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Chapter Four
Angle Modulation
4.1 Introduction
In the Am systems described in chapter 2&3, the modulator output consists of a
carrier which displayed variations in its amplitude. In this chapter we discuss
modulation systems in which the modulator output is of constant amplitude and in
which the signal information is superimposed on the carrier through variations of
the carrier frequency.
All the modulation schemes considered up to now have two principal features in
common.
1. Each spectral components of the baseband signal gives rise to one or two
spectral components in the modulated signal. The amplitudes of the spectral
components of the modulator output may depend on the amplitudes of the
input signal; however, the frequencies of the spectral components do not.
2. All operations performed on the signal (+, -, x) are linear operations so that
superposition applies.
Angle modulation is a type of modulation which is not characterized by the
features described above .i.e.
(a) The spectral components in the modulated waveform depend on the
amplitude as well as the frequency of the spectral components in the
baseband signal
(b) The modulation system is not linear and superposition does not apply.
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Let () denote the angle of a modulated signal, assumed to be a function of the
message signal. We express the resulting angle-modulated wave as
() = ( ()) (4.1)
Where is the carrier amplitude.
4.2 Phase and Frequency Modulation
4.1.1 Phase Modulation (PM)
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of angle-modulation in which the angle () is
varied linearly with the message signal m(t), i.e.
() = 2 + () (4.2)
The term 2 represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier and the constant
represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in radians per volt
on the assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.
The Phase-Modulated (PM) signal v(t) is thus described by
() = 2 + () (4.3)
4.1.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation (FM) is a form of angle-modulation in which the frequency
f(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) ,i.e.
() = + () (4.4)
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The term represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier and the constant
represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in Herz per
volt on the assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.
Integrating Equation (4.4) with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2, we
get
() = 2 + 2 ( ) (4.5)
The Frequency-Modulated (FM) signal is therefore described by
() = cos $2 + 2 ( ) % (4.6)
Comparing Equation (4.3) & (4.6) reveals that an FM signal may be regarded as a PM
signal in which the modulating wave is ' ( ) in place of m(t).This means that an
FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then using the result as
the input to a phase modulator, as shown in figure 4.1a. Conversely, a PM signal can
be generated by first differentiating m(t) and then using the result as the input
to a frequency modulator, as in figure4.1b.we can thus deduce all the properties of
PM signals from those of FM signals and vice versa. Hence, we concentrate our
attention on FM signals.
The FM signal v(t) defined in Equation(4.6) is a nonlinear function of the
modulating signal m(t), which makes frequency modulation a nonlinear modulation
process. Consequently, unlike, amplitude modulation, the spectrum of an FM signals
is not related in a simple manner to that of the modulating signal; rather, its
analysis is much more difficult than that of an AM signal.
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Figure 4.1 Illustrating the relationsh
relationship
ip between phase and frequency modulation
How then can we tackle the spectral analysis of an FM signal? We propose to
provide an empirical answer to this important quest ion by proceeding in the
question
following manner.
We consider the simplest case possible, namely, that of a single-tone
single
modulation that produces a narrowband FM signal.
We next consider the more general case involving a single
single-tone
tone modulation,
but this time the FM signal is wideband.
Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal defined by
() = - cos(2- ) 4.7
The frequency of the resulting FM signal equals
() = + - cos(2- ) 4.8
= + ∆ cos(2- ) 4.9
Where ∆) = *) +,
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The quantity ∆) is called the frequency deviation representing the maximum
departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier .
A fundamental characteristic of an FM signal is that the frequency deviation ∆) is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is independent of the
modulation frequency.
Using Equation (4.8), the angle of the FM signal is obtained as
= 2
∆
= 2 + sin2- (4.10)
-
The ratio of the frequency deviation ∆) to the modulation frequency ), is
commonly called the modulation index of the FM signal. We denote it by 4, and so
write
∆
4= (4.11)
-
And
() = 2 + 4 sin(2- ) (4.12)
From Equation (4.12) we see that, in a physical sense, the parameter 5 represents
the phase deviation of the FM signal, that is, the maximum departure of the angle
() from the angle 2 of the unmodulated carrier, hence, 4 is measured in
radians.
The FM signal itself is given by
() = cos62 + 4 sin(2- )7 (4.13)
Depending on the value of the modulation index 4, we may distinguish two cases of
frequency modulation:
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(a) Narrowband FM, for which 4 is small compare to one radian (4 ≪ 1).
(b) Wideband FM, for which 4 is large compared to one radian( 4 ≫ 1).
Example: An Angle-modulated signal with angular frequency : = 2 × 10< is
described by the Equation
() = 10cos (: + 5 =>3000 + 10 =>2000)
Find
a) The power of the modulated signal
b) The phase deviation
c) The frequency deviation ∆
d) The modulation index
Solution:
a) The modulated signal amplitude is 10, and the power is
10@
?= = 50
2
b) The angle () = : + (5 =>3000 + 10 =>2000). The phase deviation is the
maximum value of the angle inside the parentheses, and is given by ∆A = 5 +
10 = 15BC .
c) To find the frequency deviation ∆, first we find angular frequency : and
then divide by 2 as follows:
:() = , () = : + (5 =>3000 + 10 =>2000)
:() = 2() = 2 × 10< + 15,000 3000 + 20,000 2000
EF, GGG
() = 10< + JKLMGGGN + EG, GGGJKLHGGGIN)
HI
The maximum frequency deviation occur when the two sinusoids will add in
O<,
phase at some point, and its value is ∆ = @P
+ 10,000 = 12,387.32Hz
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d) The signal bandwidth is the highest frequency in m(t). in this case S =
1000TU
∆ 12,387.32
4= = = 12.387
S 1000
4.3 Narrowband Frequency Modulations (NBFM)
Consider Eq(4.13), which defines an FM signal resulting from the use of a sinusoidal
modulating signal. Expanding this relation, we get
() = cos(2 ) cos64 sin(2- )7 − sin(2 ) =>64 sin(2- )7 (4.14)
Assuming that the modulating index 4 is small compared to one radian, we may use
the following approximations:
cos64 sin(2- )7 ≈ 1
And
=>64 sin(2- )7 ≈ 4 sin(2- )
Hence, Equation (4.14) simplifies to
() = cos(2 ) − 4 sin(2 ) sin(2- ) (4.15)
Equation (4.15) defines the approximate form of a narrowband FM signal produced
by a sinusoidal modulating signal - cos(2- ). From this representation we
deduce the modulator shown in block diagram form in fig 4.2.
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Figure 4.2 Block diagram of a method for generating a narrowband FM signal
This modulator involves splitting the carrier wave cos(2 ) into two paths. One
path is direct; the other path contains a -90 degree phase-shifting
shifting network and a
product modulator, the combination of whi
which generates a DSB-SC
SC modulated signal.
The difference b/n these two signals produces a NBFM signal, but with some
distortion.
Returning to Eq (4.15) ,we may eapand it as follows:
4
() = cos(2 )) + Xcos62( + - )7 − cos62( − - ))77YY 4.16
2
This expression is somewhat similar to the corresponding one defining an AM
signal, which is as follows:
() = cos(2 )) + Xcos62( + - )7 + cos62( − - )77YY 4.17
2
Where m is the modulation index of the AM signal. Comparing Eq (4.16)&(4.17), we
see that in the case of sinusoidal mod
modulation, b/ an AM signal
ulation, the basic difference b/n
and NBFM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the
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NBFM is reversed. Thus, a NBFM signal requires essentially the same transmission
bandwidth (i.e., 2- ) as the AM signal.
4.4 Wideband Frequency Modulations (WBFM)
Next, we determine the spectrum of the single –tone FM signal of Eq(4.13) for an
arbitrary value of the modulation index 5 .In general, an FM signal produced by a
sinusoidal modulating signal,as Eq(4.13) , is in itself nonperiodic unless the carrier
is an integral multiple of the modulation frequency - .
After a long mathematical derivation (see the derivation, Haykin book, page 113-
117,4th edition). For arbitrary value of the modulation index 4, we have
\]∞
() = Z [\ (4) 62( + >- )7 (4.18)
\]^∞
Where [\ (4) is the nth order Bessel function of the first kind which is defined as
1 b
[\ (4) = _`?6a(4 =>` − >`)7 ` (4.19)
2 ^b
Eq(4.18) is the desired form for the Fourier series representation of the single-
tone FM signal v(t) for arbitrary value of 4.The discrete spectrum of v(t) is
obtained by taking the Fourier transforms of both sides of Eq(4.18); we thus have
\]∞
() = Z [\ (4) 6c( − − >- ) + c( + + >- )7 (4.20)
2
\]^∞
Figure 4.3 shows the plot of Bessel function [\ (4) versus the modulation index 4
for different +ve integer values of n.
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Figure 4.3 Bessel functions of the first kind for varying order
4.5.1 Transmission Bandwidth of WBFM
FM signals
In theory, an FM signal contains an infinite number of side frequencies so that
the bandwidth required to transmit such a signal is similarly infinite in extent.
extent In
practice, however, we find that the FM signal is effectively limited
ited to a finite
number of significant side frequencies compatible with a specified amount of
distortion. We may therefore specify an effective bandwidth required for the
transmission of an FM signal.
Consider first the case of an FM signal generated by a single-tone
tone modulating
wave of frequency - . In such an FM signal, the side frequencies that are
a
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separated from the carrier frequency by an amount greater than the frequency
deviation ∆ decrease rapidly towards zero, so that the bandwidth always exceeds
the total frequency excursion, but nevertheless is limited.
Consider the case when the amplitude of the modulating signals is fixed; that is,
the frequency deviation ∆is maintained constant, and the modulation frequency -
is varied. In this case we find the amplitude spectrum of the resulting FM signal is
as shown plotted in Fig 4.4 for 4 = 1,2, C> 5. We see that when ∆ is fixed and 4 is
increased, we have an increasing number of spectral lines crowding into the fixed
frequency interval − ∆ <|| < + ∆. That is, when 5 approaches infinity, the
bandwidth of the FM wave approaches the limiting value of H∆).
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Figure 4.4 Discrete amplitude spectra of an FM signal
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Note that
• For large value of the modulation index 4, the bandwidth approaches, and is
only slightly greater than, the total frequency excursion H∆).
• For small value of the modulation index 4, the spectrum of the FM signal is
effectively limited to the carrier frequency and one pair of side
frequencies at ± - , so that the bandwidth approaches H), .
We may thus define an approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM
signal generated by a single- tone modulating signal of frequency - as follows:
1
gh ≅ 2∆ + 2- = 2∆ j1 + k (4.21)
4
This empirical relation is known as Carson’s rule.
4.5.2 Generation of WBFM Signal
There are two distinct methods of generating WBFM signals:
(a) Direct FM
In this method the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
input baseband signal, which is readily accomplished using a voltage-controlled
oscillator.
(b) Indirect FM.
In the indirect method, the modulating signal is first used to produce a NBFM
signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency
deviation to the desired level.
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A simplified block diagram of an indirect FM system is shown in figure 4.5.
4.5 The
message signal m(t) is first integrated and then used to phase
phase-modulate
modulate a
crystal-controlled oscillator; the use of crystal control provides frequency
stability. To minimize the distortion inherent in the phase modulator, the
maximum phase deviation or modulation index 4 is kept small thereby resulting
in NBFM signal. The NBFM signal is next mul
multiplied
tiplied in frequency by means of a
frequency multiplier so as to produce the desired WBFM signal. The frequency
multiplier consists of a nonlinear device followed by a band-pass
pass filter.
Figure 4.5 Block diagram of indirect method of generating a WBFM signal.
s
4.5 Demodulation of FM Signals
Frequency demodulation is the process that enables us to recover the original
modulating signal from a frequency
frequency-modulated
modulated signal. The objective is to produce a
transfer characteristic that is the inverse of that of the frequency modulator
which can be realized the following two methods:
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(a) Frequency –discriminator:
discriminator:- is a direct method whose instantaneous output
amplitude is directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the
input FM signal. We may model the ffrequency
requency discriminator as a pair of a
slope circuits with their complex transfer functions, followed by envelope
detectors and finally
nally a summer, as in Figure 4.6
4.6. This
his scheme is called a
balanced frequency discriminator
discriminator.
Reading Assignment: See the detail mathematical analysis of this
121-124,4th edition.
demodulator in Simon Haykin book page 121
Figure 4.6
6 Block diagram of frequency discriminator
(b) Phase-Locked Loop (PLL):
(PLL):- is an indirect method which is consists of three
major components: multiplier, a loop filter and a voltage-
voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO) connected together in the form of a feedback
feedbac system, as
shown in Figure 4.7.. The VCO is a sinusoidal generator whose frequency is
determined by a voltage applied to it from an external source. In effect, any
frequency modulator may serve as VCO.
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Figure 4.7 Phase-locked loop
4.6 FM Stereo Multiplexing
Stereo multiplexing is a form of frequency
frequency-division
division multiplexing (FDM) designed to
transmit two separate signals via the same carrier.. It is widely used in FM
F radio
broadcasting to send two different elements of a program (e.g., two different
sections of an orchestra,, a vocalist and an accompanist) so
o as to give a spatial
dimension to its perception by a listener at the receiving end.
The specification of
f standards for FM stereo transmission is influenced by two
factors:
1. The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM broadcast channels.
2. It has to be compatible
ble with monophonic radio receivers.
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Figure 4.8 (a) Multiplexer in transmitter of FM ster
stereo
eo (b) Demultiplexer in
receiver of FM stereo
Figure 4.8 shows the block diagram of the multiplexing system used in an FM
stereo transmitter. Let l (() and m () denote the signals picked up by left-hand
and right- hand microphones at the transmitting
mitting end of the system. They are
applied to a simple matrixer that generates the sum signal, l (()) + m (), and the
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difference signal, l () − m (). The sum signal is left unprocessed in its baseband
form; it is available for monophonic reception. The difference signal and a 38-kHz
subcarrier (derived from a 19-kHz crystal oscillator by frequency doubling) are
applied to a product modulator, thereby producing a DSB-SC modulated wave, the
multiplexed signal m(t) also includes a 19-kHz pilot to provides a reference for
the coherent detection of the difference signal at the stereo receiver. Thus the
multiplexed signal is described by
() = 6l () + m ()7 + 6l () − m ()7 cos(4 ) + cos(2 ) (4.22)
Where = 19TU , and k is the amplitude of the pilot tone. The multiplexed signal
m(t) then frequency- modulates the main carrier to produce the transmitted signal.
The pilot is allotted b/n 8 and 10 percent of the peak frequency deviation; the
amplitude k in Eq(4.21) is chosen to satisfy this requirement.
At a stereo receiver, the multiplexed signal m(t) is recovered by frequency
demodulating the incoming FM waves. Then m(t) is applied to the demultiplexing
system shown in fig 4.7b. The individual components of the multiplexed m(t) are
separated by the use of three appropriate filters.
4.7 The Super heterodyne Receiver
In a broadcasting system, irrespective of whether it is based on AM or FM the
receiver not only has the task of demodulating the incoming modulated signal,
but it is also required to perform other system functions:
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Carrier-frequency
frequency tuning
tuning,, the purpose of which is to select the desired
signal (i.e., desired radio or TV station)
Filtering, which is required to sep
separate
arate the desired signal from other
modulated signals that may be picked up along the way
Amplification, which is intended to compensate for the loss of signal power
incurred in the course of transmission.
The superheterodyne receiver is a special type of receiver that fulfills all
three functions, particularly the first two in simple and practical fashion.
Basically, the receiver consists of two sections:
1. Radio-Frequency(RF)
Frequency(RF) –mixer and local oscillator
2. Intermediate-Frequency(IF)
Frequency(IF)-demodulator and amplifier
Figure 4.9 Basic elements of an AM radio receiver of the superheterodyne type
Fig 4.9 shows the block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver for AM using an
envelope detector for demodulation. The incoming AM wave is picked up by the
receiving antenna and amplified in the RF section that is tuned to the carrier
frequency of the incoming wave. The combination of mixer and local oscillator
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provides a heterodyning function, whereby the incoming signal is converted to a
predetermined fixed intermediate frequency, usually lower than the incoming
carrier frequency. The result of the heterodyning is to produce an intermediate-
Frequency carrier defined by
no = pq − ro (4.23)
Where pq : the frequency of the local oscillator
ro : the carrier frequency of the incoming RF signal
We refer to no as the intermediate frequency (IF), because the signal is neither
at the original input frequency nor at the final baseband frequency. The mixer-
local oscillator combination is sometimes referred to as the first detector, in
which case the demodulator is called the second detector.
The output of the IF section is applied to a demodulator, the purpose of which is
to recover the baseband signal. If coherent detection is used, then a coherent
signal source must be provided in the receiver. The final operation in the receiver
is the power amplification of the recovered message signal. The basic difference
b/n AM and FM superheterodyne receivers lies in the use of an FM demodulator
such as a limit-frequency discriminator.
Typical frequency parameters of commercial AM and FM radio receivers are listed
in Table4.1
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Table 4.1 Frequency parameters of AM and FM radio receivers
NB
• Both FM and PM are closely related to one another. The FM signal is a
nonlinear function of the modulating signal m(t), which makes frequency
modulation a non linear process. Consequently, unlike amplitude modulation,
the spectrum of an FM signal is not related in simple manner to that of
the modulating signal; rather, its analysis is much more difficult than that
of an AM signal.
• A major problem in AM is its susceptibility to noise superimposed on the
modulated carrier signal. FM is much more immune to noise than its AM
counterpart. Since FM is generally superior in performance to AM, it is
widely used in many areas of communications electronics.
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