CHAPTER TWO

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Before general arrangement drawing of a new design can put on paper, a choice
will hope to be made as to the relative location of the main components of
airframe (wing, fuselage, tail unit and undercarriage). Figure (2.1) show aircraft
configurations.

Figure (2.1): Aircraft configurations.

2.2 WING LOCATION

The vertical location of the wing relative to the fuselage must be considered
first, because its very large extent determined by operational requirements.

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1. Low wing
a. Provide better security in case of accidents.
b. Allow to use short landing gear.
c. Easy of mounting engine.
d. Less aerodynamic properties than other.

Figure (2.2): low wing.

2. Mid wing
a. Are suitable for some military airplane.
b. Less lifting forces as compared with high wing.
c. Drag increase with Mach number.

Figure (2.3): Mid wing.

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3. High wing
a. Produce high lift forces.
b. Fuselage at low height, which permit easy passenger and cargo handling.
c. Provide better ground clearance for mounting engine in wing.
d. Less security in accident case.
e. Long struts for landing gear.

Figure (2.4): High wing

4. Rotorcraft
The aerodynamics of rotary-wing aircraft are, by nature, more complex than the
aerodynamics of fixed-wing aircraft.

Figure (2.5): Rotorcraft

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2.3 TAIL ARRANGEMENT
The design of the tail surfaces probably depends more on the general
arrangement and detail layout of the airplane than any other major part, due to:
1. The tail location.
2. The tail effectiveness is influenced by the wing and the engines operation.
In general, the tail unit consists of the two units, horizontal tail unit and vertical
tail unit. Horizontal tail unit consists of horizontal stabilizer and elevator.
Vertical tail unit consists of vertical stabilizer and rudder. the tail unit, be
classified into three group as shown in figure (2.6).

Figure (2.6): Tail arrangement.

1. Group A: single fin with the stabilizer mounted either on the fuselage or on
the fin. Its simple structural and stiffness.
2. Group B: large height of fin will cause a rolling moment due to rudder
deflection due to large distance of fin aerodynamic center from longitudinal
axis of the airplane. Thus, use twin fin to minimize this effect.

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3. Group C: the v- or butterfly tail is often adopted for sailplanes, the moving
surfaces have to serve both rudder (differential deflection) and as elevators
(simultaneous deflection), which leads to a complication in the control
system design.
The horizontal tail ensures longitudinal stability and controllability. While
the vertical tail is intended to ensure route stability and controllability. The
lateral stability is ensuring by the ailerons.

2.4 HOW TO DESIGN A TAIL PLANE

All things considered; an airplane needs a wing: most aircraft cannot fly
without one. Engines come later: push comes to shove; you can always glide.
The functions of a tail plane are to stabilize the aircraft and allow the pilot to
control it, with a minimum weight and drag penalty.
The requirements for stability and control can be stated in various ways, but we
assume that we are given some combination of a minimum value of static
stability margin (Kn), and a forward center of gravity limit, or center of gravity
range, the distance between the forward and aft limits. The desire for minimum
weight is an obvious one for any part of an aircraft, and can be restated as
wanting the smallest tail plane area we can get away with. The minimum drag
requirement comes from the problem of trim drag. As you should know,
generating lift inevitably means generating drag. Given that a conventional tail
plane mostly generates negative lift, in order to generate a nose-up pitching
moment, there is a double drag penalty: the drag generated by the tail plane
itself, and the extra drag on the wing which has to produce a lift greater than
the aircraft weight to compensate for the down force on the tail. Minimizing
the tail plane area minimizes the drag and weight penalty.

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Basic tail plane sizing
Since the pitching moment equation can be written as
̅T
Cm = Cmo + CLw (h − ho ) − CLT V
For static stability dCm /dCL < 0 or,
approximately, dCm /dCLw < 0, then
dCm dC
̅T LT
= (h − h𝑜 ) − V (𝑖)
dCL𝑊 dCLw
Where
𝑆𝑇 𝑙 𝑇
̅T =
V is the tail volume parameter
𝑆𝐶̿
The tail plane control surface, and the tab deflection shown in figure (2.7). The
deflection η is measured from the zero-lift line of the tail plane and β from the
elevator reference line. As noted, we deal in linear aerodynamics.

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 Figure (2.7): The elevator and tab deflection.
The downwash effect of the wing deflects the free stream flow seen by the tail
plane by an angle ε. Total angle of attack of tail
𝛼𝑇 = 𝛼 − 𝜀 + 𝜂𝑇
The total tail plane lift coefficient on the tail plane is given by:
CLT =α0 + a1αT + a2η + a3β where

Where: 𝛼 𝑇 is the tail plane incidence, which is not the same as the aircraft
incidence. The deflection η is set by the pilot’s moving the control, and likewise
the tab angle β. On many aircraft, the pilot may also have control of 𝛼 𝑇 if the
aircraft has an all-moving tail plane.
For small disturbances the downwash angle is a linear function of wing
incidence α:

Wing lift is also a linear function of α:

𝐶𝐿𝑊
𝐶𝐿𝑊 = 𝑎𝛼 𝑜𝑟 ∝=
𝑎
So that, substitute two equations in the equation of tail angle get:

So, the tail lift coefficient can then be written as:

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 𝑎1 𝑑𝜀
𝐶𝐿𝑇 = 𝐶𝐿𝑊 (1 − ) + 𝑎1 𝜂 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽
𝑎 𝑑𝛼
And the derivative of the pitching moment coefficient becomes, since ηT is a
constant
𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝑎1 𝑑𝜀 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
= (ℎ − ℎ𝑜 ) − 𝑉̅𝑇 ( (1 − ) + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 ) (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝑎 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊
The most basic design requirement is to size a tail plane for a given minimum
static stability margin Kn, and center of gravity range
∆h = haft - hfwd. So,
𝑎 𝑑𝜀
𝐾𝑛 = (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 ) + 𝑉̅𝑇 1 (1 − )
𝑎 𝑑𝛼
𝑎1 𝑑𝜀
𝐶𝑚𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑚𝑜 − (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓𝑤𝑑 )𝐶𝐿𝑊 − 𝑉̅𝑇 (𝐶𝐿𝑊 (1 − 𝑑𝛼) + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽) = 0
𝑎

The first of these equations should be obvious: the aft limit on center of gravity
fixes the minimum stability margin. The second is a trim requirement based on
the pitching moment which can be generated by the tail plane. The maximum
moment is required when the center of gravity is at its forward limit. There is
also a limit on the elevator deflection to trim. The first limit is that the elevator
may not be deflected beyond some point fixed by aerodynamic considerations
such as stall.
The various control position and force gradients impose limits on the acceptable
range of travel of the vehicle center of gravity. These include (for most
vehicles). Another way to state this constraint is to impose a limit on C LT to
keep it well within its linear operating range, avoiding the risk of tail plane stall.
In any case, there will be a flight condition given in terms of C L and h. The
̅, hfwd, and haft. Given basic
three equations can then be combined to find V
information about the aircraft geometry, l, c, and S, the tail plane area S T can
̅.
be determined from V
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Example: A Hercules normally carries out a drop at a flight speed of 64.3 m/s.
Size the tail plane such that the minimum static margin, stick fixed, is never
less than 0.05, and so that the change in elevator angle to trim during drop of a
full payload is no more than 15°. Assume Δh = 0.5.

Solution:
∆h = haft - hfwd. We can write two equations
𝑎 𝑑𝜀
𝐾𝑛 = (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 ) + 𝑉̅𝑇 1 (1 − )
𝑎 𝑑𝛼

𝑆𝑇 𝑙 𝑇 𝑆𝑇 × 12.8
̅T =
V = = 0.01974𝑆𝑇
𝑆𝐶̿ 162.1 × 4
13.6
ℎ𝑜 = = 3.4
4
4.2
0.05 = (3.4 − ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 ) + 0.01974𝑆𝑇 (1 − 0.2)
5.8
ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 3.35 + 0.0114𝑆𝑇 (𝑖)
𝑎1 𝑑𝜀
𝐶𝑚𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑚𝑜 − (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓𝑤𝑑 )𝐶𝐿𝑊 − 𝑉̅𝑇 (𝐶𝐿𝑊 (1 − 𝑑𝛼 ) + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽)
𝑎

𝑎1 𝑑𝜀
(ℎ𝑓𝑤𝑑 − ℎ𝑜 )𝐶𝐿𝑊 = 𝑉̅𝑇 (𝐶𝐿𝑊 (1 − ) + 𝑎2 𝜂)
𝑎 𝑑𝛼
2𝑊 2 × 45000 × 9.81
𝐶𝐿𝑊 = = = 1.075
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 1.225 × (64.3)2 × 162.1
4.2
(ℎ𝑓𝑤𝑑 − 3.4) × 1.075 = 0.01974𝑆𝑇 (1.075 (0.8) + 2 × 15 ∗ 3.14/180)
5.8
ℎ𝑓𝑤𝑑 = 3.4 + 0.021𝑆𝑇 (𝑖𝑖)
Since Δh = 0.5
∴ 0.5 = 0.05 + 0.0096𝑆𝑇
𝑆𝑇 = 46.8 𝑚2

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Example: The aerodynamic center of a wing fuselage combination is 0.19C̅ .
if the center of gravity range is from 0.14C̅ to 0.24C̅, and the minimum
allowable static margin is 0.08C̅, find the ratio of tail area to wing area required
𝑙 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑇
at the forward and aft c.g. position when ̅
= 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.5
C 𝑑𝐶𝐿

Solution:
̅T dCLT /dCLw
dCm /dCL𝑊 = (h − h𝑜 ) − V
̅T dCLT /dCLw
K 𝑛 = h𝑜 − h + V
𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 3, ∴ 𝑙 = 3C̅
̅C
𝑆 𝑙 𝑆
̅T = 𝑇 = 3 × 𝑇
V
𝑆 𝐶̅ 𝑆
At forward c.g
𝑆𝑇
0.08𝐶̅ = 0.19𝐶̅ − 0.14𝐶̅ + 3 × × 0.5
𝑆
𝑆𝑇
= 0.02𝐶̅
𝑆
At aft c.g
𝑆𝑇
0.08𝐶̅ = 0.19𝐶̅ − 0.24𝐶̅ + 3 × × 0.5
𝑆
𝑆𝑇
= 0.0866𝐶̅
𝑆

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2.5 ARRANGEMENT OF THE UNDERCARRIAGE
Undercarriage or landing gears come in a variety of configurations, ranging
from simple metal skids, to a single wheel, to groups of many wheels. Any
landing gear needs to have its position on the aircraft specified, and if the gear
is retractable, it must have a retracted position that is different from its extended
position. The gear also must have a size—both its tire size and its strut length.
The basic purpose and requirements of the undercarriage are:

1. During the phase of takeoff and landing only the wheels should be in
contact with ground.
2. The inflation pressure of tires and configuration of the landing gear
should be chosen according to the capacity of the run way.
3. The landing gear should be able to absorb the normal landing impact and
passes good damping characteristics when taxiing over rough ground.
4. Braking should be efficient during cross wind landing and high-speed
taxiing.
5. Suitable structural elements should be provided in the airplane to serve
as attachment points for the landing gear and there should be sufficient
internal space for retraction.

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2.5.1 Type of undercarriage
1. Tricycle type
a. Tail wheel undercarriage:
The main advantageous and disadvantageous are:
1. Light and simple to design.
2. Easy attachment to the wings for main gear legs.
3. Used for low-speed airplane.
4. The risk of sliding reduces with brake applied due to the vertical force
on the main gear increase.
5. The braking force acting ahead of c.g that cause disstability when
airplane turns in advertent.
6. Braking not effects.
7. High drag force during the initial takeoff until the tail raised.

Figure (2.7): Tail wheel undercarriage

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b. Nose wheel undercarriage:
1. The braking force acts behind of c.g and has stabilized effect.
2. Higher landing speed.
3. Low drag during initial takeoff and short takeoff runs.
4. Heavy weight.
5. Difficult to keep the nose wheel in the fuselage.
6. Possibility of digging the nose wheel when move over soft ground.

Figure (2.8): Nose wheel undercarriage

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 2. Tandem undercarriage (Bicycle type)
1. They arranged of both main legs with c.g.
2. The wheels retracted inside the fuselage without abstracting the wing
structures.
3. The outer wheels increase weight by 10%
4. Touch down is difficult to maintain the outside proper.

Figure (2.9): Bicycle undercarriage type

2.5.2 Basic parameters of landing gear

The specified selection criterion, e.g., minimum size, weight, or pressure, are
used to select suitable tires, wheels, shock absorber, brake and legs from
manufacturer's catalog and industry standards.

1. Gear loading in taxiing

The choice of the main wheel tires is made on the basis of the static loading
case. The total main gear load is calculated assuming that the aircraft is taxiing
at low speed without braking:
𝑙𝑛
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑊
𝑙𝑚 +𝑙𝑛

where W is the weight of the aircraft and 𝑙𝑚 and 𝑙𝑛 are the distance measured
from the aircraft's center of gravity (cg) to the main and nose gear, respectively.

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The choice of the nose wheel tires is based on the nose wheel load during
braking at maximum effort:
𝑙𝑚 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑛 = (𝑊 − 𝐿) + ( 𝑊 − 𝐷 + 𝑇)
𝑙𝑚 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑚 +𝑙𝑛 𝑔

where L is the lift, D is the drag, T is the thrust, and ℎ𝑐𝑔 is the height of aircraft
𝑎𝑥
cg from the static groundline. Typical values for on dry concrete vary from
𝑔

0.35 for a simple brake system to 0.45 for an automatic brake pressure control
system. As both L and D are positive, the maximum nose gear load occurs at
low speed. Reverse thrust decreases the nose gear load, and hence the
condition T=0 results in the maximum value:

𝑙𝑚 + ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑛 = ( 𝑊)
𝑙𝑚 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑔

To ensure that the rated loads will not be exceeded in the static and braking
conditions, a seven percent safety factor is used in the calculation of the applied
loads.

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2. Shock absorber device
When the airplane touches the ground by wheel during landing its vertical
component velocity (Vy) in addition to landing velocity (Vland), in which the
landing velocity be gradually decrease at landing run. The vertical velocity
would be damped instantaneously, if no shock absorber device this will lead to
the vertical acceleration.

𝐿 − 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑊 + 2𝑅 = 0

2𝑅 = 𝑊 − 𝐿

The shock absorber are used to decrease the loads on all airplane structures
during landing and taxiing on rough ground by absorb the kinetic energy of the
impact and converts it into the deformation energy of shock absorber device
where:

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉𝑦2
2
1
𝑚𝑉𝑦2 = 𝜂𝐺𝛿 = 𝜂𝑠 𝐺𝑠 𝛿𝑠 + 𝜂𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝛿𝑡
2
Where G is impact load.

s and t refer to shock and tire respectively.

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Example: A 80 KN airplane at time of landing impact. The ground reactions
on each wheel are 120 KN.
1. If one wheel and tire weight 3 KN, find the compression force and
bending moment in the oleo strut, if the strut is vertical and at 15 m from
the centerline of the wheel.
2. Find the required shock system deflection, if the airplane strikes the
ground with vertical velocity of 5 m/sec.
3. Find the time required for the vertical velocity to become zero.

Solution:
1. ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
120*2-80-ma=0
Ma=160 KN
160
𝑎= = 2𝑔 = 19.62 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
80/𝑔
𝑊𝑙 3
The inertia force in landing gear 𝑚𝑙 𝑎 = ∗ 2𝑔 = ∗ 2𝑔 = 6 𝐾𝑁
𝑔 𝑔

For oleo strut ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

120-3-6-comp=0
Comp=111 KN
The bending moment is:
M=120*15-6*15-3*15=16.65 KN.m

2. The shock system deflection

𝑉 2 − 𝑉02 = 2𝑎𝛿
As 𝑎 = 2𝑔
V=0
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 Vo=5 m/sec
0 − 25 = 2 ∗ (−19.62) ∗ 𝛿
𝛿 = 0.637 𝑚
3. Time required to absorb the landing shock
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑎𝑡
0 − 5 = −19.62 ∗ 𝑡
𝑡 = 0.254 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

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