TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 2
cos 2 x=cos x −sin x
2
¿ 1−2 sin x
2
¿ 2 cos x−1 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

2 2-D PLANE:
1−tan x
¿ 2
1+tan x x=r cos θ
sin x y=r sin θ
tan x=
cos x
3-D PLANE:
2 2
sin x+ cos x=1 x=r sin θ cos φ
2 2
tan x +1=sec x y=r sin θ sin φ
sin(−x)=−sin x z=r cos θ
cos (−x)=cos x SEQUENCES

sin ( π2 −x)=cos x ARITHMETIC:

a n=a+ ( n−1 ) d
sin( x ± y)=sin x cos y ± sin y cos x
n n
Sn= ( a+ an )= (2 a+ ( n−1 ) d )
sin 2 x=2 sin x cos x 2 2
cos ( x ± y )=¿ cos x cos y ∓sin x sin y ¿ GEOMETRIC:
n −1
tan x ± tan y a n=a r
tan ( x ± y )=
1 ∓ tan x tan y
a
2 tan x Sn = ( 1−r n ) ,r ≠ 1
tan2 x= 1−r
1∓ 2 tan x
a
S∞ = ,|r|< 1
cos x +cos y=2 cos ( x +2 y ) cos ( x −2 y ) 1−r
BINOMIAL:

sin x +sin y=2 sin ( ) cos (

2 )
x+ y x− y n
2 n

r =0 r
()
(a+ b) =∑ n an−r b r
1
sin x sin y= [cos ( x− y )−cos (x+ y)]
2
(nr)= r ! ( n−r
n!
)!
1
cos x cos y = ¿
2
1
sin x cos y= [sin ( x + y ) +sin( x− y)]
2
HYPERBOLIC:

1 x −x
sinh x= (e −e )
2
1 x −x
cosh x= (e + e )
2
2 2
cosh x−sinh x=1
 LOCAL EXTREMA:
2
D=f xx ( x 1 , y 1) f yy ( x 1 , y 1 )−( f xy ( x 1 , y 1 ) )
DERIVATIVES
f has a local maximum at (x 1 , y 1 ) if D>0 and
d 2 f xx ( x 1 , y 1 ) <0
tan x=s ec x
dx
f has a local maximum at (x 1 , y 1 ) if D>0 and
d 2
f xx ( x 1 , y 1 ) >0
cot x=−csc x
dx
d f has a saddle point at (x 1 , y 1 ) if D<0
sinh x=cosh x
dx LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER:
d f x= λ g x
cosh x=sinh x
dx
f y =λ g y
d −1 1
sin x=
dx √1−x 2 g ( x , y )=0

d −1 −1
cos x=
dx √ 1−x 2
d −1 1
tan x=
dx 1+ x
2

d
csc x=−csc x cot x
dx
d
sec x=sec x tan x
dx

( fg )' =f ' g+ f g'

()
' ' '
f g f −f g
= 2
g g
TAYLOR SERIES:

1 ' 1 2 '' 1 3 ' ''

f ( x )=f ( x a ) + ( x−x a ) f ( x a ) + ( x−x a ) f ( x a ) + ( x−x a ) f ( x a ) +∙ ∙∙
1! 2! 3!
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES:

For f (x , y , z)=0 , ( ∂∂ xy ) ( ∂∂ yz ) ( ∂∂ zx ) =−1

z x y

ERROR PROPAGATION:

¿
 ARC LENGTH:

√ √
x2 y2

( ) ( )
2 2
dy dx
L=∫ dl=∫ 1+ dx=∫ 1+ dy
x1
dx y
dy 1

INTEGRALS

∫ 2
1
x +a
2
1
=¿ tan−1
a
x
a
¿ ()
∫ 1
√ a −x
2 2
=sin−1 ( xa ) SURFACE AREA:

√ √
x2 y2

∫ 1
= ( )
1
ln
x−a
,( x> a)
S=2 πydl=∫ 2 πy 1+
x
dy 2
dx
dx=∫ 2 πx 1+
y
dx 2
dy
dy( ) ( )
x −a 2 a x+ a
2 2 1 1

DOUBLE INTEGRALS:
∫ 1 = 21a ln ( a−x
2
a+ x
2 ),(|x|<a) Over rectangular domains:
a −x
b d d b
π
∫ tan x=ln(sec x),(|x|< 2 ) ∬ ❑ f (x , y)dA=∫ ❑∫❑ f ( x , y )dydx =∫ ❑∫ ❑ f (x , y )
R a c c a

∫ cot x=ln (sin x ),(0< x < π) For f ( x , y )=h ( x ) g ( y ) ,

( )(∫ )
b d b d
∫ csc x=−ln (csc x +cot x),(0< x< π ) ∫ ❑∫ ❑f ( x , y ) dydx = ∫ h (x) dx g ( y )dy
a c a c
π
∫ sec x=ln( sec x+ tan x),(|x|< 2 ) Over general domains:
Vertical line Bottom
b a
Type 1 domain, R={ ( x , y ) :a ≤ x ≤ b , g ( x ) ≤ y ≤ h ( x ) }:
∫ f ( x ) dx=−∫ f ( x ) dx
a b b h (x) Top

b c b ∫ ❑ ∫ ❑ f ( x , y)dydx
∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx +∫ f ( x ) dx a g(x)

a a c Left Right
Type 2 domain, R={ ( x , y ) : g ( y ) ≤ x ≤ h ( y ) , c ≤ y ≤ d } :
If f (−x ) =−f ( x ), then f (x) is known as an odd
d h ( y)
Horizontal Lines
function
∫ ❑ ∫ ❑ f (x , y )dxdy
a c g( y)

For odd function, ∫ f ( x ) dx=0

−a
Over polar domains:

If f (−x ) =f ( x ), then f (x) is known as an even R={ ( r ,θ ) : g ( θ ) ≤ r ≤h ( θ ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β } :

function β h (θ )

a a ∬ ❑ f ( x , y ) dA=∫ ❑ ∫ ❑f ( rcos θ , r sin θ ) r drdθ

For even function, ∫ f ( x ) dx=2 ∫ f ( x ) dx R α g ( θ)

−a 0
Line Integral:
VOLUME:
x=x 1 +t ( x 2−x 1 ) , 0≤ t ≤ 1
b

∫ π |f (x)| dx
2
About x-axis: y= y+ t ( y 2− y 1 ) , 0 ≤t ≤1
a

About y-axis:
b

∫ π |f ( y )| dy
a
2 ds=√ d x 2+ d y 2=
√( dt )( )
dx 2 dy 2
+
dt
dt
 √(
t2

∫ f (x , y)ds=∫ f (x ( t ) , y ( t ))
C t1
dt)( )
dx 2 dy 2
+
dt
dt

VECTORS

IN 2D:

|v|≡v =√ v x2 + v y 2
If v makes an angle θ with the x axis, then the
components are:

v x =v cos θ

v y =v sin θ

v v
^v = =
|v| v
u ∙ v=uv cos θ
IF θ=0, vectors are parallel,

cos θ=1 and u ∙ v=uv

π
IF θ= , vectors are perpendicular,
2
cos θ=0 and u ∙ v=0
Dot products works in both 2D and 3D

IN 3D:

|v|≡v =√ v x2 + v y 2+ v z 2
u × v=uv sin θ n
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to both u and v
PLANE EQUATIONS:
Can only be used in 3D
Plane with position vector a , and n a unit vector
LINE EQUATIONS: normal to the plane, with arbitrary point P with
r =a+ λ u position vector r .
If two lines lie of the same plane and are not parallel, Vector ⃗
AP = r −a
they intersect
Since n is perpendicular to ⃗
AP ,
Acute angle between intersecting lines:
n ∙ ( r−a )=0
|u ∙ v|
cos θ= r ∙ n=a∙ n
uv
If two lines do not lie on the same plane and are not Let P be (x,y,z):
parallel, they are skew lines (do not intersect) r =x i + y j + z k
FOOT OF PERPENDICULAR & PERPENDICULAR Let n be:
DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE:
n=n xi +n yj +n z k
 And

n ∙ a=d
Then,

n x x +n y y +n z z=d

KINEMATIC VECTORS:

r ( t )=x ( t )i + y ( t )j + z ( t ) k
d dx + dy + dz LINE INTEGRAL FOR VECTORS:
v ( t )= r ( t ) = ( t )i ( t )j ( t )k
dt dt dt dt dA=f ( x , y ) dl
v ( t )=ṙ = ẋ (t)i + ẏ (t )j + ż (t)k

√(
t2

)( )( )
2 2 2
dx dy dz
¿ ∫ f (x ( t ) , y ( t ) , z (t)) + + dt
(overhead dot indicates differentiation with respect to dt dt dt
t1
time)

dv d r
2 ∫ f (x , y)ds= A=¿
a ( t )= = 2 =r̈ C
dt d t

√(
t2

Since a ( t )=
dv
dt
,
¿ ∫ f (x ( t ) , y ( t ) , z (t))
t1
dt)( )( )
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
+
dt
+
dt
dt

b VECTOR FIELDS AND CALCULUS

∫ a ( t ) dt=¿ v (b)– v (a)¿ ∂ ∂ ∂
a ∇ ≡i +¿ j +¿ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
Given the initial condition v(0) = v0,
GRADIENT OF f :
t
v ( t )=v 0+∫ a ( t ) dt When ∇ acts on a scalar field f (x , y , z),
0
∂f ∂f ∂f
dr ∇ f =¿i +¿ j +¿ k
Since v ( t )= , ∂x ∂y ∂z
dt
DIVERGENCE OF F:
b

∫ v (t ) dt=¿ r (b) – r (a)¿ ∇ ∙ F=¿

a

Given initial condition r(0) = r0,

t
(i ∂∂ fx + j ∂∂ fy + k ∂∂ fz ) ∙ ( P ( x , y , z) i+Q( x , y , z ) j+ R (x , y , z)k
r ( t )=r 0 +∫ v ( t ) dt ∂P ∂Q ∂ R
¿ + +
0 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
LENGTH OF TRAJECTORY: The divergence of F is a scalar field. It gives us a n idea
whether a point in space is more “source-like” (arrows
dl=√ ( dx ) + ( dy ) + ( dz )
2 2 2
out more than arrows in) or more “sink-like” (arrows

√(
in more than arrows out)
¿
dt
+) ( )( )
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
dt
+
dt
dt
Since the gradient of a scalar is a vector, we can take
the divergence of the gradient of a scalar:
Arc length traced by particle as it travels from t = t0 to
t = t1: ∇ ∙ ∇ f =¿

√( (i ∂∂ fx + j ∂∂ fy + k ∂∂ fz ) ∙(i ∂∂ fx + j ∂∂ fy + k ∂∂ fz )
t1

L=∫
t0
dt)( )( )
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
+
dt
+
dt
dt
 2 2 2 b
¿
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂x ∂ x a
(
¿ ∫ P ( x (t ), y (t), z (t) )
dx
dt
dy
+Q ( x (t), y (t) , z (t ) ) + R ( x (t)
dt
2 2 2
2 ∂ f ∂ f ∂ f GRADIENT AND CONSERVATIVE FIELDS:
∇ f =∇ ∙ ∇ f = + 2+ 2
2
∂ x ∂x ∂ x A vector field F( x , y , z ) is said to be conservative if
there is a scalar field f ( x , y , z ) such that

F ¿∇ f

The scalar field is called a potential function (or

potential field) for F

Since ∇ ( f +c ) =∇ f where c is a constant, we note

that if f is a potential field for F, then ( f +c ) is also a
potential function for F.

Curl of Curl is 0 (or irrotational)

CURL OF F:

∇ × F=¿

(i ∂∂ fx + j ∂∂ fy + k ∂∂ fz ) × ( P( x , y , z )i+Q(x , y , z ) j+ R (x , y , z)k )
¿( ) i+ ( ) j+ (
∂x ∂ y )
∂ R ∂Q ∂P ∂ R ∂Q ∂P
− − k
∂ y ∂z ∂z ∂x LINE INTEGRALS IN CONSERVATIVE FIELDS:
The curl of F is a vector field. Gives us idea how much Line integral is only dependent on the initial and final
F rotates about a point. The more the field flows position of the line
around the arbitrary point (x 0 , y 0 ) rather than flowing
through the neighbourhood, the higher the value of Let C be a curved path in a conservative vector field
∇× F F = ∇ f . Parametrizing C with parameter t,
LINE INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FIELDS: C :r ( t ) , a≤ t ≤ b

Work done = ∫ F ∙ d r Line integral:

C
b
dr
Where C is the curve path and dr is the infinitesimal ∫ F ∙ d r=∫ F ∙ dt
dt =f ( r ( b ) ) −f ( r ( a ) )
displacement C a

F(r) = F( x , y , z ) = If we know F is a conservative field, then line integral

P(x , y , z)i+Q(x , y , z) j+ R(x , y , z ) k is path-independent

If potential function of field is known, line integral can

∫ F ∙ d r=∫ P (x , y , z )dx+Q (x , y , z )dy + R(x , y , z)dz be obtained by substituting the potential function
C C
with the end points and taking the difference.
If we know how x , y ,and z related to each other
along the path, and if x , y ,and z are related Let F = y i + x j
parametrically on C,
∂f ∂f
y i + xj = i+ j
x=x ( t ) , y= y ( t ) , z=z ( t ) , a ≤ t ≤ b ∂x ∂ y
∂f
d r=
dr
dt
dt=
dt (
dx dx dx
i+ j+ k dt
dt dt ) ∂x
= y → f =xy + g( y )

b ∂f ∂g
=x+ =x
∫ F ∙ d r=∫ F ∙ ddtr dt ∂y ∂y
C a
∂g
=0 → g=c
∂y
 Hence,

f =xy +c
Thus,

∫ F ∙ d r=f ( r ( b ) ) −f ( r ( a ) )
C

GREEN’S THEOREM:

Let F = P(x , y)i +Q(x , y) j

IF R is a region enclosed by a simple closed curve C,

then

∮ F ∙ d r=∬ ( ∂∂Qx − ∂∂ Py ) dA
C R

∮ F ∙ d r is the “circulation around C”. If the “current”

C
in F within loop C helps me, the value will be positive
and larger, else it will smaller (possibly negative)

∬ ( ∂∂Qx − ∂∂ Py ) dA is the sum of “micro-circulations”

R

over the region R. ( ∂∂Qx − ∂∂ Py ) is the z-component of

∇ × F . ∇ × F at a point quantifies the fluid flow
around the point. ∬
R
(
∂Q ∂P
−
∂x ∂ y )
dA is the evaluation

and summation of ∇ × F at every point in region R.