P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 The Maximum Oxidation state  Boron is a Typical Non-Metal,  Nihonium is a synthetically

shown by a P-Block Element is Aluminium is a Metal but shows prepared radioactive Element
Equal to the Total Number of Many Chemical Similarities to  Electronic Configuration
Valence Electrons Boron, and gallium, indium,
 The outer Electronic
 Non-metals and Metalloids Exist Thallium and Nihonium are
configuration of These Elements
only in the p-block of the almost Exclusively Metallic in
is ns2 np1 .
Periodic table Character
 Atomic Radii
 The Heaviest Element in Each P-  Boron is a Fairly rare Element,
 Atomic radius of Ga is Less Than
Block group is the Most Metallic Mainly occurs as Orthoboric acid,
That of Al
in Nature (H3BO3), Borax, Na2B4O7
·10H2O, and Kernite, Na2B4O7  The Presence of additional 10 d -
 Non-Metals have Higher Electrons offer only Poor
Ionisation Enthalpies and Higher ·4H2O
Screening Effect or the outer
Electronegativities than the  In India Borax occurs in Puga
Electrons From the increased
metals Valley (Ladakh) and Sambhar
Nuclear charge in gallium
 Boron Forms only [BF4 ]– , Lake (Rajasthan)
 The Atomic radius of gallium
Aluminium gives [AlF6 ]3– ion  The abundance of Boron in Earth
(135 pm) is Less than that of
 The First member of a group crust is Less Than 0.0001% by
Aluminium (143 pm)
Differs from the Heavier mass
 Ionization Enthalpy
Members in its ability to Form  There are Two Isotopic forms of
boron 10B (19%) and 11B (81%)  The Decrease From B to Al is
pπ - pπ Multiple Bonds to Itself associated with increase in size.
 The Heavier Elements do Form π  Aluminium is the Most abundant
Metal and Third most abundant  The Observed discontinuity in the
Bonds but This involves d Ionisation Enthalpy values
Element in the Earth’s crust
Orbitals (dπ – pπ or dπ –dπ ) between Al and Ga, and between
(8.3% by mass) after Oxygen
 As the d orbitals are of Higher (45.5%) and Si (27.7%) In and Tl are due to inability of d-
Energy Than the P orbitals, They and f-Electrons ,which have Low
 Bauxite, Al2O3 . 2H2O and
contribute Less to the overall Screening Effect, to compensate
Cyolite, Na3AlF6 are the
Stability of molecules Than does the Increase in Nuclear charge.
Important Minerals of
pπ – pπ  Down the group,
Aluminium
 In +5 Oxidation state Both N and Electronegativity First decreases
 In India it is Found as Mica in
P Form Oxoanions : NO3 – From B to Al and Then increases
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
(Three-coordination with π –  This is because of the
Orissa and Jammu.
bond involving one Nitrogen P- discrepancies in atomic size of
 Gallium, Indium and Thallium
orbital) and PO43− (Four- the Elements
are Less abundant Elements in
coordination involving s, p and d  Physical Properties
nature
orbitals contributing to the π –  Boron is Non-Metallic in nature
 Nihonium has been prepared in
bond). small amount and Half Life of its  It is Extremely Hard and Black
most Stable isotope is 20 seconds coloured solid
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 It Exists in many Allotropic  In Trivalent state, The Number of Protects the Metal From Further
Forms Electrons around the central atom attack
 Due to very Strong Crystalline in a molecule of the compounds  Amorphous Boron and
Lattice, Boron Has Unusually of These Elements (Boron in BF3) Aluminium Metal on Heating in
High Melting point will be six. air Form B2O3 and Al2O3
 Rest of the members are Soft  Such Electron Deficient respectively.
Metals with Low Melting point molecules have Tendency to  Di Nitrogen at High Temperature
and High Electrical Conductivity accept a pair of Electrons to Form Nitrides
achieve stable Electronic  2E + 3O2 → 2E2O3
 Gallium with Unusually Low
configuration and Behave as
Melting Point (303K)  2E + N2 → 2EN
Lewis acids
 Its High Boiling Point (2676 K)  Boron Trioxide is acidic and
 The Tendency to Behave as
Makes it a useful material for reacts with Basic (Metallic)
Lewis acid decreases with the
measuring High Temperatures oxides Forming Metal Borates
increase in the Size down the
 Density of the Elements Increases  Aluminium and gallium oxides
group. BCl3 Easily accepts a
down the group From Boron to are Amphoteric and those of
Lone pair of Electrons From
Thallium Indium and Thallium are basic in
ammonia to Form BCl3 ⋅NH3
 Chemical Properties their properties
 In Trivalent state most of the
 Oxidation state and Trends in compounds being Covalent are  Reactivity Towards acids and
Chemical Reactivity Hydrolysed in water alkalies
 Due to small size of Boron, The  The Trichlorides on Hyrolysis in  Boron does Not react with acids
sum of its First Three Ionization water Form Tetrahedral and alkalies Even at moderate
Enthalpies is very High. [M(OH)4]- Species Temperature But aluminium
 This Prevents it to Form +3 ions dissolves in mineral acids and
 The Hybridisation state of
and Forces it to Form only aqueous alkalies and shows
Element M is sp3 .
Covalent Compounds Amphoteric character.
 Aluminium Chloride in acidified
 Aluminium is a Highly  Aluminium dissolves in Dilute
aqueous solution Forms
Electropositive Metal HCl and Liberates Di Hydrogen.
Octahedral [Al(H2O)6]3+ ion.
 The Relative Stability of +1  2Al + 6HCl → 2Al3+ + 6Cl–+
 In this complex ion, The 3d
Oxidation state Progressively 3H2
orbitals of Al are involved and
increases For Heavier elements: The Hybridisation state of Al is  Concentrated Nitric acid renders
Al < Ga < In sp3d2 . aluminium Passive by Forming a
 The +3 oxidation state is Highly Protective oxide Layer on the
 Reactivity Towards air
Oxidising in character. surface.
 Boron is Unreactive in
 The compounds in +1 oxidation  Aluminium also reacts with
Crystalline Form.
state, as Expected From Energy aqueous alkali and Liberates Di
 Aluminium Forms a very Thin
considerations, are more Ionic Hydrogen
oxide Layer on the surface which
Than Those in +3 oxidation state
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O → 2 Na+  Boron being Extremely Hard  The use of aluminium and its
[Al(OH)4] – + 3H2 refractory solid of High Melting compounds For Domestic
 Reactivity Towards Halogens Point, Low Density and very low Purposes is Now Reduced
 These Elements react with Electrical Conductivity considerably because of their
Halogens to Form Tri Halides  Boron Fibres are used in making Toxic Nature
(Except TlI3 ). Bullet-Proof vest and light  GROUP - 14
 2E + 3X2 → 2EX3 composite material for aircraft  Carbon, silicon, germanium, tin
 Anomalous properties of Boron  The Boron-10 (10B) isotope has lead and Flerovium are the
High ability to absorb Neutrons members of group 14
 The Tri-Chlorides, Bromides and
Iodides of all Elements being
and, Therefore, Metal Borides are  Carbon is the Seventeenth most
used in Nuclear industry as abundant Element by mass in the
Covalent in Nature are
Protective Shields and control Earth’s crust
Hydrolysed in water.
rods  It is distributed in Nature in Free
 Species like Tetrahedral
 The Main Industrial application as well as in the Combined State
[M(OH)4] – and Octahedral
of Borax and Boric acid is in the
[M(H2O)6] 3+, Except in Boron,  In Elemental state it is available
Manufacture of Heat resistant
Exist in aqueous medium as coal, graphite and diamond;
glasses (Pyrex), glass-wool and
 The Monomeric Tri Halides, However, in combined state it is
Fibreglass.
being Electron deficient, are present as Metal carbonates,
 Borax is also used as a Flux for Hydrocarbons and carbon
Strong Lewis acids.
Soldering Metals, For Heat, Dioxide gas (0.03%) in air
 Boron Tri Fluoride easily reacts scratch and Stain resistant glazed  Naturally occurring carbon
with Lewis Bases such as NH3 to coating to Earthenwares and as Contains Two Stable Isotopes:12C
Complete Octet around Boron constituent of Medicinal soaps and 13C.
 It is due to the absence of d  An aqueous solution of  Third isotope, 14C is also Present.
orbitals That Maximum Orthoboric acid is generally used
Covalence of B is 4.  It is a radioactive isotope with
as a Mild antiseptic
 Since the d orbitals are available Half-life 5770 years and used for
 Aluminium is a Bright Silvery- Radiocarbon dating.
with Al and other Elements, The
white metal, Having High Tensile
Maximum Covalence can be  Silicon is the Second (27.7 % by
Strength
Expected beyond 4. mass) Most abundant Element on
 It has a High Electrical and The Earth’s crust and is Present
 Most of the Other Metal Halides Thermal Conductivity in Nature in the Form of Silica
(AlCl3 ) are Dimerised Through
 The Electrical conductivity of and Silicates.
Halogen Bridging (Al2Cl6 ).
aluminium is Twice That of  Silicon is a very important
 The Metal species completes its
Copper component of ceramics, glass and
octet by accepting Electrons
 Aluminium is used Extensively in cement.
From Halogen in These Halogen
Industry and Everyday Life.  Germanium Exists only in
Bridged molecule
 It Forms alloys with Cu, Mn, Mg, Traces.
Si and Zn.
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Tin occurs mainly as Cassiterite, Metalloid, whereas Tin and Lead  In Tetravalent state the Number
SnO2 and Lead as galena, PbS. are Soft Metals with Low Melting of Electrons around the central
 Flerovium is Synthetically Points atom in a molecule (carbon in
prepared Radioactive Element  Melting Points and Boiling Points CCl4 ) is Eight.
 Ultrapure Form of germanium of group 14 Elements are much  Being Electron Precise Molecules
and silicon are used to make Higher than those of They are Normally Not expected
Transistors and semiconductor corresponding Elements of group to act as Electron acceptor or
devices 13 Electron donor species.
 Covalent Radius  Chemical Properties  Carbon cannot Exceed its
 There is a considerable Increase  Oxidation states and Trends in Covalence More Than 4, Other
Chemical reactivity Elements of the group can do so.
in Covalent radius From C to Si,
From Si to Pb a small increase in  The Common oxidation states  It is because of the Presence of d
radius is observed. Exhibited by These Elements are orbital in Them.
 This is Due to the Presence of +4 and +2  Due to this, Their Halides
Completely Filled d and f  Carbon also Exhibits Negative undergo Hydrolysis and have
Orbitals in Heavier Members Oxidation States. Tendency to Form complexes by
 accepting Electron pairs from
 Ionization Enthalpy Since the sum of the first four
Ionization Enthalpies is very donor species.
 Small decrease in ∆H From Si to
High, compounds in +4 oxidation  The species like, SiF6 2– ,
Ge to Sn and Slight Increase in
state are generally Covalent in [GeCl6 ]2– , [Sn(OH)6]2– Exist
∆H From Sn to Pb is the
Nature.  Reactivity Towards Oxygen
Consequence of Poor Shielding
Effect of intervening d and f  In Heavier members the  All members when heated in
Orbitals and Increase in size of Tendency to show +2 oxidation Oxygen Form oxides
the atom state increases in the sequence Ge  There are Mainly Two Types of
< Sn Oxides - Monoxide and Dioxide
 Electronegativity
 Carbon and Silicon mostly show of Formula MO and MO2
 Due to small size, the Elements
+4 oxidation state.  SiO only Exists at High
of This group are Slightly more
Electronegative than group 13  Germanium Forms stable Temperature.
Elements. compounds in +4 state and only  Oxides in Higher Oxidation
Few compounds in +2 state. States of Elements are generally
 The Electronegativity values for
Elements From Si to Pb are  Tin Forms compounds in both More acidic Than Those in
almost the same oxidation states (Sn in +2 state is Lower Oxidation states.
a Reducing Agent).  The Dioxides — CO2 , SiO2 and
 Physical Properties
 Lead compounds in +2 state are GeO2 are Acidic, whereas SnO2
 All members of group14 are
stable and in +4 state are Strong and PbO2 are Amphoteric in
Solids.
Oxidising agents. Nature.
 Carbon and silicon are Non-
Metals, germanium is a
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Among Monoxides, CO is  Heavier Members Ge to Pb are with Itself and with other atoms
Neutral, GeO is distinctly acidic able to make Halides of Formula of Small size and high
whereas SnO and PbO are MX2 Electronegativity
Amphoteric  Stability of Dihalides increases  Heavier Elements do not form
 Reactivity Towards water Down the group. pπ– pπ bonds because their
 Carbon, Silicon and Germanium  Considering the Thermal and atomic orbitals are Too Large and
are Not affected by water. Chemical Stability, GeX4 is More Diffuse to Have Effective
 Tin decomposes Steam to Form Stable than GeX2 , whereas PbX2 Overlapping
Dioxide and Di Hydrogen gas is More than PbX4  Carbon atoms Have The
 Except CCl4 , Other Tendency to Link with one
 Sn + 2H2O →SnO2 + 2H2
Tetrachlorides are Easily another through Covalent bonds
 Lead is unaffected by water,
Hydrolysed by water because the to Form chains and rings
Probably because of a Protective
central atom can accommodate  This Property is called
Oxide Film Formation
the Lone Pair of Electrons from Catenation.
 Reactivity Towards Halogen Oxygen atom of water Molecule  This is Because C—C bonds are
 These Elements can Form in d Orbital Very strong.
Halides of formula MX2 and MX4  SiCl4 It undergoes Hydrolysis by  Down the group the size
 Except Carbon, All other initially accepting Lone Pair of increases and Electronegativity
Members react Directly with Electrons From water molecule in decreases, and, Tendency to show
Halogen under suitable condition d Orbitals of Si, Finally leading catenation Decreases.
to make Halides. To the Formation of Si(OH)4
 The Order of Catenation is C > >
 Most of the MX4 are Covalent in  Carbon also Differs From rest of
Si > Ge ≈ Sn.
Nature the members of its group.
 Lead does Not show catenation
 The Central Metal atom in These  It is Due to its Smaller Size,
 Due to Property of catenation and
Halides undergoes sp3 Higher Electronegativity, Higher
Hybridisation and the molecule is Ionisation Enthalpy and pπ– pπ Bond Formation, Carbon
Tetrahedral in shape Unavailability of d orbitals is able to show Allotropic
 Exceptions are SnF4 and PbF4 ,  S and P orbitals are available for  GROUP - 15
which are Ionic in Nature. Bonding and, Therefore, It can  The Absence of d orbitals in
 PbI4 does Not Exist because Pb— accommodate only Four pairs of second period and presence of d
I bond Initially Formed during Electrons around it or d and F Orbital in heavier
the reaction does Not release  This would Limit the Maximum Elements have Significant Effects
Enough Energy to UnPair Covalence to Four whereas other on the properties of Elements
Electrons and Excite one of them members can Expand their  Group 15 Includes Nitrogen,
to Higher orbital To Have Four Covalence due to the Presence of Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony
UnPaired Electrons around Lead d orbitals and Bismuth
atom.  Carbon also has unique ability to  Nitrogen and phosphorus are
form pπ– pπ Multiple Bonds Non-metals
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Arsenic and Antimony Metalloids  This is due to the Presence of  +3 state Stability Increases (Due
 Bismuth is a typical metal completely Filled d or F Orbital to Inert pair Effect) Down the
 Molecular Nitrogen comprises in Heavier members group.
78% by volume of the  Ionisation Enthalpy Decreases  Nitrogen Exhibits + 1, + 2, + 4
atmosphere. Down the group. Oxidation states also when it
 In the Earth’s crust - It occurs as  Because of the Extra Stable Half- reacts with Oxygen.
Sodium Nitrate, NaNO3 (called Filled P Orbitals Electronic  Phosphorus also shows +1 and +4
Chile Saltpetre) and Potassium configuration and Smaller Size Oxidation states in some
Nitrate (Indian Saltpetre). the Ionisation Enthalpy of the Oxoacids
group 15 Elements is much  3HNO2 → HNO3 + H2O + 2NO
 It is Found in the Form of
greater than that of group 14
Proteins in Plants and Animals  In Phosphorus All Intermediate
elements in the Corresponding
 Phosphorus occurs in minerals of Oxidation states Disproportionate
Periods.
the Apatite Family - Ca9(PO4)6 . into +5 and –3 both in Alkali and
 The ElectroNegativity value Acid.
CaX2 (X = F, Cl or OH)
Decreases Down the group
 Ex- Fluorapatite Ca9(PO4)6.CaF2  However +3 oxidation state in
 All the Elements of this group are case of Arsenic, Antimony and
 These are the main components Polyatomic. Bismuth becomes Increasing
of Phosphate rocks.
 DiNitrogen is a Diatomic gas but stability with respect to
 Phosphorus is an Essential all others are Solids Disproportionation
constituent of Animal and Plant  The Boiling points Increase  Nitrogen is restricted to a
Matter. Down the group but the Melting Maximum Covalency of 4 Since
 It is Present in Bones as well as point Increases upto Arsenic and only Four (one s and three p)
in Living cells then Decreases upto Bismuth Orbital are Available for
 Phosphoproteins are present in  Except Nitrogen - All the Bonding.
Milk and Eggs Elements show Allotropy  The Heavier Elements have
 Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth  The Common Oxidation States of vacant d Orbital in the outermost
are Found mainly as Sulphide these Elements are –3, +3 and +5. shell which can be used for
Minerals.  The Tendency to exhibit –3 bonding (Covalency) and Hence,
 The S Orbital in these Elements is Oxidation State Decreases down Expand their covalence as in
−¿¿
completely Filled and P Orbital The group due to Increase in Size P F6
are Half-Filled, making their and Metallic character.  Nitrogen Differs from the rest of
Electronic configuration Extra  The stability of +5 oxidation state the members of this group due to
Stable Decreases Down the group. its Small size, High Electro
 Covalent and Ionic radii Increase  The only compound of Bi (V) is
Negativity , High Ionization
in size down the group Enthalpy and Non-Availability of
BiF5 .
 As to Bi only a Small Increase in d Orbital
covalent radius is observed.  Nitrogen has unique ability to
form pπ-pπ Multiple bonds with
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

itself and with other Elements  The reducing character of the  In case of Nitrogen, only NF3 is
having small size and High Hydrides increases. known to be Stable.
Electro Negativity (C, O).  Ammonia is only a Mild  Tri Halides Except BiF3 are
 Heavier elements of this group Reducing agent while BiH3 is the Predominantly Covalent in nature
do not form pπ-pπ bonds as their Strongest reducing agent amongst  Reactivity Towards metals:
Atomic orbitals are so large and all the Hydrides.
 All these Elements react with
diffuse that they cannot have  Basicity also Decreases in the metals to form their Binary
Effective overlapping order NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 compounds Exhibiting –3
 Nitrogen Exists as a diatomic > BiH3 oxidation state
molecule with a Triple bond  Reactivity Towards Oxygen  Ca3N2 (calcium Nitride) , Ca3P2
 Phosphorus,arsenic and antimony  All Elements form Two types of (calcium Phosphide), Na3As2
form Single bonds oxides: E2O3 and E2O5 . (sodium Arsenide), Zn3Sb2 (zinc
 Bismuth forms metallic bonds in  The oxide in the Higher oxidation Antimonide) and Mg3Bi2
Elemental state state of the Element is more (magnesium Bismuthide)
 the single N–N bond is weaker acidic than that of Lower  GROUP - 16
than the single P–P bond because oxidation state.  Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium,
of High Inter Electronic repulsion  Their acidic character Decreases Tellurium and Polonium
of the non-bonding electrons, down the group.  Chalcogens
owing to the small bond length  The oxides of the type E2O3 of  The Name is derived from the
 As a result the Catenation Nitrogen and Phosphorus are Greek word for Brass and points
Tendency is weaker in Nitrogen purely acidic to the association Sulphur and its
 Nitrogen cannot form dπ –pπ  Arsenic and antimony congeners with copper.
bond as the Heavier Elements can Amphoteric  Most Copper minerals contain
 R3P = O or R3P = CH2 (R = Alkyl  Bismuth is basic. Either Oxygen or sulphur and
group).
 Reactivity Towards Halogens Frequently the other members of
 Phosphorus and arsenic can form the group
 These Elements react to form two
dπ –dπ bond also with Transition series of halides: EX3 and EX5.  Occurrence
metals when their compounds  Nitrogen does not form  Oxygen is the Most abundant of
like P(C2H5 )3 and As(C6H5 )3 act PentaHalide due to Non- all the Elements on Earth.
as Ligands Availability of the d orbitals in its  Oxygen Forms about 46.6% by
 Reactivity Towards Hydrogen valence shell. Mass of Earth’s crust.
 All the Elements of Group 15  Penta Halides are more Covalent  Dry air contains 20.946% oxygen
form Hydrides of the type EH3 Than Tri Halides. by volume
 The stability of Hydrides  All the Tri Halides of these  The abundance of Sulphur in the
decreases from NH3 to BiH3 Elements Except those of Earth’s crust is only 0.03-0.1%.
which can be observed from their Nitrogen are Stable.  Combined Sulphur Exists
bond dissociation Enthalpy primarily as Sulphates such as
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 gypsum - CaSO4 .2H2O,  Next to Fluorine, Oxygen has the  Since Electronegativity of
 Epsom Salt - MgSO4.7H2O, Highest Electronegativity value Oxygen is very High, it shows
amongst the Elements. only Negative oxidation state as –
 Baryte - BaSO4
 Down The group 2 Except
 Sulphides such as
Electronegativity decreases with  In the case of OF2 where its
 galena - PbS oxidation State is + 2.
an increase in atomic number.
 zinc blende – ZnS  Other Elements of the group
 This implies That the Metallic
 Copper Pyrites - CuFeS2 . character increases from oxygen Exhibit + 2, + 4, + 6 oxidation
 Traces of Sulphur occur as to polonium states but + 4 and + 6 are more
Hydrogen Sulphide in volcanoes.  Physical Properties common.
 Organic materials such as Eggs,  Oxygen and Sulphur are Non-  Sulphur, selenium and Tellurium
Proteins, garlic, onion, mustard, Metals, Selenium and Tellurium usually show + 4 oxidation state
hair and wool contain Sulphur Metalloids, and Polonium is a in their compounds with oxygen
 Selenium and Tellurium are also Metal. and + 6 with Fluorine.
Found as Metal Selenides and  Polonium is radioactive and is  The stability of + 6 oxidation
Tellurides in Sulphide ores. short lived (Half-life 13.8 days). state decreases down the group
 Polonium occurs in nature as a and stability of + 4 oxidation
 All these Elements Exhibit
decay product of Thorium and state increases (inert pair effect).
allotropy.
Uranium minerals  Bonding in +4 and +6 oxidation
 The Melting and Boiling points
 Electronic Configuration states is Primarily Covalent
increase with an increase in
 The Elements of Group16 have atomic number down the group.  Anomalous Behaviour of oxygen
Six Electrons in the outermost  The large difference between the  Effects of small size and High
shell and have ns2np4 general Melting and Boiling points of Electronegativity is the Presence
Electronic configuration Oxygen and Sulphur may be of strong Hydrogen bonding in
 Atomic and Ionic Radii Explained on the basis of their H2O which is Not Found in H2S
 Due to increase in the number of Atomicity  The absence of d orbitals in
shells, atomic and ionic radii  Oxygen Exists as diatomic Oxygen limits its Covalency to
increase from Top to bottom in molecule (O2 ) whereas sulphur Four
the group. Exists as polyatomic molecule  Reactivity with Hydrogen
 The size of Oxygen atom is, (S8)  All the Elements of Group 16
However, Exceptionally small  Chemical Properties Form Hydrides of the Type H2E
 Ionisation Enthalpy  Oxidation states (E = O, S, Se, Te, Po)
 Ionisation Enthalpy decreases  The stability of - 2 oxidation state  Their acidic character increases
down the group. decreases down the group. from H2O to H2Te.
 It is due to increase in size  Polonium Hardly shows – 2  The increase in acidic character
oxidation state. can be Explained in Terms of
 Electronegativity
decrease in bond Enthalpy for the
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

dissociation of H–E bond down  All Hexa Fluorides are gaseous in  The Halogens are Highly reactive
the group nature. Non-Metallic Elements.
 The Thermal Stability of  They have Octahedral structure.  Occurrence
Hydrides also decreases From  SF6 is Exceptionally Sable for  Fluorine and Chlorine are Fairly
H2O to H2Po. Steric reasons abundant while Bromine and
 All the Hydrides Except water  Amongst Tetra Fluorides, SF4 is a Iodine less so.
possess reducing property and gas, SeF4 a Liquid and TeF4 a  Fluorine is Present mainly as
this character increases from H2S solid. Insoluble Fluorides (Fluorspar
to H2Te. CaF2 , Cryolite Na3AlF6 and
 These Fluorides have sp3d
 Reactivity with Oxygen: Fluoroapatite 3Ca3 (PO4)2 .CaF2 )
Hybridisation and Have Trigonal
 All these Elements Form Oxides Bipyramidal structures in which  Small quantities are Present in
of the EO2 and EO3 types where E one of the Equatorial positions is soil, river water plants and bones
= S, Se, Te or Po. occupied by a lone pair of and Teeth of animals.
 Ozone (O3) and Sulphur Dioxide Electrons.  Sea water contains Chlorides,
(SO2) are gases while Selenium  This geometry is also regarded as Bromides and Iodides of sodium,
dioxide (SeO2) is Solid. see-saw geometry Potassium, Magnesium and
 Reducing property of Dioxide  All Elements Except Oxygen Calcium, But is mainly sodium
decreases from SO2 to TeO2 Form Dichlorides and chloride solution (2.5% by mass).
 SO2 is reducing while TeO2 is an Dibromides.  The deposits of dried up seas
Oxidising agent.  These Dihalides are Formed by contain these compounds, sodium
 Besides EO2 Type, Sulphur, sp3 hybridisation and have chloride and Carnallite,
Selenium and Tellurium also Tetrahedral Structure. KCl.MgCl2 .6H2O.
Form EO3 type oxides (SO3,  The well known Monohalides are  Certain forms of Marine Life
SeO3, TeO3). Dimeric in nature contain Iodine in their systems;
 Both Types of oxides are acidic  S2F2 , S2Cl2 , S2Br2 , Se2Cl2 and various seaweeds Contain upto
in nature. Se2Br2 0.5% of iodine and Chile saltpetre
 Reactivity Towards the Halogens  Dimeric Halides undergo contains upto 0.2% of sodium
 Elements of Group 16 form a disproportionation iodate
Large number of Halides of the  Atomic and Ionic Radii
 2Se2Cl2 → SeCl4 + 3Se
Type, EX6 , EX4 and EX2 where E
 GROUP - 17  The Halogens Have the smallest
is an Element of the group and X atomic radii in their respective
 Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine,
is a halogen. Periods Due to Maximum
Iodine and Astatine These are
 The Stability of the Halides Effective nuclear charge.
collectively known as the
decreases in the order F– > Cl– >
Halogens (Greek Halo means salt  Atomic and ionic radii Increase
Br– > I– . From Fluorine to iodine due to
and genes means born - Salt
 Amongst Hexa Halides, Hexa Producers). increasing Number of quantum
Fluorides are the only stable shells
Halides.
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Ionisation Enthalpy  Physical Properties  However, Chlorine, Bromine and

 They have Little Tendency to  Halogens display smooth iodine exhibit + 1, + 3, + 5 and +
lose Electron. variations in Their physical 7 oxidation states
 They have very High ionisation properties.  The Higher oxidation states of
Enthalpy.  Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, Chlorine, Bromine and iodine are
 Due to Increase in atomic size, Bromine is a Liquid and iodine is realised mainly when the
ionisation Enthalpy decreases a Solid. Halogens are in combination with
down the group  Their Melting and boiling points the small and Highly
Electronegative Fluorine and
 Electron Gain Enthalpy steadily Increase with atomic
Number. Oxygen atoms.
 Halogens have Maximum
 All Halogens are coloured.  As in Inter Halogens, Oxides and
Negative Electron gain Enthalpy
Oxoacids.
in the corresponding periods.  This is due to Absorption of
 The Oxidation states of +4 and
 This is due to the Fact That the Rdiations in visible region which
results in the Excitation of outer +6 occur in the Oxides and
atoms of these Elements have
Electrons to Higher Energy level. Oxoacids of chlorine and
only one Electron Less than
Bromine.
Stable Noble gas configurations.  By absorbing Different Quanta
 The Fluorine atom has no d
 Electron gain Enthalpy of the of radiation, they display
Different colours. Orbitals in its valence shell and
Elements of the group becomes
Therefore cannot Expand its
Less Negative down the group.  F2 – Yellow , Cl2 - greenish
octet.
 The Negative Electron gain yellow , Br2 - Red and I2 - violet
colour.  Being the Most Electronegative,
Enthalpy of Fluorine is less than
 Fluorine and chlorine react with it Exhibits only –1 oxidation
That of chlorine.
water. state.
 It is due to Small size of Fluorine
 Bromine and iodine are only  All the Halogens are Highly
atom. As a result, There are
sparingly soluble in water but are reactive.
Strong Inter Electronic repulsions
in the relatively small 2p orbitals soluble in various organic  They react with Metals and Non-
of Fluorine and The incoming solvents such as chloroform, Metals to Form Halides.
Electron does not experience carbon Tetrachloride, carbon  The Reactivity of the Halogens
much attraction disulphide and hydrocarbons to Decreases down the group
 Electronegativity give coloured solutions  F2 is the Strongest Oxidising
 They have very High  The Smaller Enthalpy of Halogen and it Oxidises other
Electronegativity. dissociation of F2 compared to Halide ions in solution or Even in
That of Cl2 the solid phase.
 The Electronegativity decreases
down the group.  Chemical Properties  A Halogen oxidises Halide ions
 Oxidation states of Higher atomic number.
 Fluorine is the most
Electronegative Element in the  All the Halogens Exhibit –1  F2 + 2X– → 2F– + X2 (X = Cl, Br
periodic table oxidation state. or I)
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Cl2 + 2X– → 2Cl– + X2 (X = Br and strong bond formed by it with  Both are Strong Fluorinating
or I) other Elements). agents.
 Br2 + 2I– → 2Br– + I2  It Forms only one Oxoacid while  O2F2 oxidises Plutonium to PuF6
 The Decreasing Oxidising ability other Halogens form a Number of and the reaction is used in
of the Halogens in aqueous Oxoacids. removing Plutonium as PuF6
solution down the group is  Hydrogen Fluoride is a liquid From spent Nuclear Fuel.
Evident From Their Standard (B.P. 293 K) due to strong  Chlorine, Bromine and iodine
Electrode potentials Hydrogen bonding. Form oxides in which the
 The relative Oxidising power of  Other Hydrogen Halides are Oxidation States of These
Halogens can Further be gases Halogens range from +1 to +7.
illustrated by their reactions with  Reactivity Towards Hydrogen  A combination of Kinetic and
water.  They all react with Hydrogen to Thermodynamic Factors lead to
 Fluorine oxidises water to oxygen give Hydrogen Halides but the generally Decreasing order of
whereas chlorine and Bromine affinity for Hydrogen decreases stability of oxides Formed by
react with water to Form From Fluorine to iodine. Halogens, I > Cl > Br.
corresponding Hydrohalic and  Hydrogen Halides dissolve in  The Higher oxides of Halogens
Hypohalous acids. water to Form Hydrohalic acids. Tend to be More Stable Than the
 The reaction of iodine with water  The acidic Strength of These lower ones.
is Non Spontaneous. acids varies in the order: HF <  Chlorine oxides, Cl2O, ClO2,
 I– can be oxidised by Oxygen in HCl < HBr < HI. Cl2O6 and Cl2O7 are Highly
reactive Oxidising Agents and
acidic medium  The Stability of These Halides
Tend to Explode.
 The reverse of the reaction decreases down the group due to
observed with Fluorine. decrease in bond (H–X)  ClO2 is used as a Bleaching agent
Dissociation Enthalpy in the for Paper Pulp and Textiles and in
 2F2 + 2H2O → 4H+ + 4F- + O2
order: H–F > H–Cl > H–Br > H–I water Treatment.
 X2 + H2O → HX + HOX (X = Cl,
 Reactivity Towards Oxygen  The Bromine oxides, Br2O,
Br )
 Halogens Form many Oxides BrO2 , BrO3 are the Least Stable
 4I- + 4H+ + O2 → 2I2 + 2H2O
with Oxygen but most of them Halogen oxides and Exist only at
 Anomalous Behaviour of Low Temperatures.
are Unstable.
Fluorine
 Fluorine Forms two oxides OF2  They are very Powerful Oxidising
 The Anomalous Behaviour of agents.
and O2F2 .
Fluorine is due to its Small Size,
 OF2 is Thermally stable at 298 K.  The iodine oxides, I2O4 , I2O5 ,
Highest Electronegativity, low F-
I2O7 are Insoluble Solids and
F Bond Dissociation Enthalpy,  These oxides are Essentially
decompose on Heating.
and Non availability of d orbitals Oxygen Fluorides because of the
Higher Electronegativity of  I2O5 is a very good Oxidising
in valence shell.
Fluorine Than oxygen. agent and is used in the
 Most of the reactions of Fluorine
Estimation of Carbon Monoxide
are Exothermic (due to the small
 P BLOCK ELEMENTS

 Reactivity Towards Metals:  Helium and sometimes Neon are  They are colourless, odourless
 Halogens react with Metals to Found in minerals of Radioactive and Tasteless.
Form Metal Halides. origin  They are Sparingly soluble in
 Bromine reacts with Magnesium  In Pitchblende, Monazite, water.
to give Magnesium Bromide. cleveite.  They have very low Melting and
 Mg + Br2 MgBr2  The main commercial source of Boiling Points because the only
Helium is Natural gas. Type of Interatomic Interaction in
 The ionic character of the Halides
 Xenon and radon are the rarest these Elements is weak
Decreases in the order MF > MCl
Elements of the group. Dispersion Forces.
> MBr > MI where M is a
Monovalent metal.  Radon is obtained as a decay  Helium has the Lowest Boiling
product of 226Ra. Point (4.2 K) of any known
 If a Metal Exhibits More Than
one Oxidation State, The Halides  Ra → 226Rn + 4He
226 substance.
in Higher Oxidation state will be  Electronic Configuration  It has an unusual Property of
More Covalent Than the one in  All Noble gases Have general Diffusing Through most
Lower oxidation state. Electronic configuration ns2 np6 commonly used Laboratory
 SnCl4 , PbCl4 , SbCl5 and UF6 are Except Helium which has 1s2 materials such as rubber, glass or
plastics.
More Covalent than SnCl2 , PbCl2  Inactive Nature are ascribed to
, SbCl3 and UF4 Their Closed shell structures
 Reactivity of Halogens towards  Ionisation Enthalpy
other Halogens:  Due to stable Electronic
 Halogens combine amongst configuration these gases Exhibit
Themselves to Form a number of very High Ionisation Enthalpy.
compounds known as Inter  It decreases down the group with
Halogens of the Types XX ′ , increase in atomic size
XX3 ′ , XX5 ′ and XX7 ′ where X  Atomic Radii
is a Larger size Halogen and X′ is  It increases down the group with
Smaller Size Halogen increase in atomic Number
 GROUP – 18  Electron Gain Enthalpy
 Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton,  Since Noble gases have stable
Xenon and Radon. Electronic configurations, They
 All are gases and Unreactive have No Tendency to accept the
 All the Noble gases Except radon Electron and Have Large Positive
occur in the atmosphere. values of Electron gain Enthalpy
 Physical Properties
 Their atmospheric abundance in
Dry air is ~ 1% by volume of  All the Noble gases are
which Argon is the Major Monoatomic.
constituent.