organisms and Populations ify ofthe interreationships between living organisms and their physical (nonliving) environment is called se sia s eal basically concemed with four levels of biological organisation — organisms, populations, communities In this chapter we explore ecology at population levels. es at various levels of biological organisation communities, ecosystems and biomes. peoloey sabi ve can try (0 understand its complexity by investigating processee ‘oxramolecules, cells, tissues, organs, individual organisms, population, 44.1 POPULATION -population is a group of individuals living in a well defined geographical area share or compete for similar resources and are potentially interbreeds”. EX: All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest tract, bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in a pond, Population Attributes Birth rate and death rate refers to per capita births and deaths respectively. Another attribute is sex ratio, it is the ratio between males female in‘a population. If the age distribution is plotted for a population the resulting structure is called age pyramid, The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population like growing, stable or declining. The population size is more technically called as population density. Methods for measurement of population density 1) Counting the number 2) Percent cover 3) Biomass 4) Pug marks and fecal pellets for tiger census Population growth > The sizeof the population changes depending on availabilty of food, predation pressure and reduce weather. Population size fluctuated due to changes in four basic processes contribute an increase in population density and two (mortality an v <, ea of which (Natality and Immigration) ton desi gration) to a decrease. Natty; namber of bith in gven prod nthe PoDUsion that ar aed to thet eng initial density. > Mortality: number of deaths in the population in a given perigg of time, m Immigratior n a | during a given period of time. into the habitat from elsewhere et eS—— 192, who left the habitat and of the polation 89m others dyig ea then its density at time t + 1 is: Nate +{B+)-O+P) Growth models Exponential growth (‘S’ shape curve is obtained) resources are not limiting the growth. (Unlimited resource) Growth is not so realistic. . > If in a population of size N, the birth rates (not total number i tox per capita bins) are represented as b and death rates j (eqain, per capita death rates) as d, then the increase or | decrease in N during a unit time period t (dN/dt) will be ye Population dens — 4 NG =(b-d)7N io ime (D Le (e-4)=r, then Verhulst- sti oa fethulst-Pearl Logistic growth curve Th is ion i “intrinsic i the 1 in this equation is called the ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’ and is a very important parameter chose? for assessing impacts of any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth. — 2 Class Bark of Bciogy-2ea , ; a8 pe exponsntial or geometric growth pattem ofa population and results in a J-shaped seribes -shape Ni relation (0 time. you can derive the integral form of the exponential grovth equati we sah basic calculus, “ ar with basic O° Og sail Noe’. tion a density at time ZEr0- rate of natural inerease. cof natural logarithms (2.71828). . exponentially under untimited resource conditions can reach enormous population densities in invisie er co the base re gies grow oat Growth (Sigmoid curve is the Growth, (Limited resource) , obtained) Logistic 5 reersources ar iting vc for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting. > Rewurt + Thelogte growth model is a more realistic one. i; cae, a given babitat has enough resources to support @ maximum posible number, beyond which no Eee qrowth is possible, Let us call this limit as nature's carrying capacity (K) for that species in that habitat. > A population growing jeevlention and deceleration and finally an asymptote, wh: capacity. [A plotof Nin relation to time (t) results in a sigmoid curve. ‘is ype of population growth is called Verhulst-Peatl Logistic Growth and is described by the following in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed by phases of en the population density reaches the carrying eqostion: Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth is described by the following equations . A a sf] 3 g Star £ 3 Where N = Population density at time t. Ibuinsic rate of natural increase. K = Canying capacity. Sisce resources for growth for most animal populations hogistic erowth model is considered a more realistic ome (high # valve) efficent epestctive strategy, Ufe History Variation *) Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness. ' ) Under a particular set of selection pressures, organisms evol®® towards the es ®) Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific st" fish, bar — Sing ther lifetime (most birds and mammal “ ar. Time are finite an Become Hing Sooner or Inter, the inthe babitat in whic they live, ) while others breed many timesSees ee ge eee dems an ¢) Some produce nies 2 large number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes) while OBETS POSS 8 sry a : ‘arge-sized offspring (birds, mammals). ae ? a suggest thet life history waits of organisms bave evolved in relation 19 constraints imposed by q. ic and biotic components of the habitat in which they live- £) Evolution of life history traits in different species is currently 2 important ecologists Population interactions a) In nature, animals, plants and mi ee a oe yt be readil; bby Even in minimal communities, any interac inkages exist. althoush pases ag yap Interspecific interactions arise from he interaction of populations of wo Pare, detriment vec harm nor benefit) © OOF of the species or tog Pe action detrimental and 0 FOr neutral interaction, let us look ¢) They could be seal inseraction, °~” sigh fOr n fi fe ‘ons in the following table Assigning a ‘+ ; ai ake possible outcomes ofinterspecie interact : ‘Species A | Species B [Name of Interaction | { Mutualism ‘area of research being conducted, saxon but interac 2 VIOUS YS fa and cannot live in ise! jeutral_ (neiths | | Predation | To _| Amensalism 1. Predation: “Organism of higher trophic evel (predator) feeds on organism of lower trophic level (pry) is called the predation. ven the herbivores are also predators as they feed on grass. Predator acts as a passage for transfer o + Predators keep prey populations under control. Exotic species have no natural predator hence they er ‘Australia created problem). energy across trophic level. ow very rapidly. (Prickly pear cactus introduced ing species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of species. (Pisaster starfish field experiment). Extra > Predators also help in maintain ‘competition among competing prey Pisaster starfish field experiment: Pisaster is in i i eee ea eee creo Pisastris considered as an important indicator for the heatthof + medal zone. jong the pacific coast from Alaska to southern california in " Pisaster is an important predator Rae Wr and key stone species, in the rockey intertidal community of America? A Class Book of Biology - 2196 yo apefiment when all the starfish were removed from an enclose eld a an 10! intertidal area, more than fe nvertcbrates became extinct within a year, ‘ because of their interspecific competition. This ca inate of pisaster larfish, | * ws species: Plant or animal species that plays an unique and crucial role in the way an ecosyst i we i dy, ions Ca “ty, suance of predator in an ecosystem, e pedstor keeps prey populations under control, a sy bir aes 8a passage for transfer of energy across trophic level, app, y ods also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition “teu | * ag competing prey species, or ease developed by prey against predators Us. Hook J 4) nAnimals nous Weed during caterpillar stage. ») InPlants ') Thorns in Acacia, Cactus are morphological means of defense. 2) Many plants produce and store Aigestion disrupt reproduction, even kill the predators, 3) Calotropis produces poisonous eardiae glycosides against herbivores. 4) ‘Nicotine, cafeine, quinine, strychnine, opium et. are produced by plant Actually as defenses against the re): grazers and browsers. Competition ivore sick if eaten, inhibit feeding, “Struggling by the organisms for the same resources like food, shelter and seo > is called competition”, > Intraspecific competition: If the com petition between two organisms belongs to same species ig called intraspecific competition. duel? | > Interspecitic competition: Ifthe competition between organisms belongs (0 ifr species i etoy interspecific competition. Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution, sity Ex: American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes have their common food, 200planktons, Even resources need not be limiting for competition to occur. Ex: Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after BOatS Were introduced on the island, due to greater browsing ability. , bof ® Competitive Release: A species, whose distribution is restricted toa small Ee0EEREA area because gp : z i yand its: range dr; " in the the presence of a competitively superior species, is fond to expe matically ( When the competing species is experimentally remove ee 0 * Connets fed experiment showed that superior bate (ype of Arthropod #8 dominate ng a intertidal area and excludes the smaller bamacle Chathamalus from 227 | AGiass Book of Biogy “2 M2136 + Gause’s Competitive Exclusion Principle’: Two closely related species cxmpenne oF #86 enn, : cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior willbe eliminated evens 4 Resource Partitioning: If two species compete for the sare resouree, they emule OE Sin choosing, for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging pate 4 MacArthur showed five closely related specie of watler (Perching Bir) EP was able to avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioral di 3. Parasitism “ft is an association between two organisms in which one organism is which is harmed is called host. % Parasitic mode of life ensures free lodging and meals. penefited called parasite MOSS Crp pont in suck 2 wey teat es hone a Ps Some parasites are host-specific (one parasite has 2 single to co-evolve. Parasitic adaptation 2) Loss of unnecessary sense organs. b) Presence of adhesive organs or suckers 10 c) Loss of digestive system. 4). ‘High reproductive capacity ©) Parasites having one or more intermediate hast or vectors © facili )_ Liver fluke has two intermediate hosts (snail and & fish) to complete its live cycle fing on to the: ‘host inate paresitisation of fs primary best, Effects on the host 1). Parasite always harms the host, b) They reduce the survival, growth ‘e) Reduce its population density. a ‘They make the host more vulnerable tothe predators, by making ft physically weak- etoparasites: They feed on the external surface of the host. > Lice on human > Ticks on dog > Marine fish infested with copepods > Cuseuta a parasitic plant grov on hedge plants. Endoparasites: They live inside the host body at different sites. > Life cycle is more complex. > Morphological and anatomical features are greatly siriplified. > Highly developed reproductive systern : Brood parasitism: Special type of parasitism found in birds. > The parasitic birds lay its eggs in the nest of its host and let the host incubate them. > ‘The egg of the host is very similar with the egg of the host, % Cuckoo lays eggs in the nest of the crow, 4, Commensalism: “This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited 2° and reproduction of the host. A Class Brak of Biology - 2ninco 5) nil eon wa py» wm ch tw ns ig vont sen evo, ibaa on bate af wras a & sate Vet and proZine, centile, teraction botyrven (1 ving ongsnisnn, both ae uta | ually benesited, ner one bs burned, 4p Medien It js an assucintion betvicen Phycabiont (alys component and Mycobiont Gunga mn jy Mycorrbbzas H's elutionship hotween Sung and root of higher plant, amnpaneal) (Polat insets ani oer pnts ay Hig trees and its pollinating agent wap Mutualla fon method of population Interaction Jens represent clone relationship hetvveen 1 fungus sn op , 7 tient abortion of vii at Si Eatin CaeT Te Gad eee help the The yonizae are thease boven Fung oni the: rats ger plant Ne Sng el Monon of sential nuients fons the wil hile Une plan provi aaa vides the: funy with Panta and postinathyg agents: Plants provide nectar and pollen for pollinating, spent Whe: bid nia in turn these ayents pollinate the flowers of plants a ileaieadan y Plante and sced dispersing agentes Animals disperse the weeds of rm , c wks of plants, Plants provide julvy and nutrition fruits for seed dinperners, eave JPY ee vA guticuar species of Sy Aree is pollinate by a pecies of Wasp only. ‘The wasp pointes the Palorencenee while wcarching for sitable sites for oviponition Ceyy-laying), Hv turn, the Si movides the raxp none of its developing needs ws food for the developing, anp larvae, a mm 6. Amenwalivm + Ih in an internetion between two different species in which one species i i one species is harmed while the i benefited nor harined. een ane ne % A-common example for Amesalism in the release of chemical toxins by pl ra w cal toxins by plants that ca it the prow of other plant specien, y it can inhibit the growth 7. Sexual deceit: (deceit = the action or practice of deceh 7 deceiving some one by conceali lave preserl truth) Me \e by concealing, oF mivrepreventing the } Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘vexual decelt’ Petal of the flower rexembles the female bee, } ‘The male bee attracted to what jt perceives a sles ; any beni perceives ay a fernale, ‘pucudocopulates’ with the flower but does not yet ixtrs [Allelopathy: The secretion by plants of chemic . 1 te rots os reproduction of eter plan seperti es and terpenoid compounds that inhibit H ane plants produce chemi ele are Canoe Hxample: vals that are toni are toxic to grazing herbivorous animals.