Signal and Systems

Signals
Definitions
• A signal is a set of data or information.
• Examples include:
• a telephone or a television signal,
• monthly sales of a corporation, or
• daily closing prices of a stock market
• A signal is a function of the independent variable time, space,
distance, position, temperature, pressure, etc.
• a system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield
another set of signals (outputs).
• A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic systems (hardware realization),
• or it may be an algorithm that computes an output from an input
signal (software realization).
Size of a Signal, Signal Energy
• The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or
strength of that entity.
• The signal size can be defined as the area under 𝑥 𝑡 2 , which is
always positive. This measure is called the signal energy 𝐸𝑥 , defined
as: ∞
𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
• If 𝑥 𝑡 is real-valued, then the above
∞ definition reduces to
𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
• 𝐸𝑥 is indicative of the energy that can be extracted from the signal.
Signal Power
• The size of a signal can be defined as the signal power, 𝑃𝑥 .
• Signal power is the time average of the signal energy, and is defined as:
𝑇
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
• This definition simplifies for a real-valued signal 𝑥 𝑡 to
𝑇
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
• The signal power 𝑃𝑥 is the time average (mean) of the signal magnitude squared,
that is, the mean-square value of 𝑥 𝑡 .
• The square root of 𝑃𝑥 is the familiar rms (root-mean-square) value of 𝑥 𝑡 .
Signal Power
• Example: Find 𝐸𝑥 and 𝑃𝑥 for 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡
Signal Power
• Example: Find 𝐸𝑥 and 𝑃𝑥 for 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡
Signal Power
• Example: Find 𝐸𝑥 and 𝑃𝑥 for 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑡
Signal Power
• Example: Find 𝐸𝑥 and 𝑃𝑥 for 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑡
• When 𝑥 𝑡 is periodic, 𝑥 𝑡 2 is also periodic. Hence, the power of
𝑥 𝑡 can be computed over one period as
𝑇0
1 2
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝑡
𝑇0 −𝑇0
2

A signal with finite energy and zero

A signal with finite power and infinite

1
• Therefore, the rms value of this signal is
3
Example
• Determine the power and the rms value of
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
Example
• Determine the power and the rms value of
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
Example
• Determine the power and the rms value of
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝐶2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜃2 , 𝜔1 ≠ 𝜔2
Example
• Determine the power and the rms value of
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝐶2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜃2 , 𝜔1 ≠ 𝜔2
Result
• If 𝑥 𝑡 = σ∞𝑛=1 𝐶𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 , assuming that none of the two sinusoids
have identical frequencies and 𝜔𝑛 ≠ 0, then
∞
1
𝑃𝑥 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛2
2
𝑛=1
If 𝑥 𝑡 also has a dc term, as ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛
𝑛=1
then ∞
1
𝑃𝑥 = 𝐶02 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛2
2
𝑛=1
Result
• Determine the power and rms value of 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐷𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
Result
• Determine the power and rms value of 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐷𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
• Solution:
• In this case the signal is complex, and to compute the power
𝑇
1 2 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim න 𝐷𝑒 0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 2
• Recall that 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 1 so that 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷 2

• ⇒ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝐷 2
• And the rms is 𝐷
Useful Signal Operations
• Time shifting: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0
Example
• An exponential function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 shown below is delayed by 1
second. Sketch and mathematically describe the delayed function.
Repeat the problem with 𝑥 𝑡 advanced by 1 second.
−2𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ𝑒 𝑡≥0
0 𝑡<0
Example
• An exponential function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 shown below is delayed by 1
second. Sketch and mathematically describe the delayed function.
Repeat the problem with 𝑥 𝑡 advanced by 1 second.
−2𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ𝑒 𝑡≥0
0 𝑡<0
Example
• An exponential function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 shown below is delayed by 1
second. Sketch and mathematically describe the delayed function.
Repeat the problem with 𝑥 𝑡 advanced by 1 second.
−2𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ𝑒 𝑡≥0
0 𝑡<0
Time scaling: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
• If 𝑎 > 1 ⇒ Compression. The signal is compressed or sped up. E.g.
𝑥 2𝑡
• If 𝑎 < 1 ⇒ Expansion. The signal is expanded or slowed down. E.g.
𝑥 𝑡Τ2
Time scaling: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
• Given the signal 𝑥 𝑡 , sketch and describe mathematically this signal
time-compressed by factor 3. Repeat if the signal is time-expanded by
factor 2.
Time scaling: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
• Given the signal 𝑥 𝑡 , sketch and describe mathematically this signal
time-compressed by factor 3. Repeat if the signal is time-expanded by
factor 2.
Time scaling: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
• Given the signal 𝑥 𝑡 , sketch and describe mathematically this signal
time-compressed by factor 3. Repeat if the signal is time-expanded by
factor 2.
Time Reversal (Inversion): 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
• 𝑥 −𝑡 is a reflected version of 𝑥 𝑡 about the vertical axis.
• The time-reversed signal 𝑥 −𝑡 is the mirror image of 𝑥 𝑡
Time Reversal (Inversion): 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
• For the signal 𝑥 𝑡 illustrated below, sketch 𝑥 −𝑡 , which is time-
reversed 𝑥 𝑡
Time Reversal (Inversion): 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
• For the signal 𝑥 𝑡 illustrated below, sketch 𝑥 −𝑡 , which is time-
reversed 𝑥 𝑡