e any mot
ives t
hatmi
ghtbe behi
nd t
hei
r
ar
gument
sbeencl
ari
fi
ed(
iear
etheygi
vi
ngr
ati
onal
i
sat
ions,notr
easons)
?
Doest
heconcl
usi
ondr
awnmakesense,
giv
ent
her
easonst
heyhav
egi
ven?
Al
loft
hesequest
ionst
hatweaskaboutpeopl
es’ar
gument
smayseem a
l
i
ttl
edi
ff
icul
tandof
f-
put
ti
ng.

I
ngener
al,
ther
ear
ethr
eemai
nway
soft
est
ingamor
alar
gument
.

1)Fact
ual
accur
acy
;The18t
hcent
uryphi
l
osopherDav
idHume(
1711—1776)
ar
guedt
hatweshoul
dnotder
ivean‘
ought
’fr
om an‘
i
s’.Thi
smeanst
hatwe
cannotsayt
hatsomet
hingi
swr
ongorr
ightsi
mpl
ybasedonhow t
hings
ar
e.Thi
sisr
easonabl
e,buti
tdoesnotmeant
hatet
hicaldi
scussi
onshoul
d
bedi
vor
cedf
rom f
act
;theaccur
acyoft
hef
act
ualcont
entofadi
scussi
on
i
sver
yimpor
tant
.
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 Mor
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(
2)Consi
stency
;Ar
gument
sneedt
obeconsi
stent
.Forexampl
e,t
hemor
al
ar
gumentt
hatdebt
sowedbypoor
ernat
ionst
oint
ernat
ional
lender
sshoul
d
becancel
l
ed.Doest
hist
her
efor
emeant
hatal
lpoorpeopl
ewho owe
moneyt
obanksshoul
dal
sohav
ethei
rdebt
scancel
l
ed?I
fyoudon’
tthi
nk
t
hatal
lindi
vi
dualdebt
sshoul
dbecancel
l
edbuty
oudot
hinkt
hatpoor
er
count
ri
es’
debt
sshoul
dbecancel
l
ed,
theny
ouhav
etoshowt
hatt
her
eisa
mor
aldi
ff
erence bet
ween t
he t
wo.Ot
her
wise y
our ar
gument
s ar
e
i
nconsi
stent
.

(
3)Goodwi
l
l;
Thi
sonei
sthemostdi
ff
icul
tcr
it
eri
ont
o quant
if
y.Whi
l
e
ar
gument
smaybef
act
ual
l
ycor
rectandconsi
stent
,theyal
so needt
o
‘
exempl
i
fygoodwi
l
l’
.Thi
sinv
olv
esr
esor
ti
ngt
oouri
ntui
ti
onsandemot
ions,
whi
char
edi
sreput
abl
ydi
ff
icul
ttoi
ntegr
atewi
thr
igor
oust
heor
eti
cal
debat
e.

3.
3.3.Thi
nki
ngEt
hical
l
y:Af
ramewor
kforMor
alDeci
sionMaki
ng

I
.Gett
hef
act
s

Thef
ir
stst
epi
nanal
yzi
ngmor
ali
ssuesi
sobv
iousbutnotal
way
seasy
:Get
t
hef
act
s.Somemor
ali
ssuescr
eat
econt
rov
ersi
essi
mpl
ybecausewedo
notbot
hert
ocheckt
hef
act
s.Thi
sfi
rstst
ep,al
thoughobv
iousi
sal
so
amongt
hemosti
mpor
tantandt
hemostf
requent
lyov
erl
ooked.Buthav
ing
t
hef
act
sisnotenough.Fact
sbyt
hemsel
vesonl
ytel
luswhati
s;t
heydo
nott
ell
uswhatoughtt
obe.

I
I.Appeal
tov
alues

I
naddi
ti
ont
oget
ti
ngt
hef
act
s,r
esol
vi
nganet
hicali
ssueal
sor
equi
resan

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appealt
oval
ues.Al
thoughet
hicsdeal
swi
thr
ightandwr
ong,i
tisnota
di
sci
pli
net
hatal
way
sleadsev
ery
onet
othesameconcl
usi
ons.Deci
dingan
et
hicali
ssuecanbeequal
l
ydi
ff
icul
tforconser
vat
ivesandl
i
ber
als.Of
cour
se,t
her
ear
esi
tuat
ionst
hatar
ewr
ongbyanyst
andar
d.Butt
her
ear
e
ot
heri
ssueswher
eri
ghtandwr
ongi
slesscl
ear
.Ther
efor
e,t
ogui
deour
r
efl
ect
iononsuchdi
ff
icul
tquest
ions,phi
l
osopher
s,r
eli
gioust
eacher
sand
ot
hert
hinker
shav
eshapedv
ari
ousappr
oachest
oet
hical
deci
si
on-
maki
ng.

Ty
pesofet
hical
appr
oachf
orr
easoni
ng

1.TheFai
rnessAppr
oach:Thef
air
nessorj
ust
iceappr
oacht
oet
hicshas
i
tsr
oot
sint
het
eachi
ngsofananci
entGr
eekphi
l
osopher
sAr
ist
otl
e,who
sai
dthat“
equal
sshoul
dbet
reat
edequal
l
yandunequalunequal
l
y.”Thi
s
appr
oachf
ocusesonhowf
air
lyorunf
air
lyouract
ionsdi
str
ibut
ebenef
it
s
and bur
dens among t
he member
s ofa gr
oup.Fai
rness r
equi
res
consi
stencyi
nthewaypeopl
ear
etr
eat
ed.

2.TheCommonGoodAppr
oach: Thi
sappr
oachcal
l
sat
tent
iont
othe
commoncondi
ti
onst
hatar
eimpor
tantt
othewel
far
eofev
ery
one. I
t
f
ocusesonensur
ingt
hatt
hesoci
alpol
i
cies,
soci
alsy
stems,
inst
it
uti
ons,
andenv
ironment
sonwhi
chwedependar
ebenef
ici
alt
oal
l
.Exampl
es,
af
for
dabl
eheal
thcar
e,ef
fect
ivepubl
i
csaf
ety
,peaceamongnat
ions,a
j
ustal
egalsy
stem,andunpol
l
utedenv
ironment
.Thepr
inci
plest
ates:
“
whati
set
hical
iswhatadv
ancet
hecommongood.
”

3.TheRi
ght
sAppr
oach:Theet
hicalact
ioni
stheonet
hatbestpr
otect
s
andr
espect
sthemor
alr
ight
soft
hoseaf
fect
ed.Thi
sappr
oachst
art
s
f
rom t
hebel
i
eft
hathumanshav
eadi
gni
tybasedont
hei
rhumannat
ure
perseoront
hei
rabi
l
ityt
ochoosef
reel
ywhatt
heydowi
tht
hei
rli
ves.
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Thepr
inci
plest
ates:"
Anact
ionorpol
i
cyi
smor
all
yri
ghti
fandonl
yif
t
hose per
sons af
fect
ed by t
he deci
si
on ar
e notused mer
ely as
i
nst
rument
sforadv
anci
ngsomegoal
,butar
eful
l
yinf
ormedandt
reat
ed
onl
yast
heyhav
efr
eel
yandknowi
ngl
yconsent
edt
obet
reat
ed’
’

Gener
all
y,i
nEt
hicalPr
obl
em Sol
vi
ng;oncef
act
shav
ebeenascer
tai
ned,
consi
derf
ivequest
ionswhent
ryi
ngt
oresol
veamor
ali
ssue:

 Whatbenef
it
sandwhathar
mswi
l
leachcour
seofact
ionpr
oduce,
andwhi
chal
ter
nat
ivewi
l
lleadt
othebestov
eral
lconsequences?

 Whatmor
alr
ight
sdot
heaf
fect
edpar
ti
eshav
e,andwhi
chcour
seof
act
ionbestr
espect
sthoser
ight
s?

 Whi
chcour
seofact
iont
reat
sev
ery
onet
hesame,exceptwher
e
t
her
eisamor
all
yjust
if
iabl
ereasonnott
o,anddoesnotshow
f
avor
it
ism ordi
scr
imi
nat
ion?

 Whi
chcour
seofact
ionadv
ancest
hecommongood?

 Whi
chcour
seofact
iondev
elopsmor
alv
irt
ues?

3.
4. ToWhom orWhatDoesMor
ali
tyAppl
y?

I
ndi
scussi
ngt
heappl
i
cat
ionofmor
ali
ty,f
ouraspect
smaybeconsi
der
ed:
r
eli
gious mor
ali
ty,mor
ali
ty and nat
ure,i
ndi
vi
dualmor
ali
ty,and soci
al
mor
ali
ty.

Ther
ear
efouraspect
sofmor
ali
ty:

A.Rel
i
gious Mor
ali
ty:r
efer
sto a human bei
ng i
nrel
ati
onshi
ptoa

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super
nat
ural
bei
ngorbei
ngs.Forexampl
e,t
heTenCommandment
s.

B.Nat
uralMor
ali
ty:r
efer
stoahumanbei
ngi
nrel
ati
onshi
ptonat
ure.I
n
t
hemor
ali
tyandnat
ureaspect
,hecoul
dbeconsi
der
edei
thermor
al
ori
mmor
al,dependi
nguponhi
sact
ionst
owar
dthenat
uralt
hings
ar
oundhi
m.

C.I
ndi
vi
dualMor
ali
ty:r
efer
stoi
ndi
vi
dual
sinr
elat
iont
othemsel
vesand
t
oani
ndi
vi
dualcodeofmor
ali
tyt
hatmayormaynotbesanct
ioned
byanysoci
etyorr
eli
gion.

D.Soci
alMor
ali
ty:concer
nsahumanbei
ngi
nrel
ati
ont
oot
herhuman
bei
ngs.I
tispr
obabl
ythemosti
mpor
tantaspectofmor
ali
ty,
int
hati
t
cut
sacr
ossal
loft
heot
heraspect
sandi
sfoundi
nmor
eet
hical
sy
stemst
hananyoft
heot
her
s.

3.
5. Whoi
sMor
all
y/Et
hical
l
yResponsi
ble?

Mor
ali
typer
tai
nst
ohumanbei
ngsandonl
ytohumanbei
ngs;al
lel
sei
s
specul
ati
on.I
fonewant
stoat
tr
ibut
emor
ali
tyt
osuper
nat
uralbei
ngs,one
hast
odososol
elyonf
ait
h.I
fonewant
stohol
dani
mal
sorpl
ant
smor
all
y
r
esponsi
blef
ordest
ruct
iveact
sagai
nsteachot
heroragai
nsthumans,
t
henonehast
oignor
emostoft
heev
idencet
hatsci
encehasgi
venus
concer
ningt
hei
nst
inct
ualbehav
iorofsuchbei
ngsandt
heev
idenceofour
ownev
ery
dayobser
vat
ions.Ther
efor
e,whenweuset
het
ermsmor
aland
et
hical
,wear
eusi
ngt
hem i
nref
erenceonl
ytohumanbei
ngs.

Mor
alJudgment
s

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Mor
alj
udgment
sref
ert
odeci
dingwhati
sri
ghtandwhati
swr
ongi
n
humanr
elat
ions.I
ndi
vi
dual
sar
econt
inual
l
yjudgi
ngt
hei
rownconductand
t
hatoft
hei
rfel
l
ows.Theyappr
oveofsomeact
sandcal
lthem ―r
ightor
―good.Theycondemnot
heract
sandcal
lthem ―wr
ongor―ev
ilorbad.

Fi
ndi
ngt
her
ightcour
seofact
ion,choosi
ngt
her
ightal
ter
nat
ive,i
snot
al
way
ssi
mpl
e.I
njudgi
ngconductoract
ionwehav
etoconsi
dermot
ives,
means,
andconsequencesandsomet
imest
hesi
tuat
ion.

1.Mot
ives:Mot
ives,
asJesus,
Kant
,andot
her
shav
epoi
ntedout
,ar
ebasi
c
f
oradet
ermi
nat
ionofmor
ali
ty.Themot
iver
efer
stot
hei
ntent
ionorwhyan
act
ioni
sdone.Agoodmot
ivei
sapr
erequi
si
tet
oconductt
hatweappr
ove
wi
thoutqual
i
ficat
ion.

2.Means-
-Thet
erm meanscanbedef
inedasanagency
,inst
rument
,or
met
hodusedt
oat
tai
nanend.Thoughweexpectpeopl
etouset
hebest
av
ail
abl
emeanst
ocar
ryoutt
hei
rpur
poses,wecondemnt
hem i
fthei
r
choi
ceofmeansi
mpr
essesusasunj
ust
,cr
uel
,ori
mmor
al.

3.Consequences—ar
etheef
fect
sorr
esul
tsofamor
aldeci
si
onbasedona
v
alue.Kantagr
eest
othegoodmot
ive,
uti
l
itar
iant
other
esul
t.

4.TheMor
alSi
tuat
ion-
-Amor
alsi
tuat
ioni
nvol
vesmor
alagent
s-human
bei
ngswhoact
,ar
eempower
edt
omakechoi
ces,andconsci
ousl
ymake
deci
sions.

3.
5.1.WhatMakesanAct
ionMor
al?

Somet
imeswet
hinkof―mor
almeansmor
all
ygood.But
,phi
l
osophi
cal
l
y,i
t
r
efer
stoanact
ionwhi
chcomeswi
thi
nthescopeofmor
ali
ty,t
hati
s,an

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act
ionwhi
chi
smor
all
ysi
gni
fi
cantei
theri
nposi
ti
veway(becausei
tis
goodorr
ight
)ori
nanegat
iveway(
becauset
heact
ioni
sgoodorbad)
.Not
al
lact
ionshav
eamor
alsense.Manyoft
heact
ionsweper
for
minl
i
fe,
suchasput
ti
ngonar
aincoat
,shar
peni
ngapenci
l
,orcount
ingappl
es,
st
andi
ngony
ourhead,
arenoti
nthemsel
vesei
thergoodorbadact
s.Such
act
ionsar
emor
all
yneut
ralornon-
mor
al.Bycont
rast
,st
eal
i
ngf
rom y
our
l
i
brar
ies,punchi
ngpeopl
eorhel
pingt
hedi
sadv
ant
agear
econsi
der
edas
mor
all
ysi
gni
fi
cantact
ions.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
efeat
urest
hatmakeanact
ionmor
al:

A.Amor
alacti
nvol
vesanagent
:Ifsomet
hingi
sanat
uralev
entoran
act
ionper
for
medbyani
mal
s,t
heni
tismor
all
yneut
ral-i
tdoesnot
appearonourmor
alr
adar
s.Humanscanbemor
alagent
s,orany
cr
eat
urest
hatcanf
reel
yandt
hought
ful
l
ychoosei
tsact
ionswi
l
l
countasamor
alagent
.

B.A mor
alacti
nvol
ves i
ntent
ion:An i
ntent
ion her
eref
erst
o our
mot
ivest
hatar
eimpor
tantt
odet
ermi
net
her
ight
nessorwr
ongness
ofanact
ion.I
fanact
ioni
sdoneacci
dent
all
y,i
tmaybecount
edasa
mor
all
yneut
ralact
ion.Howev
er,someuni
ntent
ionalact
s,suchas
t
hosedonet
hroughnegl
i
gence,canbemor
al.Negl
ect
ingourdut
ies,
ev
enacci
dent
all
y,makeusmor
all
ycul
pabl
e.

C.Amor
alactaf
fect
sot
her
s:Amor
alact
ionneedsnotonl
yanagent
andt
obedel
i
ber
atebutal
soneedst
oaf
fectot
her
s(t
hosewemi
ght
cal
lmor
alpat
ient
s)i
nsi
gni
fi
cantway
s,t
hati
s,anact
iont
hathas
har
mful(
bei
tphy
sical
,psy
chol
ogi
cal
,emot
ional
,ordepr
ivi
ngot
her
s
ofhappi
ness)orbenef
ici
alconsequencesf
orot
her
s.Thecl
aimt
hat
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mor
ali
tyonl
ygov
erns behav
iort
hataf
fect
s ot
her
sis somewhat
cont
rov
ersi
al.Somehav
ecl
aimedt
hatmor
ali
tyal
sogov
ernsbehav
ior
t
hataf
fect
sonl
ytheagenther
sel
f,suchast
aki
ngr
ecr
eat
ionaldr
ugs,
mast
urbat
ion,andnotdev
elopi
ngone'
stal
ent
s.Conf
usi
onaboutt
he
cont
ent of mor
ali
ty ar
ises because mor
ali
ty i
s not al
way
s
di
sti
ngui
shedf
rom r
eli
gion.

D.Gener
all
y,amor
alact
ioni
sonewhi
ch:

I
sper
for
medbyagent
s,cr
eat
urest
hatar
ecapabl
eoff
ree
choi
ce/f
reewi
l
l

I
sther
esul
tofi
ntent
ion;t
heact
ionwasdoneonpur
posewi
th
apar
ti
cul
armot
ive

 Hasasi
gni
fi
cantconsequenceonot
her
sinr
espectofhar
m or
benef
it
sitbr
ingsabout
.

3.
6. WhyShoul
dHumanBei
ngsBeMor
al?

Thequest
iont
hati
swor
thment
ioni
ngatt
hispoi
nti
s―Whyshoul
dhuman
bei
ngsbemor
al?
Anot
herwayofput
ti
ngt
hepr
obl
em i
sasf
oll
ows:I
sther
e
anycl
earf
oundat
ionorbasi
sformor
ali
ty-cananyr
easonsbef
oundf
or
humanbei
ngst
obegoodanddor
ightact
srat
hert
hanbebadanddo
wr
ongact
s?Ther
ear
ear
gument
sfort
hemor
ali
tyofhumanbei
ng.

a.Ar
gumentf
rom Enl
i
ght
ened Sel
f-
Int
erest
;As a mat
teroff
act
,sel
f-
i
nter
esti
sthesol
ebasi
sofoneet
hicalt
heor
y,et
hicalegoi
sm.Howev
er,
i
tisnotbei
ngsuggest
edatt
hispoi
ntt
hatoneoughtt
opur
sueone‘
s
own sel
f-
int
erest
.Rat
her
,an ar
gumenti
s bei
ng pr
esent
ed t
hati
f

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ev
ery
onet
ri
edt
odoandbegoodandt
ri
edt
oav
oidandpr
eventbad,i
t
woul
dbei
nev
ery
one‘
ssel
f-
int
erest
.Forexampl
e,i
fwi
thi
nagr
oupof
peopl
enooneki
l
led,st
ole,l
i
ed,orcheat
ed,t
heneachmemberoft
he
gr
oupwoul
dbenef
it
.

b.Ar
gumentf
rom Tr
adi
ti
onandLawRel
ated;
Thi
sar
gumentsuggest
sthat
becauset
radi
ti
onsandl
aws,est
abl
i
shedov
eral
ongper
iodoft
ime,
gov
ernt
hebehav
iorofhumanbei
ngs,
andbecauset
heset
radi
ti
onsand
l
awsur
gehumanbei
ngst
obemor
alr
athert
hani
mmor
al,t
her
ear
e
goodr
easonsf
orbei
ngso.Sel
f-
int
eresti
soner
eason,butanot
heri
s
r
espect f
or t
he human t
hought and ef
for
tthat has gone i
nto
est
abl
i
shi
ngsuchl
awsandt
radi
ti
onsandt
ransf
err
ingt
hem f
rom one
hi
stor
icper
iodandonecul
tur
etoanot
her
.

c.CommonHumanNeeds;
Aret
her
eanyot
herr
easonswecangi
veast
o
whyhumanbei
ngsshoul
dbemor
al?I
fweexami
nehumannat
ureas
empi
ri
cal
l
yandr
ati
onal
l
yaswecan,wedi
scov
ert
hatal
lhumanbei
ngs
hav
e many needs,desi
res,goal
s,and obj
ect
ives i
n common.For
exampl
e,peopl
egener
all
yseem t
oneedf
ri
endshi
p,l
ove,happi
ness,
f
reedom,peace,cr
eat
ivi
ty,and st
abi
l
ityi
nthei
rli
ves,notonl
yfor
t
hemsel
vesbutf
orot
her
s,t
oo.I
tdoesn‘
ttakemuchf
urt
herexami
nat
ion
t
odi
scov
ert
hati
nor
dert
osat
isf
ytheseneeds,peopl
emustest
abl
i
sh
andf
oll
owmor
alpr
inci
plest
hatencour
aget
hem t
ocooper
atewi
thone
anot
herandt
hatf
reet
hem f
rom f
eart
hatt
heywi
l
lloset
hei
rli
ves,be
mut
il
ated,orbest
olenf
rom,l
i
edt
o,cheat
ed,sev
erel
yrest
ri
cted,or
i
mpr
isoned.Mor
ali
tyi
snotofcour
se i
dent
icalwi
thf
oll
owi
ng sel
f-
i
nter
est
.Ifi
twer
e,t
her
ecoul
dbenoconf
li
ctbet
weenmor
ali
tyandsel
f-
i
nter
estandnopoi
nti
nhav
ingr
ulesov
err
idi
ngsel
f-
int
erest
.
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Gener
all
y,whyshoul
dhumanbei
ngsbemor
al?canbestbeanswer
edby
t
hest
atementt
hatadher
ingt
omor
alpr
inci
plesenabl
eshumanbei
ngst
o
l
i
vet
hei
rli
vesaspeacef
ull
y,happi
l
y,cr
eat
ivel
y,andmeani
ngf
ull
yasi
s
possi
ble. The mor
e common answer
s f
or t
he quest
ionwhy be
mor
al?
incl
udes:Behav
ingmor
all
yisamat
terofsel
f-
respect
.Peopl
e
won’
tli
keusi
fwebehav
eimmor
all
y.Soci
etypuni
shesi
mmor
albehav
ior
.
Godt
ell
sust
obemor
al.Par
ent
sneedt
obemor
alr
olemodel
sfort
hei
r
chi
l
dren.These ar
e al
lgood answer
s,and each maybe a power
ful
mot
ivat
ion f
ort
he r
ightper
son.Wi
thr
eli
giousbel
i
ever
s,f
orexampl
e,
hav
ingf
ait
hinGodanddi
vi
nej
udgmentmi
ghtpr
omptt
hem t
oactpr
oper
ly.
Wi
thpar
ent
s,t
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyofr
aisi
nganot
herhumanbei
ngmi
ghtf
orce
t
hem t
oadoptahi
ghersetofmor
alst
andar
dst
hant
heywoul
dot
her
wise.
Howev
er,many of t
hese answer
s won’
t appl
yto ev
ery per
son:
nonbel
i
ever
s,nonpar
ent
s,peopl
ewhodon’
trespectt
hemsel
ves,peopl
e
whot
hinkt
hatt
heycanescapepuni
shment
.

Ther
ear
etwodi
sti
nctcomponent
stot
hequest
ion“
Whybemor
al?
”

1)Whydoessoci
etyneedmor
alr
ules?

2)Whyshoul
dIbemor
al?Fr
om Hobbes’
sper
spect
ive,mor
ali
tyconsi
sts
ofasetofr
ulessucht
hat
,ifnear
lyev
ery
onef
oll
owst
hem,t
hennear
ly
ev
ery
one wi
l
lfl
our
ish.These r
ules r
est
ri
ctourf
reedom butpr
omot
e
gr
eat
erf
reedom andwel
l
bei
ng.

Mor
especi
fi
cal
l
y,t
hef
ivesoci
albenef
it
sofest
abl
i
shi
ngandf
oll
owi
ng
mor
alr
ulesaccompl
i
sht
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a)Keepsoci
etyf
rom f
all
i
ngapar
t.b)
Reduce human suf
fer
ing.c)Pr
omot
e human f
lour
ishi
ng.d)Resol
ve

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conf
li
ctsofi
nter
esti
njustandor
der
lyway
s.e)Assi
gnpr
aiseandbl
ame,
r
ewar
dandpuni
shment
,andgui
l
t.Al
lthesebenef
it
shav
eincommont
he
f
actt
hatmor
ali
tyi
sasoci
alact
ivi
ty:I
thast
odowi
thsoci
ety
,nott
he
i
ndi
vi
duali
nisol
ati
on.I
fonl
yoneper
sonexi
stsonani
sl
and,nomor
ali
ty
exi
sts;i
ndeed,some behav
iorwoul
d be bet
terf
ort
hatper
son t
han
ot
her
s—suchaseat
ingcoconut
srat
hert
hansand—butt
her
ewoul
dnotbe
mor
ali
tyi
nthef
ullmeani
ngoft
hatt
erm.Howev
er,assoonasasecond
per
sonappear
sont
hati
sland,
mor
ali
tyal
soappear
s.Mor
ali
tyi
sthusaset
ofr
ulest
hatenabl
eust
oreachourcol
l
ect
ivegoal
s.I
magi
newhatsoci
ety
woul
dbel
i
kei
fwedi
dwhat
everwepl
easedwi
thoutobey
ingmor
alr
ules.
Ul
ti
mat
ely
,Ishoul
dbemor
albecause,byoccasi
onal
l
yal
l
owi
ngsome
di
sadv
ant
agef
ormy
sel
f,Imayobt
ainanov
eral
l
,long-
ter
m adv
ant
age.
Ev
enwheni
tseemsast
houghIcanbr
eakmor
alr
uleswi
thoutget
ti
ng
caught
,Ist
il
lneed t
o consi
stent
lyf
oll
ow t
hem because,al
though an
i
ndi
vi
dualmor
alactmaysomet
imesbeatoddswi
thmysel
f-
int
erest
,the
compl
etemor
alf
orm ofl
i
fei
nwhi
cht
heacti
sroot
edi
snotagai
nstmy
sel
f-
int
erest
.

16