FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY, ART AND DESIGN
Programming 2
MEK 3100
Instructor: Hadi Zahmatkesh
Email:
[email protected] Lecture 3
Control Structures
• A computer can proceed:
✓ In sequence
✓ Selectively (branch): making a choice
✓ Repetitively (iteratively): looping
• Some statements are executed only if certain conditions are met
• A condition is met if it evaluates to true
Control Structures (cont’d)
Relational Operators
• A condition is represented by a logical (Boolean) expression that
can be true or false
• Relational operators:
✓ Allow comparisons
✓ Require two operands (binary)
✓ Evaluate to true or false
Relational Operators (cont’d)
Relational Operators and
Simple Data Types
• You can use the relational operators with all three simple data
types:
✓ 8 < 15 evaluates to true
✓ 6 != 6 evaluates to false
✓ 2.5 > 5.8 evaluates to false
✓ 5.9 <= 7.5 evaluates to true
Comparing Characters
• Logical (Boolean) expressions
✓ Expressions such as 4 < 6 and 'R' > ‘T’
✓ Returns an integer value of 1 if the logical expression evaluates to
true
✓ Returns an integer value of 0 otherwise
Relational Operators and the
string Type
• Relational operators can be applied to strings
• Strings are compared character by character, starting with the first
character
• Comparison continues until either a mismatch is found or all
characters are found equal
• If two strings of different lengths are compared and the comparison
is equal to the last character of the shorter string
✓ The shorter string is less than the larger string
Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d)
• Suppose we have the following declarations:
string str1 = "Hello";
string str2 = "Hi";
string str3 = "Air";
string str4 = "Bill";
string str4 = "Big";
Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d)
Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d)
Logical (Boolean) Operators
and Logical Expressions
• Logical (Boolean) operators enable you to combine logical
expressions
Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d)
Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d)
Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d)
Order of Precedence
• Relational and logical operators are evaluated from left to right
• The associativity is left to right
• Parentheses can override precedence
Order of Precedence (cont’d)
Order of Precedence (cont’d)
Order of Precedence (cont’d)
Order of Precedence (cont’d)
int Data Type and Logical
(Boolean) Expressions
• Earlier versions of C++ did not provide built-in data types that had
Boolean values
• Logical expressions evaluate to either 1 or 0
✓ The value of a logical expression was stored in a variable of the
data type int
• You can use the int data type to manipulate logical (Boolean)
expressions
The bool Data Type and
Logical (Boolean) Expressions
• The data type bool has logical (Boolean) values true and
false
• bool, true, and false are reserved words
• The identifier true has the value 1
• The identifier false has the value 0
Selection: if and if … else
• One-Way Selection
• Two-Way Selection
• Compound (Block of) Statements
• Multiple Selections: Nested if
• Comparing if...else Statements with a Series of if
Statements
One-Way Selection
• The syntax of one-way selection is:
• The statement is executed if the value of the expression is true
• The statement is bypassed if the value is false; program goes to
the next statement
• if is a reserved word
One-Way Selection (cont’d)
One-Way Selection (cont’d)
One-Way Selection (cont’d)
Two-Way Selection
• Two-way selection takes the form:
• If expression is true, statement1 is executed; otherwise,
statement2 is executed
✓ statement1 and statement2 are any C++ statements
• else is a reserved word
Two-Way Selection (cont’d)
Two-Way Selection (cont’d)
Compound (Block of)
Statements
• Compound statement (block of statements):
• A compound statement is a single statement
Compound (Block of)
Statements (cont’d)
if (age > 18)
{
cout << "Eligible to vote." << endl;
cout << "No longer a minor." << endl;
}
else
{
cout << "Not eligible to vote." << endl;
cout << "Still a minor." << endl;
}
Multiple Selections: Nested if
• Nesting: one control statement in another
• An else is associated with the most recent if that has not been
paired with an else
Multiple Selections: Nested if
(cont’d)
Multiple Selections: Nested if
(cont’d)
Comparing if … else Statements
with a Series of if Statements
Short-Circuit Evaluation
• Short-circuit evaluation: evaluation of a logical expression stops as
soon as the value of the expression is known
• Example:
(age >= 21) || ( x == 5) //Line 1
(grade == 'A') && (x >= 7) //Line 2
Comparing Floating-Point Numbers
for Equality: A Precaution
• Comparison of floating-point numbers for equality may not behave
as you would expect
✓ Example:
o 1.0 == 3.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 evaluates to false
o Why? 3.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 = 0.99999999999999989
• Solution: use a tolerance value
• Example: fabs(x – y) < 0.000001
Associativity of Relational
Operators: A Precaution
Associativity of Relational
Operators: A Precaution (cont’d)
• num = 5
• num = 20
Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Partially
Understood Concepts and Techniques
• Must use concepts and techniques correctly;
✓ Otherwise, solution will be either incorrect or deficient
• If you do not understand a concept or technique completely
✓ Don’t use it
✓ Save yourself an enormous amount of debugging time
Confusion Between the Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operator
• C++ allows you to use any expression that can be evaluated to
either true or false as an expression in the if statement:
if (x = 5)
cout << "The value is five." << endl;
• The appearance of = in place of == resembles a silent killer
✓ It is not a syntax error
✓ It is a logical error
Conditional Operator
• Conditional operator (?:) takes three arguments
• Ternary operator
• Syntax for using the conditional operator:
expression1 ? expression2 : expression3
• If expression1 is true, the result of the conditional
expression is expression2
• Otherwise, the result is expression3
switch Structure
• switch structure: alternate to if-else
• switch (integral) expression is evaluated first
• Value of the expression determines which corresponding action is
taken
• Expression is sometimes called the selector
switch Structure (cont’d)
switch Structure (cont’d)
switch Structure (cont’d)
