CONSUMER ELECTRONICS

Author(s)
Dr. Amit M. Joshi
Assistant Professor ,
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur (MNIT), Jaipur

Dr. Maulin M. Joshi

Professor, Sarvajanik University, Surat

Dr. Urvashi Prakash Shukla

Assistant Professor, Banasthali Vidyapith, Newai

Reviewer
Dr. Savitesh Madhulika Sharma
Professor and Dean (R&D),
Siddartha Institute of Science and Technology Puttur (A.P)

All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070

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 BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS

Dr. Amit M. Joshi, Assistant Professor, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur (MNIT),
Jaipur.
Email ID: [email protected]
Dr. Maulin M. Joshi, Professor, Sarvajanik University, Surat.
Email ID: [email protected]
Dr. Urvashi Prakash Shukla, Assistant Professor, Banasthali Vidyapith, Newai.
Email ID: [email protected]

BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

Dr. Savitesh Madhulika Sharma, Professor and Dean (R&D), Siddartha Institute of Science and
Technology Puttur (A.P).
Email ID: [email protected]

BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

1. Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581312
2. Mr. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581339
January, 2023
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-960386-7-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be
obtained from the Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.

Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International

(CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational,
educational & reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the
views of the speaker / content of the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be
settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only.
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T. G. Sitharam,
Chairman; Prof. M. P. Poonia, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member-Secretary
and Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell for their planning to
publish the books on Consumer Electronics. We sincerely acknowledge the valuable
contributions of the reviewer of the book Dr. Savitesh Madhulika Sharma, Professor and
Dean (R&D), Siddartha Institute of Science and Technology Puttur (A.P) for making it
students’ friendly and giving a better shape in an artistic manner.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors
who shared their opinion and thought to further develop engineering education in our
country. Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field
whose published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and
other valuable information enriched us at the time of writing the book.

Dr. Amit M. Joshi

Dr. Maulin M. Joshi
Dr. Urvashi Prakash Shukla

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 PREFACE
Reflecting past experience in classrooms, this text book on Consumer Electronics is written
with a view to provide foundation of the subject. Using simple and lucid language, this text
book aims to take reader for a journey to the important technical concepts of consumer
electronics devices being used in daily life and offices. This book is suitable for use as
one-semester course material for diploma students of Electronics, Electronics and
communication engineering, Electrical and electronics engineering, Electronics &
Instrumentation engineering.
The first edition of this book is organized in 6 modules. The outline of the book is as follows:
First unit describes the fundamentals of sound and its characteristics. Then after, a
microphone’s basic operating principle and its defining features are outlined. In addition,
the differences and similarities between different types of microphones like carbon, moving
coil, and cordless microphones have been discussed. Subsequently it explains how
speakers work and their categorization. Unit also details three main types of sound
recording—magnetic, direct, and optical.
Second unit of the book discusses fundamentals of a CD player, a sound system for a home
theatre, a digital audio console, surround sound, and a public address (PA) system. It has
also detailed of digital audio console's inner workings along with their various
applications. In order to provide a deeper understanding, explanation as well as the
functions for each component of a public address system is provided. The process to be
followed to establish a public address system in different scenarios have been outlined in
the module.
Television is the important part of communication and Fundamentals of television systems
and its foundations of monochrome and colour television operations in the third unit of the
book. It explains the standards used in monochrome television, including the scanning
process and video signal components. Furthermore, the application of colour television is
described in detail. This describes the additive and subtractive mixing techniques used to
create various colours. In order for television programmes to be received by the receiver,
they must comply with specific transmission standards, which are discussed in detail. It
also discusses the various TV cameras and transmission of TV channels.
Knowledge of current generation television receiver systems and general technical know-
how of sound and video systems are important for engineers. Fourth unit describes how
the PAL-D colour TV receiver functions in depth. The television receiver includes a video
amplifier, sound section, sync separator, and processor that have been thoroughly
discussed. In addition, various types of video cables and interfaces have been discussed.
Finally, the unit incorporates fundamentals of CD and DVD players. Types and
functionality of various TVs namely Digital, LCD, LED, Plasma, HDTV, 3-D TV, and
Projection TV have been briefly described, as well as their benefits and drawbacks stated.
Additionally, the unit demonstrates the operation of the outdoor and indoor units of direct-
to-home (DTH) technology.
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Microwave oven and the washing machine, two staples of the modern household.
Microwave oven basic operating principle, components, technical specifications and
necessary user precautions have also been outlined in the fifth unit. In the second part,
various types of washing machines have been broken down into their component parts and
discussed in greater detail. In addition, the controller, fuzzy logic, and technical
specifications of a washing machine have all been discussed
Various digital electronic devices including a fax machine, photocopier, air conditioner,
refrigerator, digital camera, and camcorder are frequently found in daily affairs.
Understanding of basic operational principles and fault diagnosis is required in order to
enhance the life span of these products. Sixth module of the book delves deeply into the fax
machine’s details, its origins, functionalities, operation, and the basics of sending and
receiving faxes. Additionally, the components and operating principles of the photocopier,
also known as electrophotography, have been covered. One of the most widespread types
of technology, air conditioners come in a wide variety of models. Moreover, aspects of AC
operation are also discussed in this unit. A number of different parts, including the
refrigerant fluid, compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valves, evaporator, and
receiver, carry out a refrigerator’s cooling process. Digital cameras, including their
operation and classification, have also been outlined. Camcorder fundamentals have been
highlighted in the last section of the chapter. Besides giving several of multiple choice
questions as well as questions of short and long answer types marked in two categories
following lower and higher order of Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of
numerical problems, a list of references and suggested readings are given in the unit so
that one can go through them for practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
subject focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject
matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety of aspects, case
study related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever
applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.

Dr. Amit M. Joshi

Dr. Maulin M. Joshi
Dr. Urvashi Prakash Shukla

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 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop
an outcome-based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the
education system. By going through outcome-based assessments, evaluators will be able
to evaluate whether the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and
measurable outcomes. With the proper incorporation of outcome-based education there
will be a definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without
giving up at any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of outcome-based
education, a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
Programme Outcomes (POs) are statements that describe what students are expected
to know and be able to do upon graduating from the program. These relate to the skills,
knowledge, analytical ability attitude and behavior that students acquire through the
program. The POs essentially indicate what the students can do from subject-wise
knowledge acquired by them during the program. As such, POs define the professional
profile of an engineering diploma graduate.
National Board of Accreditation (NBA) has defined the following seven POs for an
Engineering diploma graduate:
PO1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics,
science and engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the
engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyses well-defined engineering problems using
codified standard methods.
PO3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for well-defined technical
problems and assist with the design of systems components or processes to meet
specified needs.
PO4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering
tools and appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
PO5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply
appropriate technology in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical
practices.
PO6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a
team member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-
defined engineering activities.
PO7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in updating in
the context of technological changes.

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 COURSE OUTCOMES

By the end of the course the students are expected to learn:

CO-1: Understand and Compare Types of Microphones and Speakers.
CO-2: Maintain and Troubleshoot the Audio Systems
CO-3: Understand the Operating Principle of Color TV
CO-4: Understand the Architecture of TV Receiver System
CO-5: Maintain and troubleshoot Electronic Appliances
CO-6: Understand the Electromechanical systems used in Electronic Appliances

Mapping of Course Outcomes with Programme Outcomes to be done according to

the matrix given below:

Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Course Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7

CO-1 3 3 3 3 1 1 3

CO-2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3

CO-3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3

CO-4 3 2 2 3 1 1 3

CO-5 3 3 3 3 1 1 3

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 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) the knowledge level and skill set of the
students should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper
implementation of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in
OBE system may be as follows:
● Within reasonable constraints, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage
of all students.
● They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without
considering any other potential ineligibility to discriminate against them.
● They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before
they leave the institute.
● They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with quality knowledge
as well as competence after they finish their education.
● They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
● They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate
newer approaches.
● They should follow Bloom's taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should Possible Mode of
Level
Check be able to Assessment
Students ability
Create Design or Create Mini project
to create
Students ability
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
to justify
Students ability Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyse
to distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability Technical
Operate or
Apply to use Presentation/
Demonstrate
information Demonstration
Students ability
Explain or Presentation/Semin
Understand to explain the
Classify ar
ideas
Students ability
Remember to recall (or Define or Recall Quiz
remember)

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 GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
● Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and
every course.
● Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
● Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
● Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
● Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real
life consequences.
● Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

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 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

List of Abbreviations

General Terms
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
A/C Air Conditioning DVD Digital Versatile Disc
AC Alternating Current DVI Digital Visual Interface
Analogue-to-Digital Eight-to-Fourteen
ADC Converter EFM Modulation
AFT Automatic Frequency tuning EMF Electro Motive Force
AHU Air Handling Unit EIA Electronic Industries Alliance
AI Artificial Intelligence Fax Facsimile
AGC Automatic Gain Control FCU Fan Coil Unit
AM Amplitude modulation FPS Frames Per Second
APC Automatic Phase Control FM Frequency Modulation
Cold Cathode Fluorescent
CCFL Lamps H Height
Consultative Committee for
C.C.I.R. International Radio HD High-Definition
High-Definition Multimedia
CCD Charge Coupled Device HDMI Interface
CCTV Closed Circuit Television HDTV High Definition TV
Heating, Ventilation, and Air
CD Compact Disc HVAC system conditioning system
CEA Central Electricity Authority I/O Input/Output
Complementary Metal–
CMOS Oxide–Semiconductor IC Integrated Circuit
CPU Central Processing Unit IF Intermediate Frequency
International Standards
CRT Cathode-Ray Tube ISO Organization
CVD Composite Video LED Light-Emitting Diode

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 General Terms
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
DAC Digital-to-Analog Converter LCD Liquid Crystal Display
DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite LNA Low Noise Amplifier
Moving Picture Experts
DC Digital Current MPEG Group
Digital Display Working National Television
DDWG Group NTSC Standards Committee
Organic Light-Emitting
DSLR Digital Single-Lens Reflex OLED Diode

DSB Double Sideband OTT Over The Top

DTH Direct-to-Home PAL Phase Alternate Line
Phase Alternating Line-
DTV Digital Television PAL-D Delay
RAM Random-Access Memory TLR Twin-Lens Reflex
Radio Corporation of
RCA America TV Tele Vision
RF Radio Frequency UHF Ultra-High Frequency
RMD Resist Mater Disc UV Ultra Violet
Ultra-Extended Graphics
S-Video Separate Video UXGA Array
Serial Data Transport
SDTI Interface VCR Video Cassette Recorder
SDI Serial Digital Interface VHF Very High Frequency
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio VHS Video Home System
Video Home System -
SLR Single-Lens Reflex VHS-C Compact
SPL Sound Pressure Levels VSB Vestigial Side Band
Sync Synchronization 2D Two Dimensional
TFT Thin Film Transistor 3D Three Dimensional

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 List of Symbols
Symbols Description Symbols Description
cm Centi-meter mm Milli-meter
dB Decibels ms Milli-seconds
2
GHz Giga Hertz N/m Newtons per square meter
Hz Hertz Ω Ohms
kHz Kilo Hertz Pa Pascal
kW Kilo Watt s Seconds
kg Kilo-gram V Volt
MHz Mega Hertz W Watt
m Meters W/m2 Watts per square meter
µs Micro seconds - -

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 LIST OF FIGURES

UNIT 1 AUDIO FUNDAMENTALS AND DEVICES

Fig. 1.1 Single cycle of pressure variation represented as a sine wave 3
Fig. 1.2 Pressure v/s time graph of a sound wave 6
Fig. 1.3 Carbon microphone 11
Fig. 1.4 Equivalent electrical circuit of a moving-coil microphone 12
Fig. 1.5 Direct radiating loudspeakers 13
Fig. 1.6 Indirect radiating loudspeakers 14
Fig. 1.7 Multispeaker system 15
Fig. 1.8 A column of loudspeaker fed by a central point 15
Fig. 1.9 Pits’ dimensions on CD tracks 16
Fig. 1.10 Block diagram of digital recording 17
Fig. 1.11 Optical recording of sound 18

UNIT 2 AUDIO SYSTEMS

Fig. 2.1 CD player 25
Fig. 2.2 Typical Dolby-B system 26
Fig. 2.3 Digital audio console block diagram 27
Fig. 2.4 Block diagram of a FM tuner 28
Fig. 2.5 Block diagram of a basic PA system 29
Fig. 2.6 Installation plan of PA system for a public meeting 32
Fig. 2.7 PA system plan for an auditorium 33

UNIT 3 TELEVISION SYSTEMS

Fig. 3.1(a) Basic monochrome television transmitter 42
Fig. 3.1(b) Basic monochrome television receiver 42
Fig. 3.2(a) Movement of scanning beam on the raster 43
Fig. 3.2(b) Waveform of current in horizontal scanning 43
Fig. 3.2(c) Trace and retrace in vertical scanning 44
Fig. 3.3 Principle of interlaced scanning 45
Fig. 3.4 Vertical bar pattern to determine amplifier requirements 47
Fig. 3.5(a) Additive colour mixing 51
Fig. 3.5(b) Subtractive colour mixing 51
Fig. 3.6 Complete channel bandwidth 54
Fig. 3.7 Block diagram of colour TV transmitter 61

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 UNIT 4 TELEVISION RECEIVERS AND VIDEO
SYSTEMS
Fig. 4.1 PAL-D colour TV receiver block diagram 70
Fig. 4.2 LCD TV 71
Fig. 4.3 Rear projection 76
Fig. 4.4 Front projection 76
Fig. 4.5 Block diagram of DTH technology 77
Fig. 4.6 Schematic diagram of the Outdoor Unit 78
Fig. 4.7 Block diagram of Indoor Unit 78
Fig. 4.8 Block schematic circuit arrangement of the AGC system 81
Fig. 4.9 Generalized Block diagram of sync separator 81
Fig. 4.10 Circuit for Separation of vertical and horizontal syncl 82
Fig. 4.11 Block Diagram of CD Recording 86
Fig. 4.12 Essential components of a DVD player 87

UNIT 5 HOME/OFFICE APPLIANCES

Fig. 5.1 Microwave oven 95
Fig. 5.2 Diagram of a microwave oven 97
Fig. 5.3 Front loading washing machine 99
Fig. 5.4 Semiautomatic top load washing machine 100
Fig. 5.5 Fully automatic top load washing machine 101
Fig. 5.6 Block diagram of a washing machine 102
Fig. 5.7 Connection diagram and wiring of a washing machine 103
Fig. 5.8 Inputs and outputs of a washing machine controller 104

UNIT 6 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS SYSTEM

Fig. 6.1 Fax machine 112
Fig. 6.2 Block diagram of a fax machine 113
Fig. 6.3 Photocopier 115
Fig. 6.4 The cooling cycle of an air conditioner 119
Fig. 6.5 Refrigerator 120
Fig. 6.6 The refrigeration cycle 122
Fig. 6.7 Point and shoot camera 123
Fig. 6.8 TLR camera 124
Fig. 6.9 SLR camera 125
Fig. 6.10 DSLR camera 126
Fig. 6.11 Camcorder 127

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 LIST OF TABLES

UNIT 1 AUDIO FUNDAMENTALS AND DEVICES

Table 1.1 Intensity of a wide range of sounds 4
Table 1.2 Analyzing the differences between various microphone designs 9
UNIT 3 TELEVISION SYSTEMS
Table 3.1 Horizontal Scanning time periods 48
Table 3.2 First Field (odd field) 49
Table 3.3 Second Field (even field) 49
Table 3.4 Television Channel Allocation (as per CCIR) in Bands I and III 56
Table 3.5 UHF BAND IV (0.47–0.598 GHz) Channels 21–36 58
Table 3.6 UHF BAND V (606–870 MHz) Channels 37–69 59
UNIT 5 HOME/OFFICE APPLIANCES
Table 5.1 Technical specifications of a commonly used microwave oven 98
Table 5.2 Technical specifications of a commonly used washing machine 105

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 Contents
Foreword vi
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education viii
Course Outcomes ix
Guidelines for Teachers x
Guidelines for Students xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xv
List of Tables xvii

UNIT 1: AUDIO FUNDAMENTALS AND DEVICES

Unit Specifics 1
Rationale 2
Pre-Requisites 2
Unit Outcomes 2
1.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND SIGNAL 2
1.1.1 Audio Level Metering 4
1.1.2 Decibel Level in Acoustic Measurement 4
1.1.3 Level and Loudness 5
1.1.4 Pitch 6
1.1.5 Frequency Response 6
1.1.6 Fidelity 7
1.1.7 Sensitivity and Selectivity 7
1.2 MICROPHONE 7
1.2.1 Working Principle 7
1.2.2 Characteristics 8
1.2.3 Types of Microphones 9
1.2.4 Carbon Microphone 10
1.2.5 Moving Coil Microphone 11
1.2.6 Cordless Microphone 12
1.3 SPEAKERS 12
1.3.1 Working Principle And Characteristics 12
1.3.2 Types of Speakers 13
1.3.3 Sound Recording 16

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 1.3.3.1 Magnetic Recording 16
1.3.3.2 Digital Recording 16
1.3.3.3 Optical Recording 17
Unit Summary 18
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 19
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 20
Numerical Problems 20
Practicals 21
Know more 22
References 22

UNIT 2: AUDIO SYSTEMS

Unit Specifics 23
Rationale 24
Pre-Requisites 24
Unit Outcomes 24
2.1 CD PLAYERS 25
2.2 HOME THEATRE SOUND SYSTEM 25
2.3 SURROUND SOUND 26
2.4 DIGITAL AUDIO CONSOLE 26
2.4.1 Working Principle 27
2.4.2 FM Tuner 27
2.5 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM 28
2.5.1 Introduction 28
2.5.2 Block diagram of a basic PA system 29
2.6 PLANNING 30
2.6.1 Planning for various specification requirements 30
2.6.2 Auditorium 33
2.6.2.1 Public Meeting 32
2.6.2.2 Auditorium 33
2.6.2.3 Conference room 34
2.6.2.4 Stadium 34
2.6.2.5 Sports Meet 34
Unit Summary 34
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 35
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 36
Practicals 36
Know more 36
References 37
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 UNIT 3 TELEVISION SYSTEMS
Unit Specifics 38
Rationale 39
Pre-Requisites 39
Unit Outcomes 39
3.1 INTRODUCTION 40
3.2 MONOCHROME TV STANDARDS 41
3.2.1 Scanning process 41
3.2.1.1 Horizontal Scanning 43
3.2.1.1 Vertical Scanning 44
3.2.2 Aspect Ratio 44
3.2.3 Persistence Of Vision And Flicker 45
3.2.4 Interlaced Scanning 45
3.2.5 Picture Resolution 46
3.2.6 Composite Video (CVD) Signal 47
3.2.7 Horizontal And Vertical Sync Details 47
3.2.7.1 Horizontal Sync. Details 48
3.2.7.1 Vertical Sync. Details 48
3.2.8 Scanning Sequence 49
3.3 COLOUR TV STANDARD 50
3.3.1 Colour Theory 50
3.3.2 Hue 51
3.3.3 Luminance 52
3.3.4 Saturation 52
3.3.5 Chrominance 52
3.3.6 Different type of TV camera 52
3.3.6.1 Three Tube Camera 52
3.3.6.2 Single Tube Camera 53
3.4 TRANSMISSION STANDARDS 53
3.4.1 PAL system 53
3.4.2 Channel bandwidth 54
3.4.3 TV signal propagation 54
3.4.4 Interference Suffered by TV channels 55
3.4.4.1 Cochannel Interference 55
3.4.4.2 Adjacent Channel Interference 55
3.4.4.3 Ghost Interference 57
3.4.5 TV Broadcast Channels For Terrestrial Transmission 57
3.4.6 Block Diagram of Colour TV Transmitter 60
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 Unit Summary 60
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 62
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 63
Practicals 63
Know more 64
References 64

UNIT 4: TELEVISION RECEIVERS AND VIDEO SYSTEMS

Unit Specifics 66
Rationale 67
Pre-Requisites 67
Unit Outcomes 67
4.1 INTRODUCTION 68
4.2 PAL-D COLOUR TV receiver block diagram 68
4.2.1 Tuner 68
4.2.2 Sound Strip 68
4.2.3 AGC sync separator & Deflection Circuits 69
4.2.4 Luminance Channel 69
4.2.5 Colour Signal Processing 69
4.2.6 Subcarrier Generation And Control 69
4.3 DIGITAL TV 69
4.3.1 Advantages: 70
4.3.2 Disadvantages: 71
4.4 LCD TV 71
4.4.1 Advantages 71
4.4.2 Disadvantages 72
4.5 LED TV 72
4.5.1 Advantages 72
4.5.2 Disadvantages 72
4.6 PLASMA TV 73
4.6.1 Advantages 73
4.6.2 Disadvantages 73
4.7 HDTV 74
4.7.1 Advantages 74
4.7.2 Disadvantages 74
4.8 3-D TV 74
4.9 PROJECTION TV 75
4.10 DTH CONCEPT BLOCK DIAGRAM 77
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 4.10.1 The Outdoor Unit 77
4.10.2 The Indoor Unit 78
4.11 VIDEO AMPLIFIER 79
4.11.1 Video Gain 79
4.11.2 Bandwidth 79
4.11.3 Frequency Distortion 79
4.11.4 Phase Distortion 79
4.11.5 Amplitude Distortion of Nonlinear Distortion 80
4.11.6 Manual Contrast Control 80
4.12 SOUND SECTION 80
4.13 SYNC SEPARATION 81
4.14 SYNC PROCESSING 82
4.15 VIDEO INTERFACE 82
4.16 COMPOSITE VIDEO 82
4.17 COMPONENT VIDEO 83
4.18 SEPARATE VIDEO 83
4.19 DIGITAL VIDEO 84
4.20 SERIAL DIGITAL INTERFACE (SDI) 84
4.21 HIGH-DEFINITION MULTIMEDIA INTERFACE (HDMI) 84
4.22 DIGITAL VIDEO INTERFACE (DVI) 84
4.23 CD PLAYER 85
4.23.1 Working 85
4.24 DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC (DVD) PLAYER 86
Unit Summary 88
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 88
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 89
Practicals 90
Know more 90
References 91

UNIT 5: HOME / OFFICE APPLIANCES

Unit Specifics 93
Rationale 94
Pre-Requisites 94
Unit Outcomes 94
5.1 MICROWAVE OVEN 95
5.1.1 Introduction 95
5.1.2 Precautions, Advantages & Disadvantages 96
5.1.2.1 Advantages 96
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 5.1.2.2 Disadvantages 96
5.1.3 Working 96
5.1.4 Components 98
5.1.5 Technical specifications 98
5.2 WASHING MACHINE 99
5.2.1 Introduction 99
5.2.2 Classification based on Washers 99
5.2.3 Working 101
5.2.4 Wiring Diagram Of Washing Machine 102
5.2.5 Controller Of Washing Machine 104
5.2.6 Fuzzy Logic For Washing Machine 104
5.2.7 Technical Specifications 105
Unit Summary 105
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 105
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 106
Practicals 107
Know more 107
References 108

UNIT 6: DIGITAL ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Unit Specifics 109
Rationale 110
Pre-Requisites 110
Unit Outcomes 110
6.1 FAX 111
6.1.1 Introduction 111
6.1.2 Working 112
6.1.3 Operating Principal of Fax Machine 114
6.1.3.1 Sending Fax 114
6.1.3.2 Receiving Fax 114
6.2 PHOTOCOPIER 115
6.2.1 Introduction 115
6.2.2 Features 116
6.2.3 Working 117
6.3 AIR-CODITIONING 117
6.3.1 Introduction 117
6.3.2 Working 118
6.4 REFRIGERATOR 120
6.4.1 Introduction 120
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 6.4.2 Components of a Refrigerator 121
6.4.3 Working 122
6.5 DIGITAL CAMERA 123
6.5.1 Introduction 123
6.5.2 Types of camera 123
6.5.3 Additional accessories 126
6.6 CAMCORDER 126
6.6.1 Introduction 126
6.6.2 Types of Camcorder 127
Unit Summary 128
Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions 129
Short and Long Answer Type Questions20 130
Practicals 130
Know more 130
References 131

References for Further Learning 133

CO and PO Attainment Table 134
Index 135

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 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|1

1 Audio Fundamentals and

Devices
d

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit, we have discussed the following aspects:
 Understand various types of Microphones and Speakers;
 Troubleshoot the Audio Systems;
 Study of basic Operating Principle of Color TV
 Analysis of TV Receiver System
 The basic troubleshoot of various Electronic Appliances
 Understand the Electromechanical systems used in Electronic Appliances
The topics are discussed with various examples for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of
short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through several numerical problems, a list of references,
and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
subject focusing on the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject
matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on a variety of aspects,
case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever
applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
 2| Consumer Electronics

RATIONALE
This unit describes the fundamentals of sound, including its loudness and volume, pitch,
frequency response, fidelity, sensitivity, and selectivity, as measured by audio level
metres. Then after, a microphone's basic operating principle and its defining features are
outlined. In addition, the differences and similarities between carbon, moving coil, and
cordless microphones have been discussed. This module not only explains how speakers
work and what qualities they should have but also categorised them. The three main types
of sound recording—magnetic, direct, and optical—have been outlined with suitable
diagrams.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
Outcomes of this unit are: After learning this unit student will be able to
U1-O1: Explain the basic characteristics and parameters of the sound signal
U1-O2: Describe characteristics, working principles and types of microphone
U1-O3: Describe characteristics, working principles and types of speakers
U1-O4: Explain the type of sound recording

Unit-1 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U1-O1 2 3 2 1 2 2
U1-O2 3 3 1 1 1 1
U1-O3 3 3 2 2 2 1
U1-O4 2 2 2 1 1 1

1.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND SIGNAL

Sound waves are longitudinal propagation of consecutive compression and
rarefaction travel through a medium. As a sound wave hits your eardrum, it is transformed
into an electrical signal, which is then transmitted by your auditory nerves to your brain
and is interpreted as sound. It exhibits the full spectrum of wave properties, including
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|3

amplitude, frequency, velocity, wavelength, and phase. Pure tonal intensity is depicted in
Fig. 1.1 as a sine wave.

Fig. 1.1: Single cycle of pressure variation represented as a sine wave.

The parameters by which it operates are specified below.

a. Amplitude: It determines the strength of compressions and rarefactions in a
medium.
b. Frequency (𝒇): It represents the rate at which compressions and rarefactions
alternate over one second time period. Sound waves can range from 20 to 20,000
hertz (Hz).
c. Time period (𝑻): It is the amount of time, in seconds, required for one full cycle of
oscillation.
𝑇 (1.1)
d. Velocity: Is the distance travelled in one second and it is proportional to the change
in temperature.
𝑡
𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 (1.2)
where, 𝑣 = velocity at ˚K 𝑡 and 𝑣 = velocity at 𝑡 ˚K
e. Wavelength: Is a measure of how far apart the maximum compression is.
 4| Consumer Electronics

ℷ (1.3)

1.1.1 Audio Level Metering

When a sound wave travels through a medium, it causes pressure changes, which can
be either compression or rarefaction. The higher the decibel level, the more compression
and rarefaction will occur. The amplitude of a sound wave is measured in Pascal’s (𝑃𝑎) or
Newton per square metre of pressure. Sound wave intensity is measured in terms of
the average rate of energy flow through a one square metre cross section at right angles to
the direction of motion. Watts per square metre is the unit of measurement for the
intensity of sound energy. Consequently, it is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Sound intensity levels are typically expressed in decibels 𝑑𝐵 relative to the human
hearing threshold.
Decibel (𝑑𝐵) for powers = 10 log (1.4)

Decibel (𝑑𝐵) for amplitudes = 20 log 1.5)

where 𝑃 and 𝑃 are output and input power respectively and 𝐴 and 𝐴 are output
and input voltage amplitude respectively.
1.1.2 Decibel Level in Acoustic Measurement
Table 1.1 Intensity of a wide range of sounds.
Sound type Pressure Intensity Intensity (𝑑𝐵):
(Pa or ) 𝑊 over the threshold
𝑚 of hearing

Hearing threshold 20 x 10-6 10-12 0

Leaves rustling 63 x 10-6 10-11 10

Whisper 20 x 10-5 10-10 20

Average residence 20 x 10-4 10-8 40

Violen’s soft 31 x 10-4 2.5 x 10-8 44

note at 3m
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|5

Typical conversations 63 x 10-4 10-7 50

Average sound 20 x 10-3 10-6 60

of an automobile

Normal speech 0.1 0.25 x 10-4 74

Heavy traffic 0.2 10-4 80

Thunder 2 10-2 100

Loud band in a 20 1 120

small hall

Threshold of pain 63 10 130

1.1.3 Level and Loudness

Sound intensity, also known as sound pressure, is the most accurate physical indicator
of loudness when it is analysed near the eardrum. The frequency content, duration, and
environment in which a sound is presented are just a few of the many other factors that can
affect how loud it is. Higher amplitudes are linked to louder sounds, and the loudness of a
specific sound is related to the amplitude of the sound wave. Moreover, a logarithmic unit
of sound intensity, the decibel (𝑑𝐵), is used to quantify loudness. A food processor, a heavy
truck (25 feet away), a power lawnmower, a subway train (20 feet away), and live rock
music are among the sounds that could cause hearing damage at levels between 80 𝑑𝐵 and
130 𝑑𝐵.
Sound pressure levels (SPL) are measured in decibels (𝑑𝐵) units. A decibel measures
loudness in relation to another source of loudness. The SPL indicator employs a reference
sound pressure (𝑃 ) of 20 micro pascals. A tenfold increase in pressure wave amplitude
corresponds to a doubling of SPL, or sound pressure level.
𝑆𝑃𝐿 20 ∗ log (1.6)
Where 𝑃 = sound pressure
 6| Consumer Electronics

1.1.4 Pitch
The term "pitch" is used to describe the audible quality of a sound based on its
perceived frequency. Furthermore, when there are no harmonics (pure tone) present in the
sound, frequency alone is used to identify the pitch. On the other hand, the frequency and
intensity of a sound determine its pitch in speech and music. It can be observed in Fig.1.2
that higher-pitched sounds have a higher-frequency wave, while lower-pitched sounds have
a lower-frequency wave.

Fig. 1.2 Pressure v/s time graph of a sound wave.

The frequency 440 hertz (Hz) frequency is considered as pitch. The ear is unaffected
by the relative phases of a complex wave's component tones when judging its quality or
timbre. Therefore, it can be concluded that the human ear is resistant to phase shifts.
1.1.5 Frequency Response
The frequency response of an audio component is the frequency range it can
accurately reproduce. Moreover, it indicates whether or not it alters the signal and how well
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|7

it reproduces all audible frequencies. Therefore, we can define it as the range of frequencies
within ± 1𝑑𝐵 of the microphone's 1000 Hz output.
Both electrical inductance and capacitance can be thought of as analogous to the
mass of the vibrating system and its compliance. The effect of mass is attenuation at high
frequencies and compliance at low frequencies. Because of its movable parts, a microphone
has a resonant frequency, where the signal is amplified.
1.1.6 Fidelity
The term "fidelity" is used to describe the degree to which an audio copy is faithful
to the original. The term "high fidelity" (also spelt "Hi-Fi") first gained popularity in the
1950’s to describe audio components and recordings that were able to faithfully recreate
the original recording. The following are qualities that ought to characterise the ideal
fidelity:
1. Infinite signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
2. No frequency distortion
3. No amplitude distortion (non-linear distortion)
4. No spatial distortion
5. High dynamic range: 0 dB - 130 dB
6. The space in which the sound is being reproduced should be made to feel like its
original environment.
1.1.7 Sensitivity and Selectivity
The human ear is extremely sensitive and able to detect sound with an intensity as
low as 0.1 . In addition, the ear is sensitive not to absolute but to relative values of
intensity (or dB). The selectivity of a receiver is defined as its capacity to filter out
unwanted signals while retaining the ones that are of interest. The human ear possesses the
following attributes:
1. For all ages, the ear is the most sensitive from 3-4 kHz.
2. As age increases, the sensitivity of the ear to high frequencies decreases.
3. For frequencies below 500 Hz, the sensitivity of the ear is low for all age groups.
1.2 MICROPHONE
1.2.1 Working Principle
Microphones are transducers that measure and record changes in ambient sound
levels by means of minute electrical currents. When sound waves are applied to a
 8| Consumer Electronics

diaphragm, it vibrates, which in turn causes a magnet to move in close proximity to a coil
which may be flexible in some configurations. In contrast, condenser microphones use
capacitance as their operating principle. Parallel conducting plates in a capacitor store
charge and dampen fluctuations in a signal, such as those caused by a power supply's
voltage. The incoming sound in a condenser microphone causes vibrations in one plate of
a capacitor. In order to make sense of the varying capacitance, an electrical signal must be
generated.
The following are the steps about how a microphone converts sound energy into
electrical energy:
1. The energy of your voice travels in the form of sound waves that are emitted when
you speak into a microphone.
2. The sound waves that strike a microphone cause the diaphragm inside to move back
and forth. Consequently, the coil that is attached to the diaphragm also vibrates.
3. The magnetic field generated by the permanent magnet penetrates the coil and an
electric current is generated in the coil as it oscillates within the magnetic field.
4. At last, the microphone discharges its electric current to an external sound amplifier
or recorder.
1.2.2 Characteristics
There are a few key factors that determine a microphone's overall quality:
1. Sensitivity: A microphone's sensitivity is a quantitative indicator of how well it
functions as a transducer. Its sensitivity is measured in terms of the ratio of the
voltage it produces (the intensity of the audio signal) to the sound pressure level to
which it is exposed. It is measured in millivolts per one pascal of pressure at one
thousand hertz.
2. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): There is internal noise in a microphone due to the
circuit's resistance, the transformer, and other components and the noise level is
represented as the corresponding sound pressure level (SPL). Therefore, SNR is
defined as the dB ratio of the output at 1 Pascal sound pressure level to the output
at silence. The SNR is the comparison between the strength of the signal of interest
and the strength of any interfering noise. A high SNR indicates a well-operating
microphone.
3. Frequency response: In order to quantify the magnitude and phase of the output
as a function of the input frequency, we need to measure the frequency response of
the system. Components are designed to provide a consistent response across the
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|9

system's frequency range to reduce audible distortion. A microphone's frequency

response is the range of audible frequencies within ±1 dB of the output at 1000
Hertz.
4. Distortion: Microphones are prone to three types of distortion: frequency
distortion, non-linear distortion, and phase distortion.
5. Directivity: Polar diagrams are commonly used to illustrate the directional
sensitivity pattern of a microphone, which is known as its directivity. Half-power
points on a polar diagram depict the microphone's directivity.
6. Output impedance: It is the type of complementary transformer needed to
efficiently transfer power from the microphone to the transmission line and then to
the amplifier is determined by its output impedance, measured in ohms.
1.2.3 Types of Microphones
Table 1.2 Analysing the differences between various microphone designs.
Parameter Moving Ribbon Crystal Capacitor Carbon
Coil

Sensitivity Without Without 50 x 103 3 x 103 100 x 103

transformer: transformer: 3µV
30µV With
With transformer:
transformer: 90µV
90µV

Self-noise Less than Less than moving Less than Lowest Highest
carbon coil ribbon

Noise pick- High Low More than Low Lowest

up ribbon

Frequency 60-1000 Hz 20-1200 Hz 100-8000 40-15000 200-5000

response Hz Hz Hz

Natural 3-4 kHz 20 Hz 6000 Hz 6000 Hz 2000 Hz

resonance
frequency

Distortion 5% 1% 1% 1% 10%
 10| Consumer Electronics

Basic Omni- Bidirectional Omni- Omni- Omni-

directivity directional directional directional direction
al

Output 25 0.25 1 x 106 100 x 106 100

impedance
(ohms)

Ruggedness Rugged Most delicate Less than Delicate Most

moving rugged
coil

Effect of Minimal Minimal Yes Minimal Yes

temperature

Effect of No No Yes No Yes

moisture

Basic Not required Not required Not Sometimes Required

supply required required

Distance of 25 50 Close Close Close

speaker
(cm)

Size Large Large Small Large Small

Cost Average High Low High Lowest

Applications PA systems, Drama, music, Home Profession Telephon

broadcast, etc. recording al e
etc. system recording

1.2.4 Carbon Microphone

Carbon microphones were primarily used in public address (PA) systems,
broadcasting, military operations, and telephones. The rugged microphones had a high
output level and were cheap to manufacture because of their simplistic design. It is a device
composed of carbon granules encased in a container which is connected in series with a
load through a DC power supply and the load current will fluctuate in response to changes
in the carbon granules' pressure. These fine carbon granules are sandwiched between two
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|11

metal plates, with the upper plate (the diaphragm) connected to a movable metal plate via
a metal piston or plunger. Further, the metal plate below the diaphragm is permanently
installed and separated from it. The device is shielded by a protective cover with holes.
When the load is connected to the metal plates, water passes through the carbon
granules and the load from a battery connected between the metal plates. Furthermore, the
output transformer's job is to filter any DC noise from the microphone's signal. Fig 1.3
illustrates the construction of a typical carbon microphone.

Fig. 1.3 Carbon microphone

1.2.5 Moving Coil Microphone
The principle of electromagnetic induction is used by the moving-coil (dynamic)
microphone; when sound pressure variations move a coil within a magnetic field, the
magnetic flux through the coil changes. As a result, the microphone's output is an EMF in
the coil. The EMF's magnitude is determined by the flux's rate of change, and consequently,
the coil's velocity in turn. The coil's displacement is determined by the force of the sound
waves exerted on the diaphragm. Its primary parts are a magnet, a diaphragm, and a coil.
Moreover, the equivalent electrical circuit of a moving-coil microphone is depicted in Fig.
1.4. Its primary applications are in PA systems and broadcasts.
 12| Consumer Electronics

Fig. 1.4 Equivalent electrical circuit of a moving-coil microphone.

1.2.6 Cordless Microphone
A small frequency-modulated very high frequency (VHF) transmitter of low power
is used in wireless microphones, also known as radio microphones. Merely a few mill watts
are all that is being used here. Moreover, the microphone does not require a cable to connect
it to the amplifier. A VHF receiver at an appropriate distance picks up the signal, amplifies
it, and sends it to the speakers. It serves a purpose during sports oath-taking ceremonies.
1.3 SPEAKERS
1.3.1 Working Principle and Characteristics
A transducer that can effectively transform audio-frequency electrical signals into
audible sound waves is called a loudspeaker. Moreover, this component is also known as
output transducer. The following are the basic characteristics of the ideal speakers:
1. Efficiency: It is measured by how well the output sound levels measure upto the
input sounds (electrical power). The value is determined by how closely the
mechanical impedance matches the acoustic impedance of the disturbed air volume.
2. Noise: The unwanted sound that is not part of the input signal but is still heard after
passing through a loudspeaker is referred to as "noise". More crucial is the system's
SNR, which is the comparison of the signal output to the noise output.
3. Frequency response: It describes how well it reproduces sounds within the human
hearing range. For the most accurate sound reproduction, a loudspeaker's response
between 20 Hz and 20 kHz should be flat to within +1 dB.
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|13

4. Distortion: It refers to any alteration of the frequency, phase, or amplitude

characteristics of the output sound relative to the input audio signal. The mass and
compliance effect may cause frequency and phase distortion. As the coil moves
through a magnetic field, any inhomogeneities will cause distortions in the signal's
amplitude or non-linearity.
5. Directivity: It is measured by comparing the sound pressure level at a given
location (in the direction of maximum intensity) to the sound pressure level that
would have been present at that location had the loudspeaker been omnidirectional.
6. Power: The power rating indicates the maximum amount of audio power (in watts)
that it can handle. However, the speaker will be permanently damaged if you use
more than the recommended amount of power.
7. Impedance: For a maximum output from the source amplifier, the loudspeaker's
input impedance should be the same as that of the amplifier. Ohms (Ω) is used as
the unit of measurement
1.3.2 Types of Speakers
Here are the various types of loudspeakers:
1. Direct Radiating: A direct radiating loudspeaker operates using the same
interaction between a magnetic field and a current as an AC motor. It is also known
as a loudspeaker with a moving cone. A coil is placed within a uniform magnetic
field, and the audio signal in form of current interacts with the present magnetic

Fig. 1.5 Direct radiating loudspeaker.[1]

 14| Consumer Electronics

field. This causes a force proportional to the audio current to act upon the movable
coil. Inducing vibratory motion in the coil causes a conical paper diaphragm to
vibrate and generate pressure vibrations in the air, resulting in the generation of
sound waves. However, cone speakers have considerably low efficiency and are
limited to mid-range frequencies. Typically, the SNR exceeds 30 dB. The magnetic
flux density is non-uniform due to non-linearity, which may result in significant
amplitude distortion.
2. Indirect Radiating: Indirect radiating loudspeakers use a moving coil placed in
a magnetic field, but instead of radiating acoustic power directly in the open space
of the listeners' area, the power is primarily delivered to the air trapped in a fixed,
non-vibrating, tapered horn, and then to the air in the listeners' area. Horn speaker
functions as an acoustic transformer, that allows better impendence match between

Fig. 1.6 Indirect radiating loudspeaker[2]

the air's low impedance and the voice coil assembly's high impedance.
Consequently, increasing its efficiency. Moreover, a larger horn is required to
enhance low-frequency response.
3. Multi-Speaker System: A line source speaker is when multiple drive units are
stacked on top of one another in an appropriate enclosure, the loudspeaker from a
line of source. Because they are arranged in a column, it is also known as column
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|15

speaker. Fig 1.8 depicts five speakers arranged in a column. On the axis of the
system, all the drive units' sound waves are in phase and, as a result, they reinforce
each other in the front. Away from the axis, the path lengths of various loudspeakers
will vary, resulting in phase differences and there will be a reduction in side sound
due to the differences. Consequently, the column would emit the most sound in the
front.

Fig. 1.7: Multi-speaker system[3]

Fig. 1.8 A column of loudspeakers fed by a central point

 16| Consumer Electronics

1.3.3 Sound Recording

1.3.3.1 Magnetic Recording: The variations in sound pressure are recorded and stored as
elementary magnets using a magnetic recording. The audio signal determines the range and
intensity. It operates on the theory that certain materials, such as iron oxide, become
magnetised in a magnetic field and retain their magnetism permanently.
A microphone's primary function is to transduce changes in sound pressure into an
electrical signal. This signal is amplified and sent to an electromagnet's coil. Because of
the high reluctance of air, magnetic lines of force have difficulty passing through the tiny
gap in the electromagnet known as the head. Iron oxide forms elementary magnets when a
tape coated with the material is pulled across a gap, providing a direct path for the lines of
force. The sound pressure is converted into a magnetic field by the iron oxide coating on
the tape, which is magnetised in response to the audio current. Sound has been recorded as
a fluctuating magnetic field due to iron oxide's ability to retain magnetism for extended
periods of time.
The tape is fed back through a gap like the one it went through to record the sound, and
this time the force lines in the coil shift to reproduce the original sound. This causes an
electromagnetic field (audio signal) to be induced in the coil, the strength of which is
proportional to the tape's rate of magnetic flux change. Thereafter, the amplified induced
EMF is sent to a loudspeaker, which converts the signal into an audible sound.
1.3.3.2 Digital Recording: Sound recorded digitally offers nearly total immunity to noise,
which led to the development of a CD system. To store its digital audio, a CD uses pits
measuring 1µm deep and 0.5µm wide, but their length can vary (1 µm - 3µm). Furthermore,
the track pitch (the distance between two parallel tracks) is 1.6µm (Fig 1.9).

Fig. 1.9 Pits’ dimensions on CD tracks

 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|17

Moreover, digital audio is modulated by a powerful laser beam, and the resulting signal is
used to record onto a Resist Mater Disc (RMD). The sampling frequency of the audio signal
is 44.1 kHz. There are 705,600 bits per second, plus additional bits for error correction,
signal control, and modulation. The laser beam's ON/OFF state is then modulated using the
pulses. Fig 1.10 displays the block diagram of the recording system. A laser beam is
concentrated and then incident upon the master disc.

Fig. 1.10 Block diagram of digital recording.

1.3.3.3 Optical Recording: Optical recording (Fig 1.11) involves making a laser beam
incident on the CD via a half-silvered mirror. This mirror lets the input beam through but
blocks the returning one. In this way, number one is represented by the reflected beam from
the flat aluminium surface. For example, if a pit's reflection is very faint, it would be equal
to 0. As a result, the laser beam that is reflected back to you is an exact reproduction of the
original laser beam, with the audio signal represented as binary digits. The pit does not
reflect any light, while the flat surface reflects it entirely. Therefore, when this ON-OFF
reflected light strikes a photosensitive diode, binary digits are reproduced. A DAC is used
 18| Consumer Electronics

to process the digital signal from the diode's output and return to its original analogues
form.

Fig. 1.11 Optical recording of sound.

UNIT SUMMARY
Standard audio level metres measure signal characteristics such as loudness and volume,
pitch, frequency response, fidelity, sensitivity, and selectivity. The standard pitch
frequency is 440 Hz, and it is used to describe the audibility of a sound. In audio, the
frequency response is the range of frequencies that a component can faithfully reproduce.
The term "fidelity" refers to the precision with which audio components and recordings
can replicate the sound of an original recording.
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|19

Transducers known as microphones detect and record fluctuations in ambient sound levels
via extremely small electrical currents. Microphones can be broken down into a wide
variety of subsets, each of which serves a unique function. The PA system, broadcasting,
military operations, and telephone industries rely heavily on carbon microphones because
of their high output levels and durability. Moreover, they are the most effective solution
because of the low manufacturing cost and simplistic style. The magnet, the diaphragm,
and the coil are the main components of a moving coil microphone, which uses
electromagnetic induction to detect and record sound. Wireless microphones, also known
as radio microphones, use a low-power, frequency-modulated, very high-frequency (VHF)
transmitter. These microphones can be placed directly on the amplifier without the need
for an additional cable.
A loudspeaker is an electrical signal transducer that efficiently converts audio-frequency
electrical signals into audible sound waves. They can be classified into three types: direct
radiating, indirect radiating and multi-speaker systems.
Using magnetic recording, the fluctuations in sound pressure are captured and stored as
simple magnets. It is predicated on the idea that iron oxide and other materials can be
magnetised by exposure to a magnetic field and then maintain their magnetism indefinitely.
The relatively close elimination of background noise in digitally recorded sounds
motivated the development of the CD format. As an added step, a strong laser beam is used
to modulate digital audio, and the resulting signal is recorded onto a Resist Mater Disc
(RMD). In the optical recording, a laser beam is an incident on the CD from behind a half-
silvered mirror which permits the incoming beam to pass while blocking the outgoing
beam.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What type of wave motion is sound?
a. Transverse
b. Pulse type
c. Electromagnetic
d. Longitudinal
2. Pascals is a unit of ____
a. Frequency
b. Amplitude
c. Time period
 20| Consumer Electronics

d. Velocity
3. What is the typical frequency of a standard pitch?
a. 440 kHz
b. 4400 Hz
c. 440 Hz
d. 4.40 Hz
4. Which of the following is not a characteristic of ideal fidelity?
a. Low signal-to-noise ratio
b. High dynamic range
c. No spatial distortion
d. No frequency distortion
5. Which of the following microphones has the highest noise pick-up?
a. Ribbon microphone
b. Crystal microphone
c. Carbon microphone
d. Moving coil microphone
Answers of Multiple-Choice Questions
1)d 2)b 3)c 4)a 5)d
Short and Long Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the following terminologies: amplitude, frequency, velocity, wavelength and
phase.
2. Outline audio-level metering.
3. State the characteristics of ideal fidelity.
4. Differentiate between crystal microphones and ribbon microphones.
5. Classify the various types of speakers.
6. Describe the working principle of a microphone and state its characteristics.
7. Explain the moving coil microphone with the help of a suitable diagram.
8. Explain any four characteristics of a sound signal.
9. Describe the working principle of a speaker and state its characteristics.
10. Explain the digital and optical recording of sound.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the wavelength of sound at 900 Hz assuming its velocity is 344 m/s.
 Audio Fundamentals and Devices|21

2. A car's sound has a pressure of 20x10-3 Pascal and an intensity of 50 dB. Determine
the sound pressure level needed to trigger a person's threshold for sound.
3. A sound pressure intensity of 20x10-3 Pascal is 0 decibels. What will its intensity
be at 0.2 Pascal Pressure?
4. Determine the velocity of sound at 273℃ if its velocity at 0℃ is 344m/s.

PRACTICAL
1. To study the basic characteristics of a sound signal.
2. To study the working principle of a microphone. Understand the various
characteristics of different types of microphones.
3. To study the working principle of a speaker.
4. To study the different methods of recording sound.

KNOW MORE
● With his 1876 patent, Alexander Graham Bell created the first microphone. His mic
was just a piece of wire that carried DC electricity (DC). A transmitter with a
moving armature and a receiver was able to send and receive audio signals in both
directions.
● Acoustician and inventor James Edward Maceo West was born in the United States.
More than 250 U.S. and international patents cover his innovations in microphone
construction and design, as well as his methods for making polymer foil electrets.
● The word "microphone" can be split into the components "micro" and "phone."
Greek for "small" (micro) and "sound" (phone) combine to form the word
"microphone." Because it picks up very faint sounds, the word microphone literally
means "small sound."
● Johann Philipp Reis, a teacher in Friedrichsdorf, Germany, invented a basic
electronic loudspeaker in 1861. The speaker's reproduction of the noise was rough,
but it was an experiment.
● Oliver Lodge created the first unconventional moving-coil (or dynamic)
loudspeaker in 1898. In 1915, in Napa, California, Danish engineers Peter L. Jensen
and Edwin Pridham produced the first functional moving-coil loudspeakers.
 22| Consumer Electronics

REFERENCES
[1] Direct radiating loudspeaker, accessed on 10 November 2022,
<https://in.rsdelivers.com/product/rs-pro/rs-pro-15w-grey-horn-speaker-ip66-250-hz-16-
khz/5350316>
[2] Indirect radiating loudspeaker, accessed on 10 November 2022,
<https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/dual-cone-loudspeaker-x300-15inch-
8705002112.html>
[3] Multi-Speaker System, accessed on 10 November 2022,
<https://www.crutchfield.com/S-
ZbSK2YTH4pY/learn/learningcenter/home/multiroom_power.html>
[4]Gupta, R. G. (2010). Audio & Video Systems, 2e. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
[5] Crowhurst, N. H. (1969). Audio Systems Handbook. G/L Tab Books.
[6] Adams, J. J. (1998). Complete Guide to Audio. Prompt.
[7] Winer, E. (2017). The audio expert: everything you need to know about audio.
Routledge.
[8]Whitaker, J., & Benson, B. (2001). Standard handbook of audio engineering. McGraw-
Hill Education.
[9] Harris, K. D. (2007). U.S. Patent Application No. 29/224,646.
[10] Self, D. (2012). Audio engineering explained. Routledge.
 |Audio Systems

Audio Systems

d
2
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● Working of CD Player;
● Complete overview of Home Theatre Sound System;
● Understanding the Surround Sound System;
● Analysis of Digital Console Block;
● Diagram and Working Principle of FM Tuner;
● PA Address System working and applications;
● Speaker Impedance Matching;
The topics are discussed with various examples for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of
short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through several numerical problems, a list of references,
and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
subject focusing on the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
 24 |Consumer Electronics

development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject
matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on a variety of aspects,
case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever
applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
RATIONALE
The fundamentals of using a CD player, a sound system for a home theatre, a digital
audio console, surround sound, and a public address (PA) system will be addressed in this
module. A digital audio console's inner workings are broken down here, along with their
various applications, to provide a deeper understanding of the device's operation. In addition,
an explanation has been provided for each component of a public address system as well as
the function that it serves. The process that must be followed in order to establish a public
address system is variable and must be tailored to the particulars of each scenario, which have
been outlined in the module.

PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)

UNIT OUTCOMES
Outcomes of this unit are: After learning this unit student will be able to
U2-O1: Explain CD players and Home Theatre including Surround Sound System
U2-O2: Describe the working of the Digital Console Block
U2-O3: Evaluate Public Address Systems as per design requirements
U2-O4: Design requirements of appropriate PA system for different applications

Unit-2 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U2-O1 3 3 - - 1 2
U2-O2 2 2 1 2 1 1
U2-O3 3 3 2 2 2 2
U2-O4 3 2 1 1 2 2
 Audio Systems| 25

2.1 CD PLAYERS
Numerous optical disc varieties exist, each with its own set of features. CDs, or Compact
Discs, are mass-produced digital audio recordings aimed at consumers. Philips' strategy was
to develop a new optical medium that, like the vinyl record, could be mass-produced by
moulding or stamping without requiring the user to create a personal copy. Data is stored on
it as bumps with flat tops embedded in a plastic sheet. These relief structures are typically too
low-contrast to be read without the aid of phase contrast microscopy, which creates an optical
interference effect to give the illusion of contrast.
The layer's reflectivity comes from a thin aluminium coating. Discs are read by focusing a
pinpoint of light onto the data layer and measuring how its surface texture modifies the light's
reflection back to the sensor. The optical disc track dimensions are extremely small. This
concept is used in recordable CDs, where the relief structure is read like a regular CD.
Evidently, a pattern of holes or blisters formation is irreversible once it has begun.

Fig. 2.1 CD Player [1]

2.2 HOME THEATRE SOUND SYSTEM
The Dolby-B system, designed specifically for use in home theatres, is a more standardized
version of the original Dolby-A system. The Dolby-B system employs a single frequency band
of encoding, from 500 Hz on up. Through the use of a filter, the low-level signals are boosted
to the high-frequency range. The resulting signals feature a ten-decibel-increased amount of
hiss and modulation noises. The Dolby output is the sum of the direct input signal and the
signal that has been processed by the variable filter. To reproduce the signal, it must be
inverted and sent through a continuously adjustable filter. The information that has been
decrypted is then sent out of the adder after going through the filter.
 26 |Consumer Electronics

Fig. 2.2 Typical Dolby-B system[2]

2.3 SURROUND SOUND
When using surround sound, additional channels are added from loudspeakers on the sides and
behind the listener to give the impression that sound is coming from all directions on the
horizontal plane (at ground level). In addition to providing a more immersive and cinematic
listening experience, surround sound systems (depending on the system) typically provide
higher-quality sound. Creating a surround sound effect in digital systems was made possible
by artificially delaying the signal produced by the stereophonic system's two channels, thereby
keeping the system's cost within reasonable bounds. The artificial delay enhanced the already
present delay in echoes off the ceiling and walls. As a result, a surround sound experience was
had at a reasonable price.
2.4 DIGITAL AUDIO CONSOLE
A basic audio analogue mixer takes in multiple input streams and merges them into one.
Simply connecting all the input signals in parallel and feeding them into a single input won't
work because they may interfere with one another. Separation of the signals is essential,
allowing for independent regulation of each signal's volume. In addition to basic mixing, a
mixing console's many features include phantom power for condenser/capacitor microphones,
pan-control (which allows each signal to be placed in any position in the stereo field), filtering,
equalisation, routing, and monitoring facilities, which allows any number of sound sources to
be routed to the desired loudspeaker for listening without affecting the mixer's main output.
 Audio Systems| 27

2.4.1 Working Principle

Professional audio engineers use a digital console to modify the characteristics of incoming
audio signals. Digital signal processing allows for the flexible manipulation of acoustic
properties such as mix, route, signal dynamics, and equalisation to meet a wide range of
applications. Multiple audio channels, each with its own digital processing, are combined into
a single "master" channel. Powerful signals in terms of control, processing power, and the
desired audio quality can be generated with the help of a professional digital mixing console.
The audio mixing system's block diagram and power amplifier are depicted in Fig 2.3. The
FM console employs a TDA 7021T integrated circuit. It is a low-power FM radio receiver IC
that operates on just 3 volts and needs almost no additional components. However, its low
sound output necessitates an external amplifier which is IC LM386. The IC is protected against
short circuits and operates over broad common-mode and differential voltage ranges.

Fig. 2.3 Digital audio console block diagram.

2.4.2 FM Tuner
The mixer console allows transmission of audio from a computer, turntable, CD player,
microphone, and hybrid phone without any interruptions or pauses, and it does so reliably and
predictably every time. Turning a microphone on or off at a broadcast radio console will
silence the broadcast and activate an "on-air" indicator. Some devices, such as CD players,
phones, and computer channels, are set up to "trigger" a specific input when turned on. Audio
in a digital audio console does not physically travel through the console's circuitry, as it does
in an analogue audio console, which is why they are replacing them at many radio stations.
There are numerous radio transmitters in the 88-108 MHz frequency range, all of which can
induce signal voltages in the aerial. The RF amplifier is able to pick out and amplify a certain
 28 |Consumer Electronics

station from among many, and its selection frequency can be changed as needed. This process
is called tuning. The mixer receives both the specified frequency and the oscillator's output. A
frequency-altering circuit is composed of a mixer and an oscillator. The Intermediate
Frequency (IF) that comes out of the mixer is always at a consistent 10.7 MHz. An IF amplifier
receives the input signal at its input. IF amplifiers are useful since their frequency and
bandwidth are unaffected by the signal's frequency. This greatly simplifies the amplifier's
design and operation. Moreover, the audio signal is reconstructed while the RF carrier is
discarded by this circuit. A voltage amplifier is used to boost the volume of an audio signal by
amplifying its voltage. The power amplifier boosts the signal sufficiently to power the speaker.
The block diagram of a typical FM tuner is depicted in Fig 2.4.

Fig 2.4 Block diagram of an FM tuner.

2.5 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
2.5.1 Introduction
Because the intensity of a sound diminishes with distance, amplification is required whenever
a large group is to be addressed; this allows those seated further away from the stage to still
hear the speaker clearly and without discomfort. A public address system (PA system) serves
this purpose. It is used to reach people in far-flung places (like airports, hospitals, and
factories) and at large gatherings (like town hall meetings and concert halls).
 Audio Systems| 29

2.5.2 Block diagram of a basic PA system

The microphone in a public address system converts acoustic signals into electrical ones. The
loudspeaker is another transducer that transforms electrical audio signals into sound waves by
amplifying and processing them. A typical PA system's block diagram is depicted in Fig 2.5.
Components of a PA system are as under:
1. Microphones: Sounds are picked up and transformed into audio signals, which are
merely variations in electrical current. Amplifiers typically feature multiple
microphone inputs and an auxiliary input for a record player or tape player.
2. Mixer: A microphone's output is routed to a mixer. When multiple channels are being
fed into a single power amplifier, the mixer stage is there to ensure that none of them
interferes with one another. It can be a standalone plug-in or an integral part of the
structure.
3. Voltage amplifier: The mixer's output is further amplified by this device.
4. Processing circuits: Tone controls (bass/treble controls) and a master gain control are
features of these circuits.

Fig. 2.5 Block diagram of a basic PA system.

5. Driver amplifier: Because of the voltage amplification it provides, the internal

resistance of the subsequent stage is lowered when the signal is fed into it. In this way,
it triggers the power amplifier to produce a greater output.
6. Power amplifier: It boosts the signal's strength. In order to eliminate even harmonics
from the output and prevent the transformer core from becoming saturated, a push-pull
circuit topology is used. A matching transformer connects the power amplifier's output
 30 |Consumer Electronics

to the loudspeaker so that the low impedance of the loudspeaker doesn't limit the
amount of power that can be transferred to it.
7. Loudspeaker: It takes in electrical audio signals and transforms them into pressure
variations, which we perceive as audible sounds.
2.6 PLANNING
2.6.1 Planning for various Specification requirements
1. Acoustic Feedback: In order to prevent an extremely loud howling noise caused by
acoustic feedback, the microphone must be kept well away from the loudspeaker.
2. Distribution of Sound Intensity: The high notes are what allow us to understand
what are being heard by us while the low ones provide the volume. Intelligibility
decreases at greater distances because high notes attenuate more quickly than low notes
when propagated further. Because of this, the sound pressure level needs to be split
between multiple speakers so that it can reach even the farthest corners of the room.
3. Reverberation: Because sound waves in a reverberating medium overlap with one
another, intelligibility is diminished. If the direct sound is getting lost in the echoes,
the PA system should boost the volume there. Multiple low-power loudspeakers placed
strategically around the auditorium are preferable to a single, large one because they
reduce echo.
4. Orientation of Loudspeakers: Loudspeakers should be positioned so that the
maximum output of the PA system is directed toward the audience and not the walls.
In addition, they should be elevated one metre from the ground, with their axes roughly
at the level of the seated audience members' ears. Reflections from faraway buildings
can also cause audible echoes that need to be managed.
5. Ambient Noise: When there is a lot of background noise like in a busy market, the
high frequencies (treble boost) need to be amplified in order to restore intelligibility.
The high levels of amplification is required in a noisy environment which makes the
sound seem artificial because bass is emphasised over treble. Therefore, in a noisy
environment, the PA system should tone down the bass to preserve the quality of the
sound. In addition, microphones with built-in noise reduction are useful.
6. Dynamic Range: Good public address systems have a level limiter built into the
amplifier, which prevents the volume from rising above a certain threshold.
7. Microphone selection: The best microphones for a public address system are cardioid
types, which pick up neither reflected sound nor sound from the loudspeakers
themselves.
 Audio Systems| 31

8. The direction of arrival of sound: The loudspeakers need to be positioned so that the
sound appears to originate in that area. In general, the human ear can determine the
source of a sound within a few seconds of hearing it. Accordingly, small speakers can
be placed in such a way as to point listeners in the right direction, while larger speakers
can be placed further apart to increase volume. Alternately, in digital systems, the
signal can be artificially delayed by 10–20 ms before it reaches the loudspeakers,
causing the loudspeakers to be heard after the sound directly from the speaker.
Whatever the placement of the speaker, the desired volume and directionality will be
achieved.
9. Phase delay: When multiple loudspeakers are playing at once, it is possible to hear
both the sound coming from the closest loudspeaker and the other loudspeakers. When
there is a delay of 45 milliseconds or more, the intelligibility of the delayed sound is
compromised. The lag time is roughly 16 metres. Therefore, the maximum distance
between speakers should not be more than 16 metres. When maintaining a safe
distance, 10 metres is ideal.
10. Grounding: Earthing the chassis and shield of electronic devices and coaxial cables
via plumbing is essential.
11. Choice of Loudspeakers: The selected loudspeaker must be able to cope with the
amplifier's output power. Speaker columns with woofers, squawkers, and tweeters can
be used to achieve high fidelity. Moreover, the efficiency of a public address system is
improved by using horn-type speakers rather than cone-type speakers.
12. Placement of Microphones: Microphones should be positioned to pick up all of the
program's sound without picking up any background noise.
13. Speaker Impedance Matching: Maximum power transfer from the amplifier to the
loudspeaker is achieved by matching the total loudspeaker impedance to the amplifier's
output impedance. Thus, the loudspeaker series-parallel combination should be
optimized for maximum power transfer. For example, contemporary solid-state
amplifiers, often known as "bridging" devices, take a voltage signal from an audio
source and produce an amplified version of that signal. Output voltage and power are
both dynamically regulated, and the output impedance is low.
14. Power Amplifier: The audience can hear us clearly from a distance thanks to the PA
system's amplification. The amplifier's output power can range from a few watts for
use in a classroom or at a small event to several hundred watts for use at a large public
event or sporting competition.
 32 |Consumer Electronics

2.6.2 Planning according to different situations

A badly installed PA system is very annoying and can ruin an otherwise enjoyable event. The
setting where the public address system will be installed is a factor that must be considered
during the planning phase. When making plans, these are the usual considerations:
2.6.2.1 Public Meeting
Fig 2.6 depicts a standard layout for an outdoor public meeting (120m × 120m). Most people
in the crowd will be able to get their bearings thanks to the five pole-mountable loudspeakers
(labelled A through E) in the centre of the stage. All the gathering areas will be covered by
loudspeakers (letters F through N). Furthermore, loudspeakers J and O are used to reach the
far-off semi-circular side and corner sections. These would direct the loudness of the music

Fig 2.6 Installation plan of PA system for a public meeting.

into the walls. The areas to the left and right of the podium will be covered by the loudspeakers
Q and R. S, T, V, X, Y, and Z loudspeakers cover the meeting park's outdoor audience. As
 Audio Systems| 33

depicted in the illustration, they could be slightly slanted. Microphones should be cardioid,
while loudspeakers can be horn-type.
2.6.2.2 Auditorium
A variety of events, including public gatherings, conferences, cultural programmes, etc., can
be held in an auditorium. Therefore, the loudspeaker system needs to span a large frequency
range (20Hz-20kHz) and have a high dynamic range (40dB-120dB). On either side of the
stage, you should install a column of loudspeakers so that they point toward the audience.
Moreover, having a dedicated, multifunctional mixer unit is preferable. It may accept a variety
of microphones in addition to tapes and discs. Because of its potential for abuse in handling,
moving-coil amplifiers are the best option. Fig 2.7 depicts the layout of a typical auditorium.
Additionally, the side speakers' axis should point towards the audience's ears rather than the
floor or ceiling.

Fig 2.7 PA system plan for an auditorium.

 34 |Consumer Electronics

2.6.2.3 Conference room

Each presenter in this instance is required to have a microphone installed on his or her
individual desk. The public gallery is open to the public, and they should be able to hear the
argument from there. Further, in order to minimise the possibility of audible feedback, the
loudspeakers should be pointed primarily at the spectators. However, amplification of the
sound in some kind is desired and must be accomplished without resulting in feedback. To
ensure that the channels remain silent until a microphone is actually used, automated voice
control is important. This feature works by turning down the pre-amplifier of the relevant
microphone whenever it detects silence.
2.6.2.4 Stadium
Stadiums typically have loud environments, therefore that should be taken into account.
Columns placed in a row in front of each section of "spectators" can be tapped at 10W to
provide shade for the standing spectators. If an amplifier were to fail, the sound system may
be saved by wiring alternate columns to different amplifiers. Several amplifiers, each with a
power output of 60–100 watts, should be present. Cardioid microphones are the preferred
choice.
2.6.2.5 Sports Meet
Coverage of a sporting event is important for both the onlookers and the players on the field.
In addition, the coverage is crucial so that the employees at the marquee enjoy the same level
of excitement and amusement that the sporting event provides. Complete coverage of the
sporting event can be achieved with a 60W amplifier.
UNIT SUMMARY
In order to facilitate mass production by means of moulding or stamping, the optical disc was
invented. Light is concentrated onto the disc's data layer, and the light's reflection off the disc's
surface is measured to determine how the surface texture affects the light's return to the reader.
Developed with home theatres in mind, the Dolby-B system is ideal for those who want to
watch movies at home. It uses encoding inside a single frequency band, from 500 Hz to higher.
Dolby's output is the combined effect of the unprocessed input signal and the signal after it
has been passed through a variable-passband filter. Surround sound is a method of reproducing
an audio signal that gives the appearance that sounds are coming from all directions by using
additional channels from loudspeakers placed on both sides and behind the listener. There is
usually a noticeable improvement in audio quality when using a surround sound system. By
 Audio Systems| 35

intentionally delaying the signal produced by the two channels, surround sound effects were
made possible in digital systems.
Control, processing power, and the desired audio quality can all be generated in large
quantities by a professional digital mixing console. Mix, routing, signal dynamics, and
equalisation are just a few examples of how sonic qualities can be manipulated by digital signal
processing to fit a variety of uses.
To magnify sound, one should have the knowledge about as a public address system (PA
system). With the use of amplifiers, public speakers can now address the big audiences in far-
flung locations. Microphones, a mixer, a voltage amplifier, processing circuits, a driver
amplifier, a power amplifier, and speakers are the main parts of a public address system. A
public address system's setup procedure can change based on its requirements and the
environment.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is false for a Dolby-B system?
a. The signal is inverted before sending it to filter
b. It uses multiple frequency bands of encoding
c. The adder spits out the decoded data
d. Filter boosts the signal from low to high-frequency range
2. Which component is used to boost the low sound output of the digital audio console?
a. IC LM386
b. Audio mixer
c. IC TDA 7021T
d. Gain control
3. Good PA systems have a level limiter which ____
a. Amplify ambient noise
b. Produce a delay of 45 milliseconds
c. Pick up ambient noise
d. Prevents the volume from rising above a certain threshold
4. The maximum distance between speakers should not be more than
a. 160m
b. 0.0016km
c. 0.016km
d. 16km
 36 |Consumer Electronics

5. For an auditorium, the loudspeaker system should have a dynamic range of ____
a. 40 - 120 dB
b. 70 - 200 dB
c. 100 - 400 dB
d. 10 - 70 dB
e.
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions :
1)b 2)a 3)d 4)c 5)a
Short and Long Answer Type Questions
1. Write a short note on CD players.
2. Briefly describe the Dolby-B system.
3. Briefly describe a digital audio console.
4. State the components of a PA system.
5. Describe the planning of the PA system considering any 2 situations.
6. Explain the working of a digital audio console.
7. Describe the planning of the PA system for various specification requirements.
8. Explain the basic PA system with the help of a suitable block diagram.
9. Explain the installation plan of the PA system for a public meeting and an
auditorium.

PRACTICAL
1. To study the block diagram of digital audio console.
2. To study the working of a FM tuner. Understand the components of a FM tuner.
3. To study functions of the components of a PA system.
4. To study the planning of PA system based on various specification requirements and
different situations.

KNOW MORE
 A group of engineers from Sony and Philips collaborated in 1979 to develop the
first digital audio disc. In 1980, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published
following a year of testing and debate. Moreover, after their 1982 commercial
debut, compact discs and players quickly gained widespread acceptance.
 Audio Systems| 37

 In the 1920s, 16mm projectors were used to create the first home theatres and in
the 1930s, technological advances allowed for the creation of 8mm and sound
16mm film.
 Once the cost of a Kodak 8 mm film projector dropped, showing home movies
became increasingly common among middle- and upper-class American
households in the 1950s.
 Surround sound was first used in a film in 1940 for the Disney animated short
Fantasia. The operatic composition Flight of the Bumblebee by Nikolai Rimsky-
Korsakov inspired Walt Disney to include a bumblebee in his musical Fantasia and
make it seem as if it were flying in all corners of the theatre.
 When the REDD 17 stereo mixing system was built at London's Abbey Road
Studios by EMI's Record Engineering Development Department in 1958, it marked
a significant step forward in the recording industry.
 From 1911 through 1915, a series of experiments were conducted in which a
microphone and loudspeaker were linked to a 12-volt battery, resulting in the first
such instance of auditory feedback. Further studies led to the creation of
'Magnavox,' the first electric public address system.

REFERENCES
[1] CD Player, accessed 3 November 2022, <https://www.reevoo.com/p/sony-scdxe597-
600975>
[2] Dolby Atmos, accessed 3 November 2022,
<https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/home-entertainment/tips-and-solutions/dolby-
atmos-and-dtsx-what-are-they-and-how-do-i-get-them>
[3] Gupta, R. G. (2010). Audio & Video Systems, 2e. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
[4] Harris, K. D. (2007). U.S. Patent Application No. 29/224,646.
[5] Watkinson, J. (1997). Audio for Television. Routledge.
[6] Crowhurst, N. H. (1969). Audio Systems Handbook. G/L Tab Books.
[7] Winer, E. (2017). The audio expert: everything you need to know about audio.
Routledge.
[8] Whitaker, J., & Benson, B. (2001). Standard handbook of audio engineering. McGraw-
Hill Education.
 38 |Consumer Electronics

Television Systems

d
3
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● Monochrome TV standards;
● Aspect ratio of frame;
● Analysis and synthesis of picture details;
● Main components of the composite video signal;
● Colour TV standards;
● PAL system;
● Colour TV channels and transmitters.
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity. Besides giving a large number of
multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short and long answer types marked in
two categories following the lower and higher order of Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments
through a number of numerical problems, a list of references and suggested readings are
given in the unit so that one can go through them for practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in
thispart becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the
initial activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of
the subject focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter
for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on a variety of aspects, case study
related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and
finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
 Television Systems| 39

RATIONALE
This fundamental unit of television systems demonstrates the foundations of monochrome
and colour television operation. It explains the standards used in monochrome television,
including the scanning process and video signal components. Scanning is an important
process performed in a television system to obtain continuous frames and provide picture
motion. Understanding how monochrome television works is essential because it serves as
the foundation for colour television. Furthermore, the application of colour theory in colour
television is described in detail. This describes the additive and subtractive mixing
techniques used to create various colours. Furthermore, in order for television programmes
to be received by the receiver, they must comply with specific transmission standards, which
are discussed in detail. It also discusses the various TV cameras that have been developed.
Finally, the transmission of TV channels is summarised.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
Outcomes of this unit are: After learning this unit student will be able to
U1-O1: Describe the basic scanning process
U3-O2: Describe the components of a Video signal
U3-O3: Explain the colour theory for colour TV standards
U3-O4: Describe the different TV cameras
U3-O5: Explain the channels for TV transmission.
Unit-3 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U3-O1 - - 3 3 1 1

U3-O2 - - 3 3 1 2

U3-O3 - - 3 3 1 2

U3-O4 - - 3 3 2 2

U3-O5 - - 3 3 2 2
 40 |Consumer Electronics

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A combination of the terms "tele" which means "far away," and "vision," which means
gave rise to the term "television." People had been talking about seeing content at farther d
but it couldn't be realized until J.L. Baird and others showed a conceptual demonstration
1927 and 1930. After World War II, consumer markets had access to televisions that wer
tolerable, thanks to advancements like the scanning of picture tubes, beam deflectio
amplification, and other related technologies. People of all ages and social groups have
television as a part of their family for a variety of reasons, including the capturing the info
education, and amusement.
Iconoscope is the first camera tube, which had the same working principle as cathode ray.
1930, marked the beginning of the use of electromagnetic scanning in imaging equipmen
cameras and television sets. The use of television as a medium for the dissemination of inf
and the provision of public enjoyment began to rapidly develop around the time when th
World War came to an end. Because of this, there have been three distinct approaches
television developed, all of which are consistent with the three distinct criteria for black-a
television.
Television has found its applications in human life in many ways including enter
education, news updates, advertisement, and public addressing (such as at airport/rai
terminals) etc. Closed Circuit Television (often abbreviated as CCTV) is a subgenre of t
in which only a limited number of sites are permitted access to the camera feeds that are tra
through cable connections. Users can use this feature to observe locations that they w
otherwise have access to for security or convenience reasons.
The quality of both transmission and reception saw significant improvements as a resu
development of transistors and integrated circuits. Because of vidicon and plumbicon, it
possible to broadcast television shows in environments with low levels of illumination. V
television are constructed using something called "pixels." The transition from analogue
technology made it possible to greatly increase the number of pixels in a picture, which
drives up the resolution. The medium of television is always undergoing change. Televis
use organic light-emitting diode technology (OLED) have the potential to produce as
effects, such as a high contrast ratio, thanks to electroluminescence. The introduction of t
TV platform made this achievement attainable. Applications for programming that are
the internet are typically bundled together with the product. OTT (Over The Top) platfor
 Television Systems| 41

as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video, allow users to stream content to their devices. If in
decade, every television can learn and make decisions on its own, virtual reality an
programming will have far more potential and power.

3.2 MONOCHROME TV STANDARDS

A monochromic image is composed of one colour and in the case of monochrome TV,
images are black and white. With the C.C.I.R.(Consultative Committee for International
Radio) system standards of 625 lines to be incorporated in India. Analogue television is the
traditional television technology that uses analogue signals to transmit video and audio. The
amplitude, phase, and frequency of an analogue signal represent the brightness, colours, and
sound of an analogue television broadcast. An analogue television broadcast method is used
to transmit visuals that are only in black and white. Amplitude modulation (AM) is
performed on the visual signal along with the sound signal before transmission. Radiation
of the modulated outputs, which are dispersed throughout the carrier frequencies, is
accomplished with the help of an antenna. Receivers can be tuned to any station that is
broadcasting because each station broadcasts on its own carrier frequency. A simplified
block schematic of a TV transmitter and receiver systems are shown in Fig. 3.1 (a) and 3.1
(b), respectively.
3.2.1 Scanning Process
In today's motion pictures, 24 or more still photo images of the scene are taken every second
and shown on the screen at the same rate. During the projection process, each image or
frame is shown as a still sequential picture in rapid succession to create a cinematic effect.
This provides the appearance that the scene being displayed is in motion at all times.
Shutters are included inside the projector. As the film rotates in front of the light source, it
can be projected onto the screen. During the transition to the next film, the film frame
remains in place while the light from the screen is completely blocked out. Work is presently
underway to position the frame in its final location. So, what you see on the screen is a rapid
series of still film frames as a direct result of all of this. All light is blacked off during the
transition between frames, allowing the eye to see clearly.
 42 |Consumer Electronics

Fig.3.1 (a) Basic monochrome television transmitter.

Fig.3.1 (b) Basic monochrome television receiver.

An extremely comparable process can be found in the television set. As a result of this rapid
scanning, the scene appears to be moving at a steady pace, even though it is being scanned
in both horizontal and vertical directions, simultaneously. This allows individual elements
of the picture to create an illusion that motion in the scene appears to be smooth and
continuous. Typically, the repetition rate of a picture frame is kept at 25 per second. The
scanning is broadly classified in two types: horizontal scanning and vertical scanning.
 Television Systems| 43

3.2.1.1 Horizontal scanning

Horizontal scanning including trace as well as retrace of several horizontal lines is shown
in Fig. 3.2 (a). In the horizontal deflection coils, Fig 3.2 (b) rise of the current 𝑖 causes
a continuous, uniform trace the period in which the beam is deflected from left to right
across the screen. Once the peak of the rise is reached, the sawtooth current reverses its
direction, resulting in a retrace (or flyback) period in which the current rapidly decreases
and returns to its initial value. In summary, a horizontal scanning trace period is beam
movement from left to the right on the raster, where the retrace movement is back to the left
edge.

Fig. 3.2 (a) Movement of scanning beam on the raster

Fig. 3.2(b) Waveform of current in horizontal scanning

 44 |Consumer Electronics

Fig. 3.2 (c) Trace and retrace in the vertical scanning

3.2.1.2 Vertical scanning
In vertical scanning (see Fig. 3.2 (c)), the sawtooth current varies at a uniform speed and
brings the electron beam from the top position to the bottom position of the raster. It should
be noted that during vertical scanning the electron beam continues to be deflected
horizontally. As a result, horizontal lines are produced one beneath the other while moving
from top to bottom. When scanning vertically, the trace of the sawtooth wave deflects to
the bottom of the raster. It is important to keep in mind that the scanning beams are blanked
during horizontal and vertical retrace intervals, and no picture information is picked up or
reproduced.
3.2.2 Aspect Ratio
The proportionate relationship that exists between the width and height of a picture is
referred to as its aspect ratio. A shift in the picture's aspect ratio will result in a modification
to the image's resolution, indicating that the resolution and aspect ratio are intertwined. The
standard shape for the picture area in televisions is a rectangular one with a width-to-height
(W2H) ratio of 4:3. It is referred to as the aspect ratio. For a raster screen, when the width
(W) of the picture is kept more than its height (H), human eyes can view an image more
comfortably. This is the reason that this particular choice of aspect ratio was made. Aspect
ratios for modern television are often presented in the form of 16:9. Nevertheless, movies
are made in accordance with certain cinematic principles. Therefore, the aspect ratio of
motion pictures is 21:9.
 Television Systems| 45

3.2.3 Persistence of Vision and Flicker

The optical illusion of persistence of vision is created when an object has disappeared from
view but the eye feels it can still see it because of how the eye works. As a consequence of
this, there is a sensation that takes place whenever the retinal nerves are activated by light,
and this sensation continues for approximately one-sixteenth of a second after the light has
stopped being present. It is common practice to refer to this as the eye's capacity for storing
information. When there are more images displayed to the eye in a given second or a higher
rate of scanning per second, the human eye is better able to integrate the variations in
brightness that are present in a scene. As a consequence of this, to the human sight, they
appear to be a single image, with no noticeable differences between the numerous
components that make up the image.
For creating the illusion of continuity, the motion picture rate of 24 frames per second (fps)
rate and the scanning rate of 25 fps is adequate. However, it remains an issue of smooth
blending of brightness frame to frame. This is because the screen is left blank in between
each frame. This results in a distracting light flicker whenever there are alternating periods
of bright and dark on the screen. The flicker is removed from motion pictures by displaying
each frame of the film twice, although there are still 24 fps of moving pictures. One method
that can be used to eliminate flicker in the video is called interlaced scanning.
3.2.4 Interlaced Scanning
With interlaced scanning, which makes use of 50 vertical scans per second, flicker-free
television is now a reality.

Fig.3.3 Principle of interlaced scanning

 46 |Consumer Electronics

In this scanning, the electron beam moves faster by scanning every alternate line rather than
every line sequentially. As a result, it can read through more data in less time.
To finish its scan of lines that were missed during previous scans, the beam will reach the
bottom of the picture frame. Total lines are divided into two independent groups known as
"fields," and each field is scanned sequentially one after the other, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
vertical retrace time is assumed to be zero.

3.2.5 Picture Resolution

Picture resolution is defined as the ability of the system to be able to produce the finest
details of an object. Resolutions are defined separately for the picture's vertical and
horizontal planes. Vertical resolution (Rv) refers to a scanning system's ability to present
image details in the vertical direction. Vertical resolution in the 625-line system can then be
expressed as
𝑅 =N ×k (3.1)

where 𝑁 denotes the active number of lines and 𝑘 is the resolution factor.

Assuming 𝑘 0.69,
𝑅 585 0.69 400 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 (3.2)

The horizontal resolution (Rh) is determined by denoting the ability of a scanning system
to present picture details in the horizontal direction. This can be evaluated by considering a
vertical bar pattern as shown in Fig. 3.4. The aim is to have an equal vertical and horizontal
resolution which is equal to
𝑅 =𝑁 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 585 4/3 780 (3.3)
The efficiency of a single line can change based on the number of black and white portions
that are present in the image at any one point in time. As a result, when calculating the
number of distinct picture components in a horizontal line, the same resolution factor can
be applied to both vertical and horizontal resolution. This is due to the fact that equal vertical
and horizontal resolution necessitates the same number of picture elements in each line.
Given a horizontal line with the same vertical and horizontal resolution, the following
equation can be used to determine the effective number of alternate black and white
segments:
𝑁 𝑁 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑘 585 4/3 0.69 533 (3.4)
 Television Systems| 47

Fig.3.4 Vertical bar pattern to determine amplifier requirements.

3.2.6 Composite Video (CVD) Signal
CVD is an analogue video signal format that transmits standard-definition video as a
single channel. The CVD signal is made up of the following components:

● Video signal representing picture information details

● Blanking pulses to alleviate the effect of undesired retrace

● Sync pulses to achieve synchronization at transmitter and receiver sides

Sync pulses are sent one after other in time rather than simultaneously with the picture
signal.
3.2.7 Horizontal and Vertical Sync Details
A horizontal synchronisation (sync) pulse is required at the end of each active line period,
as well as a vertical sync pulse following the completion of each field scan. The amplitudes
of the sync pulses are kept consistent to improve the effectiveness of the picture signal
transmission. They are differentiated from one another at the receiver by a specific width,
which results in a range of durations for each one.
 48 |Consumer Electronics

3.2.7.1 Horizontal Sync Details

H stands for the distance that separates each of the horizontal scanning lines. During the
line blanking period, which lasts for 12 seconds and is a component of the entire line period
of 64 seconds, a line synchronizing pulse is inserted. It makes use of an oscillator that can
be synchronized thanks to pulses that correspond to the differentiated leading edges of sync
pulses. There are three separate portions of the line blanking period that are referred to as
"line sync" pulse and "back porch."
Table.3.1 Horizontal Scanning time periods
Event Duration (ms)

Total lines (H) 0.064

Horizontal blanking 0.012 ± 0.0003

Horizontal sync pulse 0.0047 ± 0.0002

Front porch 0.0015 ± 0.0003

Back porch 0.0058 ± 0.0003

The front porch comes before the sync pulse, and it allows the video circuit sufficient time
to settle down to the blanking level from the currently present video level.
After the sync, the pulse has begun and the front porch of blanking has been completed, a
horizontal retrace will be produced. Line sync pulses are split up at the receiver so that the
receiver's line time base remains perfectly in sync with the line time base of the distant
transmitter. In this amount of time, the backstroke (retrace) of the beam will almost certainly
be finished, and it will arrive at the far left end of the raster. This is the shortest possible
amount of time that it takes (4.7 µs).
When the blanking level is set to 5.8 µs, there is sufficient time for line flyback and reversal
of current in the horizontal time-base circuit before scanning the next line can begin. When
the blanking level is set to 5.6 µs, there is insufficient time for these processes.
3.2.7.2 Vertical Sync Details
In both even and odd fields, the vertical sync added at the end is difficult to interpret. If the
receiver is to be able to derive an acceptable field sync pulse for use in triggering the field
sweep oscillator, the width of the field sync pulse must be maintained at a level much greater
than the horizontal sync pulse. So the vertical sync duration is 2.5-3 times as long as the
 Television Systems| 49

horizontal sync period as a result of this. In order to clearly distinguish horizontal and
vertical pulses from each other, the width of vertical sync is kept sufficiently high.
Active and blanked lines have accessible sync pulses, however, the 2.5-line vertical sync
period does not have any available leading edges. In both line periods, the horizontal sync
pulses are accessible. Due to the fact that it operates at 15625 Hz, the horizontal sweep
oscillator is more likely to go out of synchronism during each vertical sync interval.
3.2.8 Scanning Sequence
There are 625 lines per frame for scanning an image. This is divided into two parts: the first
field (Table 3.2) and the second field (Table 3.3).

Table 3.2. First Field (odd field)

Line numbers: 1st to the initial half of 313th line

1, 2 and 3rd
Vertical sync pulses 2.5 lines
(initial half) lines

Post-vertical
3rd (later half), 4 and 5 2.5 lines
sync equalizing pulses

Blanking
6 to 17 and 18th (initial half) 12.5 lines
retrace pulses

18th (later half) to 310 Picture details 292.5 lines

Pre-vertical sync
311, 312 and 313th (initial
equalizing pulses 2.5 lines
half)
for the 2nd field.

Total lines = 312.5

Table 3.3 Second Field (even field)

Line numbers: 313th (later half) to 625

Vertical
313th (later half), 314, 315 2.5 lines
sync pulses

Post-vertical sync
316, 317, 318th (initial half) 2.5 lines
equalizing pulses.
 50 |Consumer Electronics

Blanking
318th (latter half) to 330 12.5 lines
retrace pulses

331 to 623rd (initial half) Picture details 292.5 lines

Pre-vertical sync
623 (latter half),
Equalizing 2.5 lines
624 and 625
pulses for the 1st field.

Total lines = 312.5

Interlaced scanning results in the V-sync pulse not being in the same location at the end of
the two fields as it would be otherwise. In order to differentiate V-sync pulses from H-sync
pulses that came before them, an integrating circuit is utilized. Post-equalizing pulses are
what is utilized to counteract the effect that interlaced scanning has on the half-line. These
pulses are introduced into the rear portion of the blanking pulse, shortly after the V-sync
pulse and before the blanking pulse itself.
3.3 Colour TV Standards
The first colour television sets were made commercially available to consumers in the year
1954. On the other hand, it did not become widely used until the middle of the 1960s. In a
perfect TV system, the colours would be true to life, the brightness would be just right, and
the definition would be sharp enough to be read by the naked eye. In spite of the fact that
the image contains data on its brightness, there is a lack of colour information in certain
parts of a monochrome picture. As a consequence of this, adding colour to the raster image
that was previously white is essential. There are three characteristics of colour that can be
used to characterize different aspects of visual information: luminosity, hue, and saturation.
3.3.1 Colour Theory
The creation of colour images requires the utilization of three bytes, which is equivalent to
24 bits of information. When a stimulus of adequate brightness is presented to the cones
that are responsible for operational vision, the human eye is able to distinguish three primary
colours: red, green, and blue. A total of eight bits are allotted to each colour in the pixel
representation. The value '0' represents the absence of colour, also known as black, while
the value '255' represents the colour white.
 Television Systems| 51

Fig. 3.5 (a) Additive colour mixing

Fig. 3.5(b) Subtractive colour mixing

The optic nerve system is responsible for determining the accurate colour of an object.
Combining the several colour impressions can produce the desired effect, as demonstrated
in the example given in Fig. 3.5. (a). For example, additive mixing is required for any colour
television system to function. For example, if the green and blue cone groups are aroused
at the same time with the same intensity ratio, a cyan colour may be seen if the cones are
stimulated at the same time.
Subtractive mixing (Fig. 3.5 (b)) uses the reflective properties of pigments to limit the
wavelengths of light absorbed by the pigments to those that correspond to the individual
colours. When two or more different colours' pigments are mixed together, the result is a
reflection of wavelengths shared by both colours.
3.3.2 Hue
It is the property of a colour that allows the colour of any given object to be distinguished
 52 |Consumer Electronics

from other colours. The cones in the retina are responsible for the perception of hue, which
is determined by the varying wavelengths of the spectrum of radiation that are emitted. The
term "tint" is another name for this substance.
3.3.3 Luminance
The amount of light that can be measured and is equivalent to brightness is referred to as
luminosity. It provides a numerical representation of the amount of light that travels through
or is emitted from a specific region when viewed at a particular angle. In black and white
photographs, the sections that are better have a higher luminance level than the areas that
are darker.
3.3.4 Saturation
When you apply a stain on a picture that has a higher saturation level, the image will appear
more vivid and bright. When contrasted with this, a lower saturation level results in colours
that have a more washed-out or faded appearance. Because white makes colours less strong,
a higher saturation level indicates that colour has greater depth. A fully saturated colour
does not contain any visible traces of white. Images that have a high saturation level are
characterized by having vibrant colours that are saturated.
3.3.5 Chrominance
The term chrominance, often known as Chroma, refers to the combination of hue and
saturation. However, it does not carry any information about the brightness of the object.
The usage of chromaticity diagrams provides a depiction of all the spectral colours and their
mixes that is clear to understand and is based on the primary colours that are contained
within them.
3.3.6 Different Types of TV Cameras
A colour camera's job is to take an image and convert the intensity of each of the three main
colours—red, green, and blue—into an equivalent amount of electrical voltage pixel by
pixel. Instead of the brightness that is seen by the human eye, the voltage of the camera
tubes is set up to match the actual brightness that is there in the colour. This is in contrast
to how brightness is perceived by the human eye. As a direct consequence of this, the
signals that were picked up are chrominance signals. There are two distinct varieties of
camera tubes, namely the single-tube camera and the three-tube camera.
3.3.6.1 Three-tube camera
It is composed of three camera tubes that are identical to one another. These tubes can be
vidicons, plumbicons, or any other form that is a modified version of these. They are the
same kind of tubes that are used in monochrome television transmitters. The video voltage
produced by colour cameras is used to indicate the absolute strength of each pixel, whereas
 Television Systems| 53

the video voltage produced by monochrome cameras is used to represent how sensitive an
eye is to each of its different colours. White balance is something that can be adjusted to
make this possible.
3.3.6.2 Single-tube camera
The face plate of a single-tube camera features red, green, and blue stripes that are relatively
close to one another. These stripes are where the colour filters are built in. The target, which
likewise consists of stripes of the equivalent colour, is responsible for converting colour
signals into the correct charge signal pattern. The scanning beam is responsible for the
generation of visual signals by way of the corresponding load resistor. As a direct
consequence of this, it is possible to observe video signals in the colours red, green, and
blue.
3.4 TRANSMISSION STANDARDS
Television programmes can only be received by the receiver if it satisfies the requirements
laid out by the transmission standards. As a result, it is necessary for the scanning processes
utilized by both the receiver and the transmitter to be consistent with one another and
coordinated. In a similar manner, for the receiver to be able to identify colour signals, it
needs to generate the same subcarrier that was utilized by the transmitter. Different
countries have developed their own unique sets of guidelines. As a consequence of this,
receivers in a country are developed to be able to receive television transmissions that are
in accordance with the standards of that country. Countries prefer minor changes in channel
width, bandwidth, inter-carrier frequency, and the like because their scientists believe that
minor changes will improve picture quality.
3.4.1 PAL System
A television encoding scheme known as Phase Alternate Line (PAL) is used to transmit
analogue signals. 625 interlaced lines make up a PAL picture, which is shown in 25 fps.
Colour systems that use an eye as an average mechanism for hue are called PAL colour
systems. Above a certain threshold, the eye can see the effect of colour changes on
alternating lines. As a result, this system must be modified. This can be improved by
averaging the colours before displaying them to the eye.
This is because the PAL system has a higher number of scan lines. Stable colours are
ensured through phase alternation error correction. The gamma and brightness signal
bandwidths are also greater. Because it has more contrast than NTSC, another colour
television standard.
The receivers, on the other hand, are expensive because they feature intricate electronic
switching circuits. Compared to NTSC, the sound-to-noise ratio is lower with PAL. Phase
differences cancel each other out, resulting in a reduction in colour saturation.
 54 |Consumer Electronics

3.4.2 Channel Bandwidth

The frequency components of the video signal in the 625-line TV system range from 0 Hz
to 5 MHz, and transmission of a Double Side Band (DSB) AM signal would necessitate a
bandwidth of 10 MHz. This would not be enough to accommodate the transmission.
Because it is hard to swiftly cut off the bandwidth of a signal at its sideband borders using
filter characteristics that are appropriate, a band space that is even larger than it is already
required. When the bandwidth is raised, the speed at which data can be carried may increase,
and a greater number of devices may be connected all at once.
Fig. 3.6 depicts the entirety of a channel. Because the sound carrier is always at the very
end of the completely radiated upper sideband, there is a 5.5 MHz gap between it and the
image carrier. We can ensure that there will be minimal crosstalk between the two signals
by placing them in this location. The FM sound signal that surrounds the sound carrier has
a frequency range of about 75 kHz. To ensure proper inter-channel isolation, a guard band
with a frequency of 0.25 MHz is permitted on the sound carrier side of the television
channel. In comparison to the 11.25 MHz required by the corresponding double sideband
signal, the entire channel bandwidth only takes up 7 MHz, resulting in a 4.25 MHz savings
per channel.

Fig.3.6 Complete channel bandwidth

3.4.3 TV Signal propagation
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that travel through space and are picked up by
receiving antennas when they are released by antennas. Antennas are responsible for
sending radio waves into space. There are three types of wave propagation based on the
wavelengths of the waves involved: ground wave (or surface wave), sky wave, and space
wave.
 Television Systems| 55

Electromagnetic waves with vertically polarised fields move toward the ground at very
small angles. This is called "ground wave propagation," and the conducting surface of the
earth guides them. This medium-wave transmitter is in charge of both long-wave telegraph
and phone transmissions and medium-wave broadcasting.
Ground wave propagation becomes inefficient at frequencies above 1600 kHz due to signal
attenuation caused by short-range transmission lag time. This occurs because of the lag time.
As a result, sky waves are responsible for the overwhelming bulk of broadcasts in shortwave
frequencies up to 30 MHz (11 meters). These waves travel in a direct line until they reach
the ionosphere, where they are absorbed before continuing on their journey. As the
frequency of the signal grows, the maximum angle at which it may be deflected back to
Earth decreases until it is no longer possible to do so.
Radio waves with a frequency greater than 40 MHz cannot be carried by either surface or
sky wave propagation (the start of the television broadcast band). As a result, the only option
for transmitting signals in the VHF and UHF bands is to use radio waves that travel in a
straight line from the transmitter to the receiver. The technical term for this phenomenon is
"space wave propagation." For the signal to be propagated, the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver must be in a direct line of sight.
3.4.4 Interference suffered by TV channels
There are numerous factors that interfere with carrier signals. These include thermal noise,
man-made noise and various interfering signals originating from other similar sources of
video or radio. Interferences can be categorized into three types:
3.4.4.1 Co-channel Interference
In the event that two stations that use the same carrier frequency are situated in close
proximity to one another, interference will occur. The phenomenon known as "venetian
blind" interference emerges when two stations on the same co-channel are almost the same
distance apart from one another. The visuals of the channels are displayed in black and
white with a horizontal bar overlay that is also black and white. Interference levels cannot
be ignored when the signal-to-interference ratio falls below 45 dB; at this point, these bars
become more visible and move up and down the screen.
3.4.4.2 Adjacent Channel Interference
Beats of frequencies generated by one channel can also generate interference in adjacent
channels. The receiver antenna picks up a wide variety of additional signals in addition to
the signal from the channel that is now selected. A significant portion of them is integrated
in the RF tuner, so they are never even transmitted to the first IF stage. Interference signals
from neighbouring channels can occasionally be so strong and so close to the channel of
interest that they pass through the tuner section and appear at the first IF stage's input
 56 |Consumer Electronics

instead. The primary sources of interference are the various products produced by the
various oscillator frequencies in conjunction with the sound carrier of the lower
neighbouring channel and the picture carrier of the higher neighbouring channel.
On the display, a coarse dot pattern will appear any time the picture carrier of the desired
channel is either quicker than the sound carrier of the lowest adjacent channel or faster than
both of those
Table 3.4 Television Channel Allocation (as per CCIR) in Bands I and III

Band Channe Freq. Range Picture Sound

l (MHz) Carrier freq. Carrier
Numbe (MHz) freq.
r (MHz)

I 1 41–47 Not used

(41–68 MHz)

2 47–54 48.25 53.75

3 54–61 55.25 60.75

4 61–68 62.25 67.75

III 5 174–181 175.25 180.75

(174–230 MHz)

6 181–188 182.25 187.75

7 188–195 189.25 194.75

 Television Systems| 57

8 195–202 196.25 201.75

9 202–209 203.25 208.75

10 209–216 210.25 215.75

11 216–223 217.25 222.75

Additional 12 223–230 224.25 229.75

Channel

carriers combined. If the lower neighbouring sound carrier is quite loud and the receiver
does not muffle it suitably, beat patterns will become more noticeable.
3.4.4.3 Ghost Interference
Ghost interference is created by stray reflections of the signal from various structures such
as building walls and roof surfaces. The reflected signal path is longer than the direct path,
causing delayed arrival of the reflected signal. This delay is due to the greater direct signal
regulating the synchronising circuitry, causing the image to be skewed. The greater direct
signal causes this delay. In the industry, these displaced images are referred to as "trailing
ghosts."
3.4.5 TV broadcast channels for Terrestrial Transmission
The most significant disadvantage of broadcast television is that it only has a limited
audience. In order for signals to be received via terrestrial transmission, there must be a
clear line of sight between the antenna that is transmitting the signal and the antenna that is
receiving the signal. The greatest challenge presented by long-distance reception is posed
by the spherical shape of the Earth, which causes the signal's line of sight to eventually
become interrupted. As a result, satellite television is the superior choice because it is a
wireless system that transmits programming straight to the customer's residence.
58 |Consumer Electronics

Table 3.5 UHF BAND IV (0.47–0.598 GHz) Channels 21–36

Band Channel Frequency Picture Sound

(UHF) No. Range (MHz) Carrier Carrier
frequency frequency
(MHz) (MHz)

IV Channel 21 0.47 - 0.478 0.47125 0.47675

21–36
22 0.478 - 0.486 0.47925 0.48475

23 0.486 - 0.494 0.48725 0.49275

24 0.494 - 0.502 0.49525 0.50075

25 0.502 - 0.510 0.50325 0.50875

26 0.510 - 0.518 0.51125 0.51675

27 0.518 - 0.526 0.51925 0.52475

28 0.526 - 0.534 0.52725 0.53275

29 0.534 - 0.542 0.53525 0.54075

30 0.542 - 0.550 0.54325 0.54875

31 0.550 - 0.558 0.55125 0.55675

32 0.558 - 0.566 0.55925 0.56475

33 0.566 - 0.574 0.56725 0.57275

 Television Systems| 59

34 0.574 - 0.582 0.57525 0.58075

35 0.582 - 0.590 0.58325 0.58875

36 0.590 - 0.598 0.59125 0.59675

Table 3.6 UHF BAND V (606–870 MHz) Channels 37–69

Channel Freq. Channel Freq.

Number band (MHz) Number band (MHz)

37 606-614 54 742–750

38 614-622 55 750–758

39 622-630 56 758–766

40 630-638 57 766–774

41 638-646 58 774–782

42 646-654 59 782–790

43 654-662 60 790–798

44 662-670 61 798–806

45 670-678 62 806–814

46 678-686 63 814–822
 60 |Consumer Electronics

47 686-694 64 822–830

48 694-702 65 830–838
49 702-710 66 838–846
50 710-718 67 846–854
51 718-726 68 854–862
52 726-734 69 862–870
53 734-742 - -

3.4.6 Block Diagram of TV Transmitter

In the block diagram of the TV transmitter as shown in Fig. 3.7, each of the two types of
transmitters—the amplitude-modulated transmitter and the frequency-modulated
transmitter—plays a unique role. While an amplitude-modulated transmitter is used to
modify the video, a frequency-modulated transmitter is used to alter the audio. Modulation
of the video takes place.
A radio frequency (RF) carrier frequency is produced by the master oscillator in either
scenario. When it detects the correct carrier, it produces a multiple of that carrier and drives
the harmonic generators (frequency multipliers). A harmonic generator's output-tuned
circuit is tuned to one of the input signal's harmonics. Harmonic generators are tuned
amplifiers of type C. In a video transmitter, the carrier signal is fed into an amplitude
modulator, whereas in an audio transmitter, the carrier signal is fed into a frequency
modulator. The appropriate level of amplitude is transmitted with this signal as it enters the
modulator. Because of the low-level modulation, linear amplifiers are used to increase the
level of the modulating signal so that it may be sent successfully at the required level. After
being combined on separate carriers, the video and audio are combined into a single signal
before being transferred to the transmitting antenna.

UNIT SUMMARY
Monochrome television displays images that are only shades of grey between black and
white. To obtain continuous frames and provide picture motion, the scene is scanned in both
the horizontal and vertical directions at a rapid rate. A typical television picture frame has
a 4:3 aspect ratio. Furthermore, the motion picture rate of 24 fps and the scanning rate of 25
fps are used to avoid visual persistence. Flicker is caused by a blank screen between each
frame. This can be avoided by employing interlaced scanning.
 Television Systems| 61

Fig. 3.7 Block Diagram of TV Transmitter

Despite the fact that the image contains brightness information, there is a lack of colour
information in certain parts of a monochrome image. As a result, it is critical to add colour
to the previously white raster image. As a result, there are three colour characteristics that
can be used to characterise various aspects of visual information: luminosity, hue, and
saturation. To create a variety of colours, additive and subtractive mixing techniques are
used. The three primary colours used in these techniques are red, green, and blue. There are
two distinct varieties of camera tubes, namely the single tube camera and the three-tube
camera.
Television programmes can only be received by the receiver if they meet the transmission
standards. Analogue signals are transmitted using the Phase Alternate Line (PAL) television
encoding scheme. There are three types of TV signal wave propagation based on the
 62 |Consumer Electronics

wavelengths of the waves involved: ground wave (or surface wave), sky wave, and space
wave. Furthermore, there are numerous factors that interfere with carrier signals, which can
be classified into three types: co-channel interference, adjacent channel interference, and
ghost interference. To receive signals via terrestrial transmission, a clear line of sight must
exist between the antenna transmitting the signal and the antenna receiving the signal.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1) What is the aspect ratio of a typical picture frame in a television?
a) 1:1
b) 4:3
c) 2:3
d) 16:9
2) In interlaced scanning, there is one-half line spacing between the start positions for
scanning odd and even fields. This is done to produce
a) Horizontal Scanning
b) Linear Scanning
c) Exact Interlacing
d) Line Pairing
3) What are the primary colours of the colour theory?
a) Red, Green, Blue
b) Yellow, Red, Blue
c) Blue, Green Yellow
d) Cyan, Yellow, Magenta
4) Which of the following is not a category of interference?
a) Co-channel interference
b) Adjacent Channel interference
c) Thermal interference
d) Ghost interference
5) The value of resolution (Kell) factor is about ____
a) 0.67
b) 0.71
c) 0.59
d) 0.69
 Television Systems| 63

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1)b 2) c 3)a 4)c 5)d

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. Explain in brief, the role of scanning in television systems.
2. Explain the following terms in the context of Television: flicker, Aspect Ratio, Blank
pulse, Front and Back porch.
3. Explain why 625 lines were chosen rather than 623 or 627, and why the frame reception
rate was set at 25 rather than 24 as in motion pictures.
4. Determine the width and height of the TV screen for a 60 cm TV with a 4:3 aspect ratio.
5. State the important cause of ghost images on TV.
6. Draw a block diagram and explain the monochrome TV transmitter and receivers.
7. Explain with necessary details Composite Video (CVD) Signal including Horizontal
and Vertical Sync.
8. Explain the interlaced scanning process with the necessary details.
9. Mention important factors which are considered for designing the transmission and
reception systems to get a good quality picture. Draw relevant current waveforms.
10. Describe the separation and processing of sync signals from incoming video signals in
the TV receiver.
11. Explain with necessary details the PAL system and its system bandwidth.
12. Draw the block diagram of the Colour TV transmitter. Explain the same in brief.
PRACTICAL
1. To study block diagrams of monochrome TV transmission and reception.
2. To study the function of the RF tuner section. Observe the necessary output waveforms
& measure necessary test point voltages.
3. To study the video IF section & sound IF section and observe the CCVS signal. Observe
AGC & AFT output.
4. To study the horizontal oscillator section and vertical oscillator section with the
operation of Sync Separator. Observe the frequency of oscillation on various test points.
 64 |Consumer Electronics

KNOW MORE
● Although the requirements for monochrome transmission had been established
before WWII, progress in civilian electronics was halted for the duration of the
conflict.
● When television first debuted in 1936, it aired in black and white for the next 30
years, until 1967. Also, the first mechanical television broadcasts (1929–1935) only
had a few thousand viewers, and the images they saw were black and orange because
of the neon gas used in the lights.
● Scottish innovator John Logie Baird created the first successful colour TV systems
in 1928. Based on Baird's 1928 mechanical TV concepts, CBS engineers developed
a colour television system in 1940. The original colour televisions had awful picture
quality and were not backwards-compatible with monochrome sets.
● In 1942, a young Mexican inventor called Guillermo González Camarena was
granted a patent for a colour television. His invention, a "enhanced chromoscopic
adapter" for Trichromatic-based colour TV transmissions, was granted a patent. He
pioneered the use of colour on television and became widely recognised for this
achievement.
REFERENCES
[1] Gulati, R. R. (2005). Monochrome and colour television. New Age International.
[2] Gupta, R. G. Audio & Video Systems, 2e. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.
[3] Yang, K., Li, Z., Shang, L., & Yi, W. (2011). Design and analysis of a novel surface
acoustic wave micro position sensor. Journal of Electromagnetic Analysis and
Applications, 2011.
[4] Bhikshapathy, M. B., Pandharipande, V. M., & Krishna, P. G. Analysis & Design of
Portable Video Transceiver.
[5] Alkhatib, M. (2016). A New Optimized Double Stacked Turnstile Antenna Design.
[6] Patel, C., & Kulkarni, G. R. (2010, December). Simulation and performance analysis
of NTSC television system and standards. In 2010 IEEE International Conference on
Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
[7] Trundle, E. (2001). Newnes guide to television and video technology. Newnes.
[8] Whitaker, J. C., & Benson, B. (2003). Standard handbook of video and television
engineering. McGraw-Hill Education.
[9]Tozer, E. P. J. (2012). Broadcast engineer's reference book. Routledge.
[10] Fink, D. G. (1957). Television engineering handbook. McGraw-Hill.
 Television Systems| 65

[11] Jack, K., & Tsatsoulin, V. (2002). Dictionary of video and television technology.
Gulf Professional Publishing.
[12] Goldmark, P. C. (1949). Brightness and contrast in television. Electrical Engineering,
68(3), 237-242.
[13] Sharma, K. K. (2009). Fundamentals Of Television And Radar Engg. Seagull Books
Pvt Ltd.
[14] Dhake, A. M. (1980). Television Engineering (CCIR System-B Standards). McGraw-
Hill Companies.
[15] Roberts, R. S. (Ed.). (1985). Television Engineering: Broadcast, Cable, and Satellite.
Pentech Press.
[16] Srivastava, H. O., & Jain, R. C. (1999). Broadcast Technology—Past, Present and
Future: A Review. IETE Technical Review, 16(3-4), 317-334.
 Television Receivers and

d
4 Video Systems

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● Basic components of PAL-D TV;
● Various parts of TV;
● Recent types of TV and their functionality;
● High-Definition Television (HDTV) standards;
● Direct to Home (DTH) working;
● Types of videos;
● Digital Videos.
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short
and long answer types marked in two categories following the lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of
references and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for
practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 67

activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
subject focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter
for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety of aspects, case study
related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and
finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
RATIONALE
This unit of television systems illuminates the concepts of television receivers and
video systems. The human eye can not perceive the effect of changes in the "simple PAL"
colour system hence for improvements it requires modifications, and this modified system
is known as the "PAL-D" ( PAL -Delay Line) method which uses a delay line to compute
averaging before presenting the colour to the eye. This unit describes how the PAL-D colour
TV receiver functions in depth.
Furthermore, televisions have evolved significantly over the years. Digital, LCD,
LED, Plasma, HDTV, 3-D TV, and Projection TV has been briefly described, as well as
their benefits and drawbacks stated. Additionally, the unit demonstrates the operation of
the outdoor and indoor units of direct-to-home (DTH) technology.
The television receiver includes a video amplifier, sound section, sync separator, and
processor that have been thoroughly discussed. In addition, various types of video cables
and interfaces have been discussed. Finally, the unit incorporates fundamentals of CD and
DVD players.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows: After learning this unit student will be able to
U4-O1: Describe PAL-D Colour TV Receiver Block Diagram along with its components
U4-O2: Describe DTH Concept Receive Block Diagram
U4-O3: Explain recent types of TV and their functionality
U4-O4: Explain interfaces and players of TV
 68 |Consumer Electronics

Unit-4 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U4-O1 2 2 3 3 3 2
U4-O2 1 1 3 3 2 1
U4-O3 3 1 3 3 3 2
U4-O4 2 2 3 3 3 2

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A television receiver combines AM and FM systems - AM for picture and FM for sound
reception. Furthermore, the receiver circuitry includes scanning and synchronising blocks
for clear image reproduction at the picture tube screen. The antenna section of the TV
intercepts incoming signals and forwards picture plus sound carrier signals to the RF tuner.
A TV receiver is a heterodyne type consisting of two or three phases of intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifiers. The video signal is recovered by demodulating the output of the
final IF stage. Picture information-carrying signal is driven to the picture tube, where picture
elements are retrieved from electrical signals.
4.2 PAL-D Colour TV Receiver Block Diagram
Modern TV receiver circuit diagrams rarely allow for detailed signal tracing because of the
widespread use of integrated circuits, which perform multiple functions at once. Although
this demands a significant amount of circuit design standardisation, a wide variety of
integrated circuits are available for colour TV receivers due to the many permutations of
the functional units. Among the various PAL-D Colour TV Receivers that have been
developed, The schematic representation of a commonly used setup is shown in Fig. 4.1.
The overall signal flow pattern of a PAL-D colour TV receiver is similar to that of an NTSC
receiver. The block diagram is divided into the following sections:
4.2.1 Tuner
A TV receiver tuner employs an additional circuit known as automatic frequency tuning
(AFT) to retain the correct local oscillator frequency. In order to obtain perfect colour
reproduction, a colour burst is required and in turn, it depends on AFT. Moreover, a picture
IF is achieved at 38.9 MHz. The discriminator part of AFT processes IF signals to generate
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 69

a dc control voltage proportional to any deviations observed in frequency. Error voltage, if

any is passed the local oscillator to keep its frequency stable.
4.2.2 Sound Strip
To generate audio output, FM sound IF signal is processed. Volume, as well as tone controls
of the sound signal, are first given to the loudspeaker via an audio amplifier.
4.2.3 Automatic gain control (AGC), Sync-separator & Deflection Circuits
For better reproduction of signals to the TV, the AGC circuit controls the gain of the
receiver circuits in accordance with the strength of the signal received by the antenna. The
sync separator is an important section to separate the sync pulses (which include horizontal,
vertical, and equalising pulses) from the incoming video signal.
4.2.4 Luminance Channel
In the luminance channel, the first section is the video amplifier to amplify the signal. The
video amplifier is followed by a delay line that is required to synchronise with the chroma
signal that suffers delay due to the limited bandpass. Subsequently, there exists a notch filter
that attenuates subcarriers by about 10db and reduces the appearance of any dot structure
on the screen. At last, an inverted composite video signal available at the output is fed to
the picture tube's three cathodes with proper brightness and contrast adjustments.
4.2.5 Colour Signal Processing
The video signal present at the video detector is amplified by a video preamplifier and to
different parts. Nowadays integrated circuits (ICs) are used to process the colour signal.
4.2.6 Subcarrier Generation and Control
This section locally generates a frequency subcarrier to compensate for the loss of the
subcarrier in the modulator section at the transmitter side. It is highly desired that the
generated subcarrier should have frequency and phase references be the same as the original
values at the transmitter. The auto phase control (APC) circuit controls the task by
comparing the incoming bursts to the locally generated reference subcarrier. This ensures
that the crystal oscillator in the receiver operates at the correct frequency and phase.
4.3 DIGITAL TV
Digital television (DTV) employs digital encoding to transmit television signals, in contrast
to traditional analogue television technology, which uses analogue signals. It was the first
 70 |Consumer Electronics

major change to television technology since the emergence of colour in the 1950s, so its
creation was greeted with excitement and anticipation. The widescreen aspect ratio
(typically 16:9) is used, which is different from the more conventional 4:3 employed in
analogue television. Compared to analogue TV, it is more efficient in its use of the radio
spectrum, as it can transmit up to seven channels using the same amount of bandwidth as a
single analogue channel.

Fig. 4.1 PAL-D colour TV receiver block diagram

4.3.1 Advantages:
1. Offers more channels as compared to terrestrial analogue
2. Better image resolution
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 71

3. Superior sound quality

4. If the television has a network and a broadband connection, numerous interactive
services are available
5. Compatible with computers and the internet
6. Provide consistent reception over varying distances
4.3.2 Disadvantages:
1. Requires good-technical skills to set up a connection
2. The absence of properly designed guidelines may damage the quality.
4.4 LCD TV
In the early 21st century, sales of liquid crystal display (LCD) televisions skyrocketed,
eventually surpassing those of CRT televisions worldwide in 2007. Moreover, LCDs were
originally developed for use in portable televisions. LCD (liquid crystal display) TV utilises
light-based modulating properties of liquid crystal in addition to polarizers. For images to
be displayed on a liquid crystal display, a backlight or reflector is required. Consequently,
they consume much less power than plasma displays.

Fig. 4.2. LCD TV [1]

Moreover, it consists of a grid of individual picture elements (pixels) that can be moved
around and rearranged to create a new visual. Both passive and active-matrix display grids
can be used in an LCD screen. Both the active-matrix LCD (also called a thin film transistor
 72 |Consumer Electronics

(TFT) display) and the passive matrix LCD (also called a dot matrix LCD) use a grid of
conductors to organise their displays, with individual pixels placed at the grid's
intersections. In order to adjust the brightness of a specific pixel, a current must be passed
between two grid conductors.
Furthermore, to reduce the amount of power needed to regulate each pixel's brightness, an
active matrix places a transistor at each pixel's intersection. In an active-matrix display, this
means the current can be turned on and off frequently, increasing the refresh rate. Some
passive matrix LCDs are dual-scanned, which means that the grid is scanned with current
twice as fast as it was scanned once with the older technology. The active matrix, on the
other hand, is a far more advanced method.
4.4.1 Advantages:
1. Bright images are generated due to high peak intensity
2. Zero geometric distortion
3. Flat Screens
4. Lesser consumption of electricity and less heat production

4.4.2 Disadvantages:
1. Require precision in the tracking of pixels for noise reduction
2. Limited viewing angle
3. Saturation and compression occur when the LCD's bright end of the intensity scale is
overworked
4. Slower response times may lead to poorer quality of image
4.5 LED TV
LED TVs replace cathode ray tubes to incorporate light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for
illumination of display rather than the CCFLs used in standard LCD televisions. As a result
of their high visibility in direct sunlight, they can be used as outdoor store signs or
advertisements. Additionally, they have seen widespread use in variable-message signs
along highways and as destination signs on public transportation vehicles in recent years.
LED displays are an alternative to conventional projection screens because they provide
higher contrast ratios and can be used to create massive, seamless video streaming.
Edge-lit displays have LEDs only along their outer edges, while full-array displays
illuminate their entire backs with the same technology. However, Sony, Samsung, Vizio,
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 73

and LG all use edge lit technology, while Sharp and Toshiba use full array lit technology.
Full-array LED TVs, which illuminate the entire screen with LEDs, are bulkier and more
expensive than edge-lit LED TVs.
4.5.1 Advantages:
1. Provides good brightness of the screen to improve the user experience
2. Removes the light flickering across the screen
3. Allows for longer display usage
4. Eases control and displays specific colour characteristics using a variety of hues
5. Easily portable because it is thin and light-weight
4.5.2 Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive
2. Must use a good quality antenna
4.6 Plasma TV
One of the alternates in TV is Plasma TVs in which tiny pockets of gas convert to plasma
upon application of a voltage to them. The application of voltage makes mercury collide
within the plasma, to emit ultraviolet (UV) rays. In turn, it passes through phosphor cells to
create an image. Three phosphor cells (red, green, and blue) combine to form a colour. Each
pixel in plasma TV is self-emissive and able to produce its own light. They are able to
provide a stunning true black effect because they do not need an external source of light to
power the display. But a glass panel is required for a plasma TV, which is why they are
relatively large and have a lot of glares during the day.
4.6.1 Advantages:
1. Less bulky than rear projection television
2. Large screen sizes can be manufactured commercially
3. Much greater viewing angle
4. Can be wall mounted
4.6.2 Disadvantages:
1. A picture is not so clear under bright conditions
2. Higher energy consumption
3. Doesn't work well at high altitudes
4. Produce glare due to reflection
 74 |Consumer Electronics

4.7 HDTV
One of the most promising technologies in TV is HDTV (High-Definition Television).
HDTV provides high-quality video by utilisation of digital signals. As a result, interference
caused by analogue parts in electrical currents is eliminated. HDTV employs a wider aspect
ratio of 16:9 resulting in better image perception. The higher resolution of HDTV produces
much finer images, with more detail and colour than previous formats. Additionally,
watching HDTV feels more natural because the screen's viewing angle is similar to that of
the human eye. Direct-view TVs, plasma TVs, rear- and front-projection TVs, and front-
projection HDTVs are all examples of HDTV displays. However, an HDTV tuner is needed
to enjoy the highest quality format (1080i).
4.7.1 Advantages:
1. An increase in resolution improves picture quality.
2. The use of interlaced scanning improves the visual experience.
3. Audio quality is greatly improved because Dolby technology is used.
4. The HDMI allows for automatic configuration and bidirectional communication
between video sources.
4.7.2 Disadvantages:
1. Authentication delays are a potential cause of blank screens. It's also possible for there
to be issues with the screen flashing.
2. The cost of an HDMI cable is higher per metre than that of an analogue one.
3. Greater heat production and power usage compared to alternative technologies.
4. Life expectancy is comparatively low.
4.8 3-D TV
Through the use of special glasses, viewers of 3-D televisions are given the impression that
the images they are viewing have depth in addition to height and width, just like real-world
objects. It makes use of techniques like multi-view display, stereoscopic display, 2D-plus-
depth, and any other type of 3D display. The majority of modern 3D TVs employ an active
shutter 3D system or a polarised 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic, requiring no
glasses. Furthermore, it works by creating two distinct moving images, one for each eye.
Because the image seen by the right eye is blocked from view by the left eye, we perceive
depth.
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 75

Watching 3D TV requires a high-definition (HD) set with either passive or active 3D

technology. Polarization, or the production of light rays with different properties in different
directions, is essential to passive 3D technology. Separate, polarised images are presented
to each eye via the 3D TV's display and the viewer's polarised 3D glasses; the brain then
combines these images to create the 3D effect.
Unlike passive 3D TVs, which display identical left and right images, active 3D TVs rapidly
swap between the two images. In turn, the viewer uses powered or active 3D glasses that
pick up infrared signals from the TV. Therefore, an individual's right eye will not be able to
see content meant for the left eye, and vice versa, thanks to synchronisation between the
screen and the glasses. The images change so rapidly, typically around 50 times each
second, that they become a single entity in the mind of the observer.
The use of lenses is one approach to producing glasses-free 3D television, which are paper-
thin plastic lenses which may be positioned in front of a TV screen to send slightly different
images to the audience's right and left eyes. In order for the "lenticular 3D TV" to work,
the viewer must maintain a specific distance and viewing angle from the screen. Thus, the
technology is considered more suitable for portable devices like laptops and DVD players
than for large-screen televisions.
Even though the concept of 3D television is still in its early stages, holography, which uses
laser light to create a 3D image, is being explored by manufacturers. The concept is to
project an image onto a "cloud" in the midst of a room, making it viewable from any
direction without the need for special 3D glasses.
4.9 Projection TV
Projection TVs are classified into two types: front projection and rear projection. Both
techniques employ tiny devices capable of producing extremely finer images. These devices
can be reflective, which means that light bounces off the device and picks up the image. In
addition, they may have a transmissive quality, allowing the image to be picked up by light
as it passes through the gadget. After the light captures the image, a magnification task is
done by lenses, followed by projection onto the screen.
A front-projection system employs a projector and a separate screen to project images onto
the screen's front surface. Although a HD monitor is ideal, any flat, white surface can be
used for projection. It enables users to recreate the large-screen experience of a commercial
movie theatre in their own homes. Furthermore, it is the least expensive alternative for big-
screen video at home and is easy to set up. Front projectors, on the other hand, look best in
a darkened room, much like a movie theatre. A dark room allows for the most contrast and
 76 |Consumer Electronics

sparkle in the image. Most projectors necessitate maintenance that is not applicable in case
of flatscreen and standard televisions.
Rear-projection systems resemble standard televisions. TVs with built-in projectors are able
to display content by projecting an image onto the rear of a screen. A rear projection TV is
significantly less expensive than a comparable-sized plasma TV. Rear projection televisions
used to be thick and boxy, taking up a lot of floor space but a majority of them are now less
than 18" deep, thanks to the new digital light engines. Moreover, it tends to perform
reasonably well in rooms with some ambient light, as long as you view them head-on at eye
level. However, it has limited viewing angles and tends to reflect anything illuminated by
ambient light in the room.

Fig. 4.3: Rear projection TV [2]

Fig. 4.4: Front projection TV [3]

 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 77

4.10 DTH CONCEPT BLOCK DIAGRAM

India is one of the world's largest DTH service providers. Because of the large number of
viewers in India, the demand for DTH is greater than in any other country. Some of the
popular DTH providers in India include TATA Sky, Dish TV, and Airtel DTH and others.

Fig. 4.5: Block diagram of DTH technology.

Using a small, personal dish for direct reception of satellite signals on a TV is referred to as
DTH technology (Fig. 4.5). DTH services aimed at providing better quality satellite signals
plus more channels to compete with local cable TV operators. The satellites compress and
encrypt signals and then the transmission is done through high-powered geo satellites.
Signals are received by dishes of DTH providers to the end users. This technology was
traditionally known as Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) technology. The home receiver
system of a DBS consists primarily of two units: an outdoor unit and an indoor unit.
4.10.1 The Outdoor Unit
The dish antenna at the receiver first receives the satellite's downlink signal, which ranges
from 12.2 GHz to 12.7 GHz. The received signal is then directed to the receiving horn which
directs the signal to the polarizer. This aids in the transmission of left-hand circular or right-
hand circular polarised signals by performing good switching. This outdoor unit's schematic
is depicted in Fig. 4.6.
 78 |Consumer Electronics

Fig 4.6 Schematic diagram of the Outdoor Unit

There is a low noise block, which is made up of a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and a
downconverter. The LNA is the unit responsible for signal amplification at low levels
because these are the signals that the antenna has difficulty recognising, and any necessary
amplification must be performed without the addition of noise. Subsequently, the
downconverter performs down-conversion of the signal in the range of 12.2 to 12.7 GHz,
which is converted into the range of 950 to 1450 MHz. The down-converted frequencies are
optimal for signal transmission from the connecting cable to the indoor unit.
4.10.2 The Indoor Unit
The tuner is the first component of the indoor unit (Fig. 4.7) and is responsible for selecting
the transponder. The transponder maintains the guard band of 24 MHz in the selected

Fig 4.7 Block diagram of Indoor Unit

 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 79

bandwidth. As a result, any of the 32 transponders must be received by the indoor unit. Only
a signal from 16 transponders must be available for a single polarization and QPSK
modulation of the carrier at the centre frequency. The quadrature phase-shift keying
modulated signal is then demodulated and converted into the equivalent bitstream. After
that, an error correction scheme is implemented to remove the errors from the received
sequence.
4.11 Video Amplifier
The video amplifier must meet the following specifications to generate a favourable image
on the picture tube's screen.
4.11.1 Video Gain
Video gain is referred to as the ability of the amplifier to produce a good raster for all values
of intensity of the picture tube scanning beam.
4.11.2 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is referred to as the ability to reproduce a picture's all frequency range of
information including Higher frequencies that are required for horizontal sections
requirements.
4.11.3 Frequency Distortion
Frequency distortion is the change in the amplitude of harmonics after the amplification.
The amplitude of the harmonics is a higher value than its effect. This normally occurs when
there is a change in amplification level as a result of a change in frequency. An input signal
to a practical amplifier will have both the fundamental frequency and harmonics of higher
and lower frequencies. Because of the amplification process, the amplitude of harmonics is
only a small percentage of the amplitude of the fundamental frequency. Because of this, the
waveform at the output is not significantly altered. However, if the harmonic amplitude
grows after amplification, the result will be audible at the output.
4.11.4 Phase Distortion
Phase distortion is considered important in video amplifiers as phase shift implies time shift,
which in turn implies position shift in the reproduced visual image. It is important to note
that the human eye can detect shift relative positions of the various picture elements and it
appears as distortion. This requires that relative phases should be preserved for all frequency
 80 |Consumer Electronics

components present in the video. However, it is worth noting that uniform delay in all
frequency components would be considered as would be to delay the entire signal.
4.11.5 Amplitude Distortion of Nonlinear Distortion
When the transistor's non-linear characteristics dampen the amplification applied to the
wave's positive and negative extremes, a phenomenon known as amplitude distortion
occurs. The wave's amplitude is reduced, but the parts of the waveform to either side of the
centre are unaffected. However, the ear is much more sensitive to the associated change in
the shape of the waveform tips, making the resulting decrease in amplitude in audio signals
much less noticeable.
4.11.6 Manual Contrast Control
For better contrast values between the white and black portions of the image, there should
be provided to control amplitude for the given video signal. Video amplifiers employ direct-
coupled and RC-coupled configurations. Both configurations require high-frequency
compensation.
4.12 SOUND SECTION
FM sound signal with a weak amplitude having a carrier frequency of 5.5 MHz, passes
through a tuned amplifier, known as sound IF. This signal is then fed into the FM detector,
which is typically either a ratio detection circuit or a discriminator circuit. Subsequently,
the output is given to a limiter circuit. FM detectors generally have the following
characteristics:
1. Obtained sound output signal is proportional to deviations from the sound carrier
frequency.
2. Rate of frequency deviation is helpful to determine the frequency of the signal.
De-emphasis circuit at the output of the sound detector works as the counterpart of the pre-
emphasis circuits (used at the transmitter) and restores the higher audio frequency
amplitudes. Before being delivered to the audio output (power) amplifier, the audio signal
is at least once amplified. Volume and tone controls are built into audio amplifiers and either
single-ended or push-pull is used as a power amplifier. FM demodulator circuits are found
in the form of integrated circuits (ICs) that drive one or two loudspeakers mounted at the
receiver's front panel.
AGC circuit maintains controls over the gain of the RF and IF circuitries to nullify changes
observed during a reception and to deliver nearly constant signal voltage to the video
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 81

detector. a bias voltage generated in the AGC circuit changes the operating points of the
amplifying devices. It is worth noting that regardless of the picture signal details, the sync
levels of the composite video signal is unchanged and a rectifier circuit generates a control
voltage in accordance with the sync level. The AGC control, as described above, is depicted
by a block schematic circuit arrangement in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Block schematic circuit arrangement of the AGC system

4.13 SYNC SEPARATION
The sync separator separates horizontal and vertical synchronising pulses from the video
signal. Obtained sync output is simultaneously given to the horizontal and vertical
deflection oscillators. Due to these signals, the image information can be correctly
positioned on the raster screen. A block schematic diagram of the operation sequence is
shown in Fig. 4.9.

Fig. 4.9. Generalised Block diagram of sync separator

 82 |Consumer Electronics

The sync separator works on the biasing of the circuit so that video signals cause current to
flow in the device. Self-biasing is used as the dc bias voltage that is produced by the ac
signal itself.
4.14 SYNC PROCESSING

Fig. 4.10 Circuit for separation of vertical and horizontal sync pulses

The receiver has two scanning circuits, one for vertical and one for horizontal electron beam
deflection. Horizontal sync obtained by locking the horizontal oscillator's frequency holds
the picture's line structure. Vertical sync locks the vertical frames by triggering the vertical
oscillator. Equalising pulses make even and odd fields vertically synchronised for good
interlacing. Fig. 4.10 shows the circuit diagram used to separate out these sync pulses.
4.15 VIDEO INTERFACE
Video interfaces are used to transfer data from computer memory to a monitor for display.
For the given line, input video signal voltage reproduces picture elements. The video
signal's black level should cut off the grid voltage and the blacker-than-black grid voltage.
At the picture tube grid, sync pulses are used to time vertical and horizontal scanning circuits
in the receiver.
4.16 COMPOSITE VIDEO
Image data is not transmitted alone. Along with it, blanking and sync pulses are also
transmitted. CVD (composite video signal) is the signal that contains all of these
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 83

components and it can be represented with either positive or negative polarity. For positive
polarity, the brighter the screen requirements, the greater the amplitude of the video signal
available. The blanking level is zero, and the sync pulse is less than zero. As a result, the
sync top is at its lowest point. On the other hand, for negative polarity, the brighter the
screen, the smaller the amplitude. As a result, the sync pulse is positive, above the blanking
level.
An RCA or "yellow plug" cable is a composite video cable, which has been used for
transmitting a video signal. However, it cannot support HD content. Video signals range all
the way from high definition to the lowest common denominator, composite. When
compared to other video formats, the quality of video produced by a composite signal
(which transmits all colour and brightness data over a single cable) is noticeably lower.
Moreover, the composite video input and output is a standard feature on almost all video
equipment. Therefore, with this setup, just one RCA or BNC plug is required. As video
signals have to travel through a distance, there can be a significant loss of resolution and
clarity of the picture. Losses due to radio frequency interference further may reduce picture
quality. Common uses for composite video signals in professional editing settings include
menu outputs, troubleshooting, and low-quality preview monitoring. They're also frequently
used to connect electronics like VCRs and DVD players to home televisions.
4.17 COMPONENT VIDEO
Component video divides video contents into three cables — green, blue, and red — each
of which transmits a different component of the video signal. The green cable (also known
as the Y cable) transmits the signal's brightness-related information, the blue and red cables
carry the blue and red components of the picture's colour and a combination of all three
signals infers gray components. Because component video is distributed across three
separate cables it can satisfy the need for HD resolutions to produce smoother images with
more defined edges.
Component cables have now been used as video cables due to their promising high picture
quality and HD support capabilities. Almost all modern HDTVs, most video game consoles,
DVD players, digital video recorders, and cable set-top boxes also support component
video.
4.18 SEPARATE VIDEO
Separate video (S-Video), is a video signalling standard with resolutions of 480i or 576i.
This is a video analogue signal that contains information in two parts (a) chroma signal
 84 |Consumer Electronics

which stands for colour information and (b) luma signal which stands for brightness,
contrast etc. It transmits video information in a single cable without combining it with audio
signals. In comparison to composite video, S-Video can achieve better image quality but
lower colour resolution. S-video signals are typically transmitted via a cable with a 4-pin
mini-DIN connector.
4.19 DIGITAL VIDEO
DVI, or Digital Visual Interface, allows for the transmission of HD digital or analogue
signals from computers or HD video devices to flat-panel screens or projectors. Moreover,
up to 24 digital signals and 4 analogue signals can be transmitted via a DVI connector.
Recently, all-digital workflows involving image capturing to projections have been in
digital form for the following reasons:
Digital video is very effective for all the steps in communications including recording,
storing, processing, manipulating, transmitting, receiving and recovering. being SNR very
high it is almost error-free. According to the need and availability of bandwidth,
compression and decompression on digital video signals are possible. Today digital
communication has been widespread due to cheaper ICs, availability of advanced
communication networks capable of high-speed communication, huge storage space
availability, and advanced computing architectures digital video can now be handled at a
variety of applications demanding data rates on mobiles, tablets and other networks.
4.20 SERIAL DIGITAL INTERFACE (SDI)
SDI was created to make it simple to convert traditional analogue component video to and
from a digital video. Nowadays, the compression of digital video has become easy due to
the development of SDI. The goal of the Serial Data Transport Interface (SDTI) is to solve
this problem by transforming SDI into an interface that can transmit many different types
of data without breaking backwards compatibility with current SDI router networks.
HD-SDI is a variant of SDI with a greater data rate to accommodate the transmission of
uncompressed HD video. Similar to SDI, HD-SDI can transmit both audio and video over
a single cable. Moreover, by combining two HD-SDI channels, certain devices can offer
even greater data rates. This is also referred to as dual-link HD-SDI.
4.21 HIGH-DEFINITION MULTIMEDIA INTERFACE (HDMI)
HDMI transmits digital video data in uncompressed form while digital audio data into
compressed or uncompressed form. Such a transfer requires an HDMI-compliant source
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 85

device at the transmitter side plus a compatible monitor, video projector, or digital TV at
the receiver side. HDMI digitalizes analogue video and it implements EIA/CEA-861
standards that specify video, audio and auxiliary data formats. Recent HDMI versions have
optional advanced features such as 3D, and Ethernet extensions. Moreover, statistics show
that approximately ten billion HDMI devices have been sold by January 2021.
4.22 DIGITAL VIDEO INTERFACE (DVI)
DVI is an abbreviation for "Digital Video Interface". The Digital Display Working Group
(DDWG) developed the DVI video connection standard The majority of DVI ports can
connect to both analogue and digital displays. DVI will convert the digital signal into an
analogue signal if the display requirement arises. However, there is no need for conversion
if the display is digital.
DVI connections are classified into three types: DVI-A is for analogue, DVI-D is for digital,
and DVI-I is for integrated (both analogue and digital). DVI can support signals with a
bandwidth in excess of 160 MHz, and hence can be used for high-resolution displays like
UXGA and HDTV.
4.23 CD PLAYER
A compact disc (CD) is a plastic disc used to store data such as video, audio, and text files.
The signal to be recorded on CD is amplified and then transformed into a digital signal using
a sample and hold circuit and an ADC. The ADC output is also used by the Laser Beam
Generator and the signal from the crystal oscillator and Laser beam generator controls both
the control circuit and the servo system. The servo system, which is powered by a motor,
controls the rotation of the disc as well as the track and focus of the Laser beam generator.
After recording, the unexposed photoresist material is chemically removed, leaving a helical
pattern across the surface of the glass disc. This is used to create the glass master for mass-
production CDs. CD recording system block diagram is shown in Fig. 4.11.
4.23.1 Working
Within the CD player is a tiny laser beam (a semiconductor diode laser) and an electronic
light detector (photoelectric cell). Pressing the play button activates an electric motor that
spins the disc at a rapid speed. From the CD's centre to its outer edges, the laser beam is
activated and scanned along a track by the photocell. Along the scanning process, the motor
gradually slows the disc's rotation. This is because the disk's actual surface moves faster
 86 |Consumer Electronics

than the laser and photocell, requiring progressively more time to read the same amount of
information as the disk's distance from the centre increases.

Fig. 4.11 Block Diagram of CD Recording

The laser beam is shone upward onto the CD's shiny underside, where it is reflected by the
disc's pits and lands. Unlike the pits, which scatter the laser light, the lands reflect it straight
back. The reflected light is detected by the photocell a surge of current is sent to the
electronic circuit which generates the number one. When the photocell cannot detect any
light, as a result of an absence of land, the electronic circuit returns a value of 0.
So, the sequence of binary digits (0s and 1s) recorded on the disc at the manufacturer is
gradually reconstructed by the scanning laser and electronic circuit. The DAC then takes
these binary numbers and translates them back into a progressing electric current pattern. In
the end, the electric currents are converted into audible sounds by a loudspeaker.
4.24 DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC / DIGITAL VIDEO DISC (DVD) PLAYER
Fig. 4.12 shows the basic components of a DVD player. The block diagram divides into
control/servo and data paths. The control part of the system gives user connectivity with the
servo mechanisms and ensures the safety and proper operation sequence.
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 87

A servo system includes the focus and tracking servos, as well as a motorised loading drawer
and chucking mechanism. The most common form of player that uses power loading is one
that features a drawer to store the disc in the issue. A safety switch prevents the laser from
turning on inadvertently if the machine's drawer or lid is opened while it's functioning. The
goal is to ensure that the user takes no risk at all.
In order for the MPEG decoder to be able to decode the video, the data path must include
the data separator along with a de-interleaving and error-correcting mechanism as well as a
RAM buffer. Digital data is generated from the waveform sent from the EFM plus readout
via the data separator. EFM plus coding is a group code, so any error that alters the channel
patterns can lead to the loss of up to eight bits of data.
Sequentially writing into memory and reading out using a sequencer accomplish de-
interleaving. The outer decoder will then correct any burst errors in the data. Because MPEG
data is extremely error-prone, error-correction performance must be exceptional.

Fig. 4.12 Essential components of a DVD player.

A MPEG programme stream emerges after the de-interleave and outer error-correction
processes. Some of the data in the programme stream will be video, while others will be
audio, and this will be routed to the appropriate decoder. The bit rate of this programme
 88 |Consumer Electronics

stream is not fixed in DVD but can vary depending on the difficulty of the programme
material to maintain consistent image quality. The bit rate is altered by varying the disc
speed.
UNIT SUMMARY
Simple PAL colour system is modified using a delay line (PAL-D) to compute averaging
before presenting the colour to the human eye. The receiver of PAL-D Colour TV is divided
into various sections namely tuner, sound strip, AGC, sync-separator & deflection circuits,
luminance channel, colour signal processing and subcarrier generation and control. The
evolution of television has resulted in the invention of Digital, LCD, LED, Plasma, HDTV,
3-D TV, and Projection TV.
DTH technology refers to the reception of TV signals from satellites to a personal dish. A
DBS's home receiver system is made up primarily of two units: an outdoor unit and an
indoor unit. Moreover, the video amplifier, sound section, sync separator, and processor are
all integral parts of the television receiver. A video amplifier is used to amplify, buffer, and
filter analogue video signals over 75W cabling to maintain signal fidelity. Sync separator is
used to separate synchronising pulses from the composite video signal and subsequently,
TV receiver has two scanning circuits, one for vertical electron beam deflection and the
other for horizontal electron beam deflection. Furthermore, data is transferred from
computer memory to a monitor via video interfaces.
A composite video cable is a traditional video signal transmission standard that uses a single
cable and connector. Component video divides video signals into three cables: green, blue,
and red, each transmitting a different component of the video signal. S-Video is a 480i or
576i video signalling standard and this video analogue signal contains two signals: chroma
and luma. Additionally, Serial Digital Interface (SDI) makes it easy to convert analogue
component video to digital and HDMI transfers uncompressed video and digital audio from
HDMI-compliant devices to compatible receivers. The digital video interface supports
signals with more than 160 MHz bandwidth, allowing it to be used for UXGA and HDTV.
A CD is a plastic disc used to store data such as video, audio, and text files, while a DVD
stands for a digital versatile disc or digital video disc.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following specifications should the video amplifier meet
in order to produce a favourable image?
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 89

a. Low frequencies
b. A constant amplitude of video signal
c. Weak video signal
d. The relative phases of the frequency components present in
the video signal must be preserved.
2. Which of the following is not a component of a PAL-D colour television receiver?
a. Tuner
b. Demodulator
c. Luminance channel
d. Sync-separator
3. Which statement about Plasma TV is true?
a. Doesn't work well at high altitudes
b. Bulkier than rear projection television
c. Lesser energy consumption
d. Limited viewing angle
4. In the indoor unit of the DBS system, the transponder maintains the guard band of
______ in the selected bandwidth.
a. 24 Hz
b. 240 Hz
c. 24 MHz
d. 240 MHz
5. What are video interfaces used for?
a. To provide reception of satellite signals on a TV
b. To transfer data from computer memory to a monitor for display
c. To generate the correct frequency subcarrier
d. To generate audio output.

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1)d 2)b 3)a 4)c 5)b

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. State and briefly describe any 2 types of televisions.
2. What is the function of a luminance channel in the receiver of PAL-D Colour TV?
3. What is direct-to-home technology?
4. Why has digital video become more popular in recent years?
 90 |Consumer Electronics

5. Discuss composite video and component video.

6. Describe the working of a CD player with the help of a suitable diagram.
7. Write a short note on the video amplifier.
8. Explain the PAL-D colour TV receiver and draw the block diagram.
9. Explain the sound section of a television receiver with the help of a suitable diagram.
10. Explain sync separation and processing in detail.

PRACTICAL
1. To study sync separate section of TV receiver
2. To study the video amplifier section of TV receiver
3. To study AGC circuitry of TV
4. To study the working of Digital, LCD, LED, Plasma, HDTV, 3-D TV, and
Projection TV and
5. To study SDI and HDMI interfaces of TV

KNOW MORE
Business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-customer (B2C) interactions can both benefit
greatly from the use of video. It has the potential to revolutionise a company's product
offering and increase operational efficiencies. All of this activity has one overarching
purpose: to increase sales. There has been a dramatic rise in the importance of online video
in just the initial few months of 2020.
We have been engulfed by limitless video applications in our day-to-day lives because
streaming media is now integrated into everything from vacuums to watches to medical
equipment. Video-enabled health monitors, remote surgical capabilities, and smart hospitals
outfitted with AI-based surveillance are essential in today's modern healthcare system.
Additionally, visiting a store or the gym in person has largely been replaced by digital
alternatives like shoppable video and digital fitness. Consequently, video accounts for 80%
of all internet traffic, according to Cisco. With the increasing attention being paid to AR/VR
by tech giants like Meta, the internet traffic is only predicted to increase.
The cloud has enabled flexibility and expandability more than ever before in video
production, processing, delivery, and other areas. As a result, organizations can innovate
faster and expand further with the cloud. Moreover, remote-friendly workflows would
continue to benefit from virtualized video environments.
 Television Receivers and Video Systems| 91

There is more content available than ever before. However, without a simple way to
organise, store, and access this content, it is merely digital clutter. Artificial intelligence
(AI) is now being used in video content management systems (CMS) solutions for content
analysis, compilation, highlight production, indexing, searchability, and other forms of
automation — all of which are game changers for content distributors with a large video
library.
According to Cisco, by 2023, the number of internet-connected devices will exceed three
times the global population. Universities, hospitals, and every other type of organisation
would employ video to blur the line between in-person and remote experiences. The
evolution of this field has always astounded us and would continue to do so in the future.
A group of engineers from Sony and Philips collaborated in 1979 to develop the first digital
audio disc. In 1980, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published following a year of
testing and debate. Moreover, after their 1982 commercial debut, compact discs and players
quickly gained widespread acceptance.
In the 1920s, 16mm projectors were used to create the first home theatres and in the 1930s,
technological advances allowed for the creation of 8mm and sound 16mm film.
Once the cost of a Kodak 8 mm film projector dropped, showing home movies became
increasingly common among middle- and upper-class American households in the 1950s.
Surround sound was first used in a film in 1940 for the Disney animated short Fantasia. The
operatic composition Flight of the Bumblebee by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov inspired Walt
Disney to include a bumblebee in his musical Fantasia and make it seem as if it were flying
in all corners of the theatre.
When the REDD 17 stereo mixing system was built at London's Abbey Road Studios by
EMI's Record Engineering Development Department in 1958, it marked a significant step
forward in the recording industry.
From 1911 through 1915, a series of experiments were conducted in which a microphone
and loudspeaker were linked to a 12-volt battery, resulting in the first such instance of
auditory feedback. Further studies led to the creation of 'Magnavox,' the first electric public
address system.

REFERENCES
[1] LCD TV, accessed 29 August 2022, <https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/lcd-tv-
13675533891.html>
 92 |Consumer Electronics

[2] Rear projection TV, accessed 29 August 2022,

<https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Rear-projection-TV-with-UHP-lamp-
RCA_fig8_238963512 >
[3] Front projection TV, accessed 29 August 2022, <https://hdguru.com/category/sxrd/>
[4]Gulati, R. R. (2005). Monochrome and colour television. New Age International.
[5] Gupta, R., Nanda, S. J., & Panchal, P. (2018). A colour transformation approach to
retrieve cloudy pixels in daytime satellite images. In Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Informatics (pp. 311-319).
Springer, Singapore.
[6] Watkinson, J. (2012). Introduction to digital video. Routledge.
[7] How Stuff Works, How Digital Television Works, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/dtv.htm>
[8] Display Mate, LCD Advantages and Disadvantages, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://www.displaymate.com/lcds.html>.
[9] Yale Tools, 9 Advantages and Disadvantages of LED TV, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://yaletools.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-led-tv/>.
[10] Camponotes.com, Advantage and Disadvantages of Plasma Display Screens, accessed
29 August 2022, <http://camponotes.blogspot.com/2014/11/advantage-and-disadvantages-
of-plasma.html>.
[11] Britannica, HDTV broadcasting, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://www.britannica.com/technology/HDTV>
[12] Wikipedia, 3D television, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_television>
[13] How Stuff Works, How Projection Television Works, accessed 29 August 2022,
<https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/projection-tv.htm>
[14] BrainKart.com, Direct to home Broadcast (DTH): Block Diagram, Advantage,
accessed 29 August 2022, <https://www.brainkart.com/article/Direct-to-home-Broadcast-
(DTH)--Block-Diagram,-Advantage_11962/>
[15] Sims, H. V. (1969). Principles of PAL Colour Television and Related Systems. Iliffe.
[16] Hutson, G. H. (1971). Colour Television Theory: PAL-system Principles and Receiver
Circuitry. McGraw-Hill Companies.
[17] Fink, D. G. (1957). Television engineering handbook. McGraw-Hill.
[18] Grob, B. (1975). Basic Television, principles and servicing. McGraw-Hill Companies.
 Home/Office Appliances
d
5
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● Introduction, advantages and detailed Working of the microwave oven;
● Detailed Working, types and specifications of a washing machine;
● Role of microcontrollers in Home or office appliances
● Brief about the application of a fuzzy system for Home or office appliances
applications
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short
and long answer types marked in two categories following the lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of
references and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for
practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
 94 |Consumer Electronics

subject focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter
for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety of aspects, case study
related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and
finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
RATIONALE
Nowadays human daily routines are full of utilising modern electronic equipment. In
household or office usage of equipment like microwave oven and washing machine are very
common. Understanding of benefits, and drawbacks along with operating instructions is
needed for all common citizens. At the same time, in order to make them available to
common people and maintenance knowledge of basic operating principles, components,
and technical specifications is essential for technicians and designers. In addition to the
above, in this module understanding the controller, fuzzy logic, and technical specifications
of a washing machine have all been discussed.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit are: After learning this unit student will be able to
U5-O1: Describe working principles of microwave oven and washing machine
U5-O2: Use consumer electronics devices with ease at home or offices
U5-O3: Identify and Diagnose primary working faults of consumer electronics devices
U5-O4: Explain concepts of controllers, fuzzy logic, and technical specifications in the
context of normal usage

Unit-5 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U5-O1 1 1 - - 3 3
U5-O2 3 2 2 2 2 3
U5-O3 3 2 2 2 3 2
U5-O4 2 2 2 2 2 2
 Home /Office Applicances | 95

5.1 MICROWAVE OVEN

5.1.1 Introduction
It was by chance that microwave ovens were first discovered. An American electrical
engineer named Percy Spencer was experimenting with a magnetron in the 1950s to help
aircraft and ships navigate in bad weather or darkness. One day, though, he happened to
have a bar of chocolate in his pocket when the magnetron turned on, and he was astounded
to find that the bar melted almost immediately from the intense heat. Because of this, the
concept of using a magnetron to cook food entered his mind. Popcorn was the "proof of
concept" that led him to the idea of creating a universal microwave oven.

Fig.5.1 Microwave oven [1]

A microwave oven (electronic oven) is a small, box-shaped appliance that rapidly heats
food by exposing it to a strong electromagnetic field at a high frequency. An electron tube
called a magnetron is responsible for producing the radiation used in microwave ovens,
which has a frequency of about 2,450 megahertz. Because of the vibrations caused by
microwaves, molecules like water, fat, and sugar (among others) become heated. As a result,
baking and other cooking tasks that take several hours in a traditional oven can be finished
 96 |Consumer Electronics

in minutes in a microwave oven because the heating happens inside the food rather than
warming the surrounding air. However, they can cause foods to be cooked at a different rate
or unevenly due to the absorption heating process. In addition, microwave ovens can't be
used to cook food in metal containers because the metal inhibits microwaves.
5.1.2 Precautions, Advantages & Disadvantages
Users must adhere strictly to all safety instructions and guidelines in their microwave
oven manuals. A few examples of such safety measures are:
1. Use only microwave-appropriate cooking utensils.
2. If the microwave's door is distorted, bent, or otherwise damaged, do not use it.
3. No one, especially children, should ever stand directly in front of a running oven for
a prolonged period of time.
4. Consistently wipe the oven's interior, edge, and door with water and mild detergent.
5.1.2.1 Advantages:
1. The food can be cooked in a short time duration while retaining its natural flavours
and nutritional value.
2. Frozen food can be defrosted quickly.
3. Cooking with a microwave reduces the need for oil, enabling you to make low-fat
meals.
5.1.2.2 Disadvantages:
1. It is not suitable for deep frying.
2. Using a microwave poses risks to health because it has been linked to the production
of carcinogenic agents. Moreover, reduced immunity causes pathological alterations
in the human blood.
3. As compared to traditional stovetop cooking, microwaves alter food's texture,
colour, and flavour.
5.1.3 Working
Due to the microwave's ability to focus heat on individual molecules, food can be
cooked in a short period of time. This results in dielectric heating, whereby the rotation of
the food's polar molecules generates heat. Because excitation is relatively uniform in the
outer 25-38 mm (1-1.5 inches) of a homogeneous (high water content) food item,
microwave ovens can rapidly and efficiently heat food without drying it out.
 Home /Office Applicances | 97

Fig. 5.2 Diagram of a microwave oven

Microwave radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that does not cause
ionisation and is used to heat food in a microwave oven. A three-pronged, earthed plug or
socket is required for use with a standard household electrical outlet. When the oven door
is shut, power will be supplied to the mains transformer. Because there is at least one
interlock switch in series with the primary transformer, not even a speck of dust on the relay
or trial can cause the oven to turn on if the door is ajar. Moreover, dielectric heating occurs
when water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb microwave energy. As a result,
molecules (including those of water) rotate as they try to align themselves with the
alternating electric field of the microwaves because they are electric dipoles. This implies
that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other
and when molecules rotate at high speeds, they collide with one another and set them in
motion, releasing energy in the process. Spread out as molecular vibration in solids and
liquids, this energy is quite useful. Fig. 5.2 is a diagrammatic representation of a microwave
oven's internal components and a brief explanation of the major components is given in next
sub-section.
 98 |Consumer Electronics

5.1.4 Components
Here are a few of the most crucial parts of any microwave:
1. High voltage transformer: A high-voltage step-up transformer is installed within
a microwave oven because its power requirements exceed those of the standard
voltage carried by a home's electrical wiring. 230- 240 V supply is boosted to very
high voltage levels and then fed into the cavity magnetron.
2. Cavity magnetron: A cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube. It can
transform electrical energy into long-range microwave radiation.
3. Microcontroller: It is a device that facilitates two-way interaction between humans
and electronic devices. This controlling component incorporates a central processing
unit (CPU), along with other elements such as RAM and I/O circuitry, to perform
various tasks. Furthermore, it interprets the user's commands and displays them on
the microwave's screen. A microcontroller inside the microwave receives commands
from a keypad, displays the results on an LCD screen, and activates or deactivates
the microwave generator via a relay.
4. Waveguide: The waves from the magnetron's output are directed into the cavity by
a waveguide, which is a metallic tube with a hollow interior where the food is placed.
5. Cooling fan: The magnetron's efficiency and lifespan are both improved by the use
of cooling fans, which keeps the device from overheating during operation.

5.1.5 Technical Specifications

Table 5.1 Technical specifications of a commonly used microwave oven
Supply voltage Single phase alternating
current, 220V, 50Hz

Power Consumption ~ 1300W

Microwave power 0.7 - 0.85 kW

Microwave Frequency 2.45 GHz

Oven Capacity 10 - 25 litres

Accessories A glass or ceramic tray is usually included.

 Home /Office Applicances | 99

5.2 WASHING MACHINE

5.2.1 Introduction
The technology behind washing clothes has come a long way over the centuries, from
gruelling manual labour to sophisticated machine cleaning. Domestic washing machines
were operated manually until the late 1800s, while commercial models were powered by
steam and belts. In 1908, however, the Thor, the very first commercial electric washer,
changed all of that. Furthermore, the United States saw the introduction of the earliest
electrical clothes dryers in the years leading up to World War One.
Now it is possible to do laundry without ever having to check on the washing machine,
thanks to the convenience of automated settings. You can wash your clothes in an automated
fashion without having to keep an eye on the washing machine. Moreover, technological
advancements have made it so that washing machines can take in the necessary water and
detergent and set a timer for cleaning, rinsing, and drying depending on the mode and the
number of garments.

5.2.2 Classification based on Washers

There are two distinct types of washers, the top-loading variety and the front-loading
variety, which differ only in the direction in which the clothes are loaded.

Fig. 5.3 Front loading washing machine [2]

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To further categorise the top-loading washers, there are both semi-automatic and fully-
automatic models. These are further described in detail below:
1. Front loading washing machine: The garments are loaded into the front of this
machine. Moreover, research shows that front-loading washers are more efficient
than top-loading ones, using less water and detergent while still yielding clean
clothes.
2. Top-loading washing machine: Clothes are loaded and unloaded from the top of
this fully automatic washing machine, which features a round vessel that serves as
the washer, rinser, and dryer. In many regions, it has surpassed the popularity of the
front-loading model.
a) Semi-automatic washing machine: Both the washer and the dryer use their own
dedicated tubs, and their individual timers allow for precise control over the cycles.
Clothes can be washed by placing them in a wash vessel, filling them with water,
adding detergent, and then setting a timer. Then the washer will automatically shut
off after the allotted time has passed and the clothes can be collected and dried in
the sun, or a partial drying cycle can be run in the dryer vessel.

Fig. 5.4 Semi-automatic top load washing machine [3]

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b) Fully automatic machine: In a fully automatic model, the same tub is used for all
three processes—washing, rinsing and drying. The number of clothes is detected by
the machine's sensors, and it then calculates the appropriate volume of detergent and
water to use, as well as the optimal wash and dry times.

Fig. 5.5 Fully automatic top load machine [4]

r5.2.3 Working
The System Controller, which is the brain of the system, of a washing machine
regulates the flow of electricity to the machine's many sensors, motors, and pumps.
Additionally, it powers the screen that demonstrates the progress of the washing. Several
parts of a washing machine, depicted in Fig. 5.6, have been described below.
1. Display panel: Touch screens allow users to manage every aspect of a machine from
a single interface.
2. Sensor: A low-water-level alert is sounded by a water-level sensor in the washing
machine. Moreover, when the washer detects that all of the clothes have been
cleaned, it will emit a beep and allow you to open the door.
3. Driving Motor: Both "reverse" and "forward" rotations are possible with a
bidirectional motor. It turns because the current is flowing in a forward direction,
which is also the direction of the motor's rotation. Thus, the driver in the opposite
direction does the opposite.
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4. System Controller: The system controller monitors the motor's speed and adjusts
it accordingly during various processes. This also works for the maintenance of any
sensor, be it a door or pressure sensor, keypad, or speed sensor.

Fig. 5.6 Block diagram of a washing machine.

5. Water Pump: In order to recycle clean water and get rid of dirty one, a water pump
is required. The drain line is connected to the pump's bottom half, while the pump's
upper half recycles the rinse water. The pump is powered by an electric motor, which
can switch directions. When the washer is in the wash cycle, the water is
recirculated, and the drum spins in one direction; in the spin cycle, the water is
drained, and the drum spins in the opposite direction.

5.2.4 Wiring Diagram of washing machine

The wiring diagram, connection steps, and internal circuit of an electric washer are
detailed in the following Fig. 5.7.
1. Spin motor: The clothes are dried with a Spin Motor, also called a dryer motor.
They are single-phase induction motors with two windings: a starting winding and
a running winding. This type of spin motor typically makes use of a capacitor to turn
 Home /Office Applicances | 103

on. The washing machine's motor has a higher power rating than the spin motor,
hence the spin cycle takes so long.
2. Wash motor: To clean the fabric, a wash motor is used which is faster and has more
torque than the spin motor. Moreover, to move wet clothes, it needs to be more
powerful. It is a single-phase induction motor with two windings, much like a spin
motor, and it needs a capacitor to get going. The wash timer controls the rotation of
the wash motor in both directions.
3. Spin timer: The spin motor can be controlled with the aid of the spin timer. It has
two connections, one to the spin motor and the other to the power source. It is
important to note that both semi-automatic and fully-automatic washing machines
utilise the spin motor and spin timer.
4. Wash timer: The wash timer can be set to run for a certain amount of time, reverse
the direction of the washing machine's motor, and sound an alarm or buzzer when
the cycle is finished. Wash timers can have anywhere from three to six terminals,
and there are a variety of different types.
5. Door switch: The door switch enables the use of the washer with the door closed
and no other conditions met. Since the door switch is wired in series with the spin
motor, the latter won't turn on unless the door is closed.

Fig. 5.7 Connection diagram and wiring of a washing machine.

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5.2.5 Controller of washing machine

Herein is presented an effective electronic replacement for the mechanical controller
of the washing machine's single-phase motor (Fig. 5.8).

Fig. 5.8 Inputs and outputs of a washing machine controller.

A single-phase motor needs a master timer to determine how long the motor should run
(washing time), and a spin direction controller to reverse the direction of rotation every 10
seconds.
5.2.6 Fuzzy logic for washing machine
Fuzzy logic is a method that calculates several distinct truth values using a single
variable. In simplified terms, fuzzy logic takes into account a range of potentially relevant
data to arrive at a spectrum of correct conclusions. It disregards the usual 0/1 Boolean logic
and suggests a range of values between true and false.
To optimise the wash efficiency, energy, detergent, and water consumption, washing
machines employ a set of sensors and controls known as fuzzy logic. In addition to weighing
the load and sounding an alarm if it's too heavy for the washing machine, modern appliances
can also recommend the ideal amount of detergent to use based on the type of fabric being
washed and the hardness of the water. Artificially Intelligent (AI) based washing machines
can learn from their users' habits and adapt to deliver the best possible results.
 Home /Office Applicances | 105

5.2.7 Technical Specifications

Table 5.2 Technical specifications of a Commonly used washing machine
Input voltage 100V - 240V

Input power 1.2 kW

Output power 0.1kW - 0.4 kW

Capacity range 3kg - 18kg

Maximum efficiency Approx. 31%

UNIT SUMMARY
Almost very modern home would have a microwave oven and a washing machine. Due
to the microwave oven’s extraordinary ability to rapidly heat, defrost, and cook food, this
accidental discovery has quickly gained widespread attention. This device uses a powerful
electromagnetic field at a high frequency to perform its functions; its core components are
a high voltage transformer, a cavity magnetron, a microcontroller, a waveguide, and a
cooling fan. Moreover, its power consumption is around 1.3kW and it employs a microwave
frequency of 2.45 GHz.
The innovations in laundry care over the years have been remarkable. The automated
settings of today's washing machines make it possible to do laundry without constantly
checking on the machine. Top-loading and front-loading washers are two different kinds of
washing machines that vary only in the direction in which one loads laundry. Top-loading
washers can be further broken down into two groups: the semi-automatic and the fully
automatic. There is a system controller integrated with a display panel, sensor, driving
motor, and water pump that all work together to accomplish the task of washing.
Furthermore, fuzzy logic is a set of sensors and controls used in washing machines to
improve the machine's performance and reduce its use of resources like water, energy, and
detergent. The typical washing machine has an efficiency of 31% and an output power of
0.1 kW to 0.4 kW.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is not a disadvantage of using a microwave oven?
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a. It cannot be used for deep frying.

b. Frozen food cannot be defrosted.
c. It may reduce immunity.
d. It might change the taste of the food.
2. Typically a microwave oven has a frequency of ____
a. 2450 MHz
b. 2.45 MHz
c. 1300 MHz
d. 1.3 MHz
3. Which of the following is a component of a washing machine?
a. Waveguide
b. Analogue to digital converter
c. Generator
d. System controller
4. ______ can be set to run for a certain amount of time and reverse the direction of
the washing machine's motor.
a. Wash motor
b. Wash timer
c. Door switch
d. Spin timer
5. Which of the following is not an input of controller in a washing machine?
a. Water level sensors
b. Water heater
c. Water temperature
d. Drum speed
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions
1)b 2)a 3)d 4)b 5)b

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. State the advantages and disadvantages of a microwave oven along with the
precautions that the user must take.
2. What are the technical specifications of a microwave oven?
3. Write a short note on a washing machine.
 Home /Office Applicances | 107

4. State the technical specifications of a washing machine.

5. Draw the controller of the washing machine.
6. Describe the working principle of a microwave oven and draw a suitable block
diagram.
7. State and describe the integral components of a microwave oven.
8. Which components of a washing machine aid in its operation?
9. Explain the wiring diagram of a washing machine with the help of an appropriate
diagram.
10. Describe the different types of washing machines and state their technical
specifications.
PRACTICAL
1. Study the working principle of the washing machine and its technical
specifications.
2. Study the working of microwave.
3. Program(s) to implement various controlling /measurement applications in home
appliance using controllers
KNOW MORE
● Since the first microwave oven was built, which stood at about 1.5 meters (5 ft) in
height, the technology has shrunk considerably, and millions of units have been sold
around the world.
● Due to the dipole nature of water molecules, microwave heating is optimal, while it
is less so for fatty and sugary substances.
● Microwaves operating at 2.45 GHz are typically found in residential ovens, whereas
915 MHz microwaves are more typical in commercial and industrial kitchens.
● The Romans developed a primitive soap that they called "lye" which was used to
wash their clothes. This soap was made out of animal fat and ash. Moreover, garments
were traditionally washed in a big pot or cauldron, boiled, and then laid on a flat board
and beaten with a paddle in colonial times.
● French inventors called their early 1800s washing machine invention the ventilator.
A metal barrel drum perforated with holes served as the device, which was rotated
manually over a fire.
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● As early as 1960, Lotfi Zadeh from the University of California first addressed the
idea of fuzzy logic. He was investigating challenges involved in using computers to
comprehend human speech.
REFERENCES
[1] Microwave oven, accessed 25 September 2022, <https://www.zilan.com.tr/microwave-
ovens/microwave-oven-1-1>
[2] Front loading washing machine, accessed 25 September 2022, <https://www.bosch-
home.in/productlist/washer-dryer/front-loading-washing-
machines/WGA244ASIN#/Togglebox=manuals/>
[3] Semi-automatic top load washing machine, accessed 25 September 2022,
<https://www.voltasbeko.com/washing-machines/7-kg-semi-automatic-washing-machine-
wtt70dt.html>
[4] Fully automatic top load machine, accessed 25 September 2022,
<https://www.reliancedigital.in/kelvinator-8-kg-top-loading-fully-automatic-washing-
machine-with-error-monitoring-and-memory-backup-kwt-a800sg/p/491604437>
[5] ThoughtCo., A Brief History of Washing Machines, accessed 27 September 2022,
<https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-washing-machines-1992666>
[6] Bright Hub Engineering, What is a Washing Machine? Types of Washing Machine,
accessed 27 September 2022, <https://www.brighthubengineering.com/consumer-
appliances-electronics/38358-types-of-washing-machines/>
[7] ETechnoG, Washing Machine Wiring, Internal Circuit and Connection Diagram,
accessed 27 September 2022, <https://www.etechnog.com/2021/11/washing-machine-
wiring-connection-circuit.html>
[8] US Food & Drug Administration, Microwave Oven Radiation, accessed 26 September
2022, <https://www.fda.gov/radiation-emitting-products/resources-you-radiation-emitting-
products/microwave-oven-radiation>
[9] Britannica, Microwave Oven, accessed 25 September 2022,
<https://www.britannica.com/technology/microwave-oven>
[10] Studious Guy, Microwave Oven Working Principle, accessed 26 September 2022,
<https://studiousguy.com/microwave-oven-working-principle/>
[11] Explain That Stuff, Microwave Ovens, accessed 27 September 2022,
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/microwaveovens.html
 Home /Office Applicances | 109

6
Digital Electronic
Systems
d

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● Fax understanding;
● Operating Principle of Photocopies;
● Simple workflow of Air Conditioner;
● Understanding of Working Principal of Refrigerators;
● Working of Digital Camera;
● Basic functionality of Camcorder
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity and improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short
and long answer types marked in two categories following the lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of
references and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for
practice.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this
part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial
 110|Consumer Electronics

activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the
subject focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the
development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter
for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety of aspects, case study
related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and
finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
RATIONALE
Various digital electronic devices including a fax machine, photocopier, air
conditioner, refrigerator, digital camera, and camcorder are discussed in this module.
Understanding of basic operational principles and fault diagnosis is required in order to
enhance the life span of these products. This module explores the fax machine’s details, its
origins, functionalities, operation, and the basics of sending and receiving faxes.
Additionally, the components and operating principles of the photocopier, also known as
electrophotography, have been covered. One of the most widespread types of technology,
air conditioners come in a wide variety of models. Moreover, aspects of AC operation are
also discussed in this unit. A number of different parts, including the refrigerant fluid,
compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valves, evaporator, and receiver, carry out
a refrigerator’s cooling process. Digital cameras, including their operation and
classification, have also been outlined. Camcorder fundamentals have been highlighted in
the last section of the chapter.

PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Electronics Circuits (Class XII)
Physics: Signal and Wave (Class XII)

UNIT OUTCOMES
Outcomes of this unit are : After learning this unit student will be able to
U6-O1: Describe the basic operation of FAX
U6-O2: Describe the components of the Camera
U6-O3: Explain the working of Refrigerators
U6-O4: Realize the role of camcorders
U6-O5: Apply the knowledge of Digital Cameras to solve problems
 Digital Electronics Systems|111

Unit-6 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U6-O1 - - - - 3 2
U6-O2 - - 3 2 3 3
U6-O3 - - - - 3 3
U6-O4 - - 3 2 3 2
U6-O5 - - 2 2 3 2

6.1 FAX
6.1.1 Introduction
Although the concept of a fax machine dates back to the 1800s, the widespread use of
fax machines did not occur until the 1980s. A fax machine (also known as a facsimile
machine) employs a conventional telephone line to transmit and receive documents. In order
to send or receive a fax, an image must first be digitised by converting it into a grid of dots.
It is possible to tell whether a dot is "on" or "off" based on whether it is black or white.
Moreover, each dot represents a 1 (on) or a 0 (off) in a digital system. The receiving machine
decodes the information from binary code to dots to reprint the image.
Fax machine also has an optical scanner to convert paper documents into digital
format, a printer to physically deliver incoming faxes, and a phone line to connect the two
entities. However, it is widely known that the resolution of an optical scanner is lower than
that of a dedicated standalone scanner. Fax machines that use thermal paper have thermal
printers, which use heat to print faxes.
Fax systems can be constructed by integrating a fax modem and an optical scanner,
rather than purchasing an independent fax machine. You might not need the optical scanner
if the documents which is be sent are digital. A fax machine has different functionalities,
such as:
1. Speed: Fax modems can send and receive data at rates ranging from 4,800 to 28,800
bits per second. Depending on the fax machine, one page can take anywhere from 10 to
20 seconds to send data at 9,600 bps rate.
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2. Printer type: The thermal printer used in most fax machines requires particular paper,
which quickly turns yellow or brown with use. A common feature of higher-end fax
machines is the ability to print on standard bond paper.
3. Paper size: Most fax machines support thermal paper in either an 8.5-inch or 10.1-inch
width. When using the device, narrow-sized paper is imperative.
4. Paper cutter: Since thermal paper typically comes on a roll, the majority of fax
machines include a paper cutter. However, few economical models or portable faxes
may not have it.
5. Paper feed: If you need to send multiple pages at once, most fax machines have paper
feeds that make it convenient.
6. AutoDialing: In order to send and receive faxes, users can choose from some different
dialling options. To take advantage of cheaper phone rates, you can schedule the fax to
send the document at a later time.

Fig. 6.1 Fax machine [1]

6.1.2 Working
To put it simply, a regular fax machine combines the functions of a telephone and a
photocopier. To send a fax, the user first loads the necessary paperwork into the machine's
document feeder before dialling the phone number of the intended recipient's fax machine.
The original document is pulled by a gear mechanism over an optical scanner, and the
scanner records the document's light and dark areas as a series of dots in rows or columns.
Then the dots are read by a photoelectric cell and converted into electronic impulses that
 Digital Electronics Systems|113

are sent down the phone lines to the recipient's fax machine. Fig. 6.2 depicts a block diagram
of a typical fax network.
Electrical impulses are converted into dots by the receiving fax machine. The fax
machine's internal print mechanism receives the decoded signal and prints a replica of the
original document. Additionally, fax machines all over the world are compatible with each
other because of international standards.

Fig 6.2 Block diagram of a fax system

Similar to how a photocopier would photograph an original document in order to
create a digital copy, fax machines scan individual pages and create digital images. The
images must be modulated into a sound that can be recognised by another computer or fax
machine to be transmitted over the telephone line. To send a fax, the sending machine makes
a series of audio tones, which are then decoded by the receiving machine as characters.
Thereby, demodulating the data into a digital image that corresponds to the scanned image
broadcast by the scanner. Furthermore, the receiving machine will acknowledge receipt of
the entire fax once the transmitting machine indicates the last page has been sent. Some fax
 114|Consumer Electronics

machines will print a confirmation page after sending to confirm that the fax was sent
successfully.
6.1.3 Operating Principle of fax machine
Despite the widespread adoption of electronic mail and web-based faxing services,
familiarity with the operation of the traditional fax machine remains a valuable workplace
skill. The following is a summary of the primary concepts involved in sending and receiving
faxes.
6.1.3.1 Sending fax:
1. Ensure the fax machine is powered and connected to a working phone jack.
2. Activate the fax machine.
3. Get the number of the receiving fax machine.
4. Compile all the documents to verify that they are received in the correct order.
5. Include the recipient's name, fax number/phone number, your name, your phone
number, and a brief message on a separate piece of paper called a "cover sheet."
6. Place the cover sheet on top of the documents and lay them face up in the fax
machine's feeder tray.
7. Call the fax recipient's number (take care for dialling instructions for international
calls).
8. Hit the "fax" or "send" button.
A series of fax tones will play once the pages have been scanned into the fax
machine's memory. These tones facilitate communication between fax machines and
function as a "handshake." Verify whether your fax was successfully sent by looking at the
machine's digital display. An optional confirmation report may be printed out by some fax
machines.

6.1.3.2 Receiving fax:

1. Check that the fax machine is turned on, has power, and is plugged into a functional
phone jack.
2. Ensure that the sender has the correct number.
3. Check to see that the toner cartridge in the fax machine is fully stocked with ink.
Lately, most fax machines will also send you a warning when the toner is running
low.
 Digital Electronics Systems|115

4. Ensure the fax machine's paper tray is fully stocked with printer paper. In order to
prevent paper jams, fan the paper by running your thumb along the bottom to
separate the pages.
5. The fax machine's phone will ring if it has one. Ignore it until you hear a series of
beeps that sound like a "handshake" to know that your fax machine is
communicating with the sender.
6. After the first page is printed, the fax machine will start printing the rest of the fax
automatically.
7. Double-check the cover sheet to ensure you got the right number of pages.
8. Office etiquette dictates that you confirm receipt of a fax by calling or emailing the
sender, especially if it is a particularly important document.
6.2 PHOTOCOPIER
6.2.1 Introduction
In 1938, Chester Carlson established the photocopier, which he called
electrophotography, and after 10 years, in 1948, his invention was officially recognised and
renamed xerography. The Xerox Corporation began operations in 1949 and introduced the
world's first plain paper copier.

Fig. 6.3 Photocopier [2]

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Photocopiers rely on the law of attraction and the property of some materials to increase
their electrical conductivity when exposed to electromagnetic radiation for their core
operating principle. Printing on paper requires the use of toner, a negatively charged
powder. At the very centre of a photocopier is a drum that is positively charged by static
electricity. The master copy is laser-transferred onto the drum. The image's white parts (like
paper's blank spaces) become more negatively charged as their charge is drawn away by the
light, while the image's black components (like the text) retain their positive charge.
Because it is attracted to positive surfaces, toner accumulates in the drum's darkest areas.
The drum is what draws the different colours of toner (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black)
when making colour copies. Countless hues are possible when these four prominent colours
are mixed and blended.

6.2.2 Features
The integral components required for the photocopying procedure are as follows:
1. Photoreceptor drum (or belt): It is an important component that looks like a metal
roller coated with photoconductive material, which is typically a semiconductor
such as germanium, selenium, or silicon. This layer becomes an insulator when it is
not exposed to light, blocking the flow of electrons between atoms. However, when
the layer is illuminated, the photon energy relieves the electrons and allows current
to flow. It is the newly liberated electrons that cancel out the positive charge that
coats the drum to create the latent image.
2. Corona wires: A corona wire will create a field of positive charges on the drum
and the paper. Applying a high voltage to these wires causes static electricity, which
is then transmitted to the drum and paper.
3. Lamp and lenses: To make a photocopy, a powerful light source is needed to eject
electrons from photoconductive atoms. The energy in the green and blue sections of
the visible spectrum is sufficient to power this procedure. UV light has enough
energy to produce a photocopy, but it is so intense that it can cause significant harm
to our eyes and skin. Because of this, a regular incandescent or fluorescent bulb is
used to shine light onto the original document in photocopiers. Moreover, the lamp
moves along the inside of the machine, lighting up a single strip of paper at a time
as the machine feeds it in. Light from the lamp assembly is reflected from a mirror
and then focused by a lens onto a drum that spins below. Because of the lens, you
can target an exact area to concentrate a duplicate of the image.
 Digital Electronics Systems|117

4. Toner: Dry ink is another name for the fine, negatively charged powder that is toner.
The toner in a toner cartridge is stored on larger, positively charged beads. As the
drum is rolled over with toner-coated beads, the toner particles are drawn to the
positively charged ions on the drum's surface where they have not been exposed.
Electrostatic attraction between the paper and the particles increases as time passes,
and upon heating, the plastic particles liquefy and permanently bond the colour to
the paper.
5. Fuser: The fuser completes the process of fusing the toner onto the paper, making
the image permanent. The fuser does two things: it melts the toner and presses it into
the paper without letting either the toner or the paper stick to the fuser. These goals
are achieved by employing quartz tube lamps and Teflon-coated rollers.

6.2.3 Working
To begin, the cylinder is electrostatically charged using a high-voltage wire (a corona
wire or charge roller). The original paper is then illuminated by a bright light source, and
the drum's white areas are copied in photoelectric manner. The light-exposed portions of
the drum become conductive and discharge to the ground. A negative charge is maintained
in the dark regions of the drum, which correspond to the black in the original document.
Due to its positive charge, toner is attracted to and adheres to the drum's negatively charged
areas during the imaging process (black areas). Subsequently, the drum's toner image is
transferred to a piece of paper with a relatively stronger negative charge. Ultimately, the
toner is liquefied and fused to the paper using rollers that apply heat and pressure.
Furthermore, creating a negative photocopy reverses the original document's colours,
so that white text is superimposed on a black background. There are cases where the clarity
and conciseness of a document are improved by making a negative photocopy of an old or
faded original.
6.3 AIR-CONDITIONING
6.3.1 Introduction
It is commonly known as A/C or AC, air conditioning is the practice of reducing the
temperature and, in some cases, the humidity inside a building or other enclosed area in
order to make its occupants more comfortable. The following are a few types of air-
conditioning units:
 118|Consumer Electronics

1. Mini-split: Ductless systems (also known as mini-splits) are frequently used for
multi-zone or multi-split applications, which permits up to eight individual rooms
to be conditioned by their indoor unit in conjunction with the outdoor unit. However,
the length of the refrigerant lines connecting the outdoor unit to the indoor units is
the primary challenge of multi-split systems.
2. Ducted central systems: The condenser is the external component of a split-system
central air conditioner, while the fan coil unit (FCU), air handling unit (AHU), or
evaporator is located indoors and serves to transfer heat to the outside air. Ductwork
runs from the FCU to the rooms that need cooling.
3. Central plant cooling: Due to air's low density and heat capacity, large central
cooling plants may use transitional coolants such as chilled water pumped into air
handlers or fan coil units adjacent to or within the spaces to be conditioned, which
then duct or deliver cold air into the areas to be conditioned. In order to cool the
water, chillers in the plant use a refrigeration system, and the excess heat is usually
released into the atmosphere through cooling towers.
4. Portable units: The indoor component of a portable system is on wheels and is
linked to the outdoor component through adaptable pipes. There are air ducts that
lead outside for the exhaust of hose systems, which may be monoblock or air-to-air.
The water is collected in a bucket or tray of the monoblock variety, which
automatically turns off when it is full. Continuous operation is possible for air-to-air
types because they recycle the water through evaporation before discharging it
through the ducted hose. However, the cooling efficiency of portable air
conditioners is reduced because they draw air from inside and release it outside via
a single duct.
5. Packaged air conditioner: Packaged air conditioners (self-contained units) are
centralised systems that incorporate all the components of a split central system into
a single housing, and then distribute the cooled air to the desired rooms, typically
through ductwork. Units can be ground-based or rooftop-based (called "rooftop
units"), cooled by water, refrigerant, or air, and used to condition either indoor or
outdoor air. The air conditioning system in an outdoor unit is typically cooled by a
cooling tower, while the air conditioning system in an indoor unit is cooled by liquid.
6.3.2 Working
The vapour-compression cycle, used in conventional air conditioning systems,
transfers heat through the forced circulation and phase change of a refrigerant between gas
 Digital Electronics Systems|119

and liquid to achieve cooling. While an air conditioner and an air source heat pump have
similar parts, the latter has a reversing valve that allows it to warm and also cool a building.
If the evaporator coil surface is relatively cooler than the dew point of the surrounding air,
the absolute humidity of the air of the system would get decrease. To maintain a comfortable
level of human activity, an HVAC system installed in an area will maintain a relative
humidity of 30-60%. Fig. 6.4 illustrates the cooling cycle in which a refrigerant is processed
in the following steps:
1. A cold liquid refrigerant is circulated through an evaporator, where it draws heat
from the warmer room and dissipates it.
2. Once in its gaseous state, the refrigerant is compressed to raise its temperature.
3. The condenser coils do the work of dissipating the refrigerant's heat into the ambient
air.
4. Then the refrigerant expands in order to lower its pressure and cool down to a
temperature lower than the ambient temperature before the cycle can begin again.
Furthermore, for maximum water condensation, the evaporator temperature is lowered
during the dehumidification cycle of most modern air conditioners by running the
compressor while slowing the fan. In situations when the external air is cooler than the
internal air, it is not necessary to use a compressor. Consequently, free cooling is preferred
to ensure high efficiency in cooling.

Fig 6.4 The cooling cycle of an air-conditioner

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Reverse-cycle air conditioners generate heat by switching to air source heat pump mode and
reversing the refrigeration cycle. Heat pumps are more proficient than electric resistance
heating because they transfer energy from the surrounding air or groundwater to the heated
space. The heat pump's indoor evaporator coil is converted into a condenser coil and used
to generate heat when the system is in heating mode and the outdoor condenser unit acts as
an evaporator, expelling cold air.
6.4 REFRIGERATOR
6.4.1 Introduction
The refrigerator is the most common item in almost every household nowadays.
Refrigerators make our lives easier in many ways, from preserving our food by reducing
bacterial activity to providing us with cold beverages to enjoy during the hot summer. The
modern refrigeration method can be traced back to the work of American inventors Oliver
Evans and Jacob Perkins in the 19th century. Perkins created the first refrigeration system
based on the ideas of Evans, who developed the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle.
Even though Perkin's system was not widely popular, it did pave the way for the
refrigerators we use today.

Fig 6.5 Refrigerator [3]

 Digital Electronics Systems|121

6.4.2 Components of a Refrigerator

Some of the parts of a modern refrigerator which help in the cooling process are
described below:
1. Refrigerant Fluid: A refrigerant fluid, which can be either a gas or liquid, circulates
throughout a refrigerator and helps to regulate the temperature inside by changing
phases to facilitate the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy. For
example, hydrochlorofluorocarbon chemicals, more commonly known as freons, are
among the most widely used refrigerant fluids, and they all have very low boiling
points.
2. Compressor: The compressor, which is the mechanical "heart" of the refrigeration
system, decreases the volume of gas in order to increase its pressure. The job is to
mechanically raise the temperature of the refrigerant liquid by directing it through a
narrower pipe. The gaseous refrigerant enters the compressor at low pressure and
low temperature and exits at high pressure and high temperature. Additionally, it
serves as an electric pump to circulate the refrigerant, and it is typically found in the
appliance's lower back.
3. Condenser: The condenser, a mesh of pipes, dissipates the refrigerator’s internal
heat. Since the heat is dissipated through the condensation of the refrigerant fluid
from a vapour to a liquid state within the condensing coils, the device has been aptly
named a condenser. Condensation forms when the temperature drops below the
condensation point, and this process releases heat.
4. Thermostatic Expansion Valves: A thermostatic expansion valve regulates the
flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator. A thermostat activates or deactivates
the compressor to regulate the cooling process. A refrigerator's compressor is
automatically shut off by a sensor once the temperature inside has been determined
to be optimal. It monitors internal temperatures and, if necessary, restarts the cooling
process by turning on the compressor.
5. Evaporator: It is responsible for producing cold air inside the appliance, which is
accomplished by drawing heat from within the refrigeration system so that it can be
dissipated through the condenser.
6. Receiver: The receiver, also known as the liquid receiver, is a pressurised container
used to store the liquid refrigerant. A receiver stores liquid refrigerant and supplies
a steady supply to the expansion device.
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6.4.3 Working
In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, "heat cannot pass from a cold
to a hot body without some other change, connected therewith, occurring at the same time,"
a refrigerator can maintain a constant temperature by utilising this principle. Consequently,
mechanical work needs to be performed on the system to transfer heat from an area with a
cooler temperature to an area with a higher temperature. The refrigeration system performs
the necessary mechanical work. The refrigeration cycle (Fig. 6.6), also known as the vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle, is a cyclical process that moves heat from a cooler to a
warmer area.
When a refrigerator's compressor turns on, it forces a volatile refrigerant liquid through
the evaporator's cooling coils and into the refrigerator's interior. Because of the latent heat
provided by the food items, the refrigerant evaporates inside these coils, changing its phase
from liquid to gas, thereby lowering the temperature inside the refrigerator. Next, the
vapours are sent through an electrically powered compressor, which increases the pressure
and, thus, the temperature of the vapours. These extremely hot and pressurised vapours are
then directed toward the condenser coil, where they once again undergo a liquefaction
process, this time changing their phase from vapour to liquid. This second phase transition
allows the heat to escape into the surrounding environment. After passing through an
expansion valve to lower its pressure, the liquid refrigerant is stored in a receiver or liquid
reservoir until the next cycle begins. This process is repeated until the set temperature is
achieved. In order to further boost the efficiency of the evaporator and condenser coils,
some high-efficiency refrigerators use fans.

Fig 6.6 The refrigeration cycle.

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6.5 DIGITAL CAMERA

6.5.1 Introduction
The Greek word "Kamara" is the source of the modern English word "camera."
Cameras are optical devices capable of capturing and storing visual data or transmitting it
to a remote location. Those pictures could be still shots or videos, like movies or videos.
There are many similarities between the human eye and the modern camera, which
descended from the camera obscura.
The past three decades have seen tremendous changes in photography thanks to the
introduction of digital technology. The optical principles behind a digital camera are the
same as those behind a film camera, with the addition of a tiny photosensitive chip. A second
chip or memory card then stores the electric signals as digital data after the first chip has
converted the light energy into electric signals. This information can be interacted with on
desktop computers, uploaded to various social media platforms, and printed out and pasted
into traditional photo albums.
A digital camera works by focusing light onto an image sensor, which is made up of
millions of small pixels. Through the photoelectric effect, photons are absorbed by each
pixel on a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) or CMOS and electrons are released. For each
photon that strikes the sensor, a charge is produced. This voltage is then "stepped up" by an
amplifier before being sent to an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
6.5.2 Types of Cameras
1. Point and Shoot cameras: The most elementary variety is the point-and-click digital
camera, which only requires you to aim it and press a button to take a picture.

Fig. 6.7 Point and Shoot camera [4]

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The camera's ability to perform all necessary calculations and adjustments for taking
a picture makes it a good choice for those who lack the time, interest, or talent to
study photography. Smartphone cameras are one application of this technology.

1. Twin-Lens Reflex (TLR) cameras: It's a camera configuration where both lenses
have the same focal length. The "taking lens," or photographic objective, is the
component responsible for actually capturing an image, while the "viewfinder lens"
is used to frame the scene for the photographer from above at waist level.

Fig. 6.8 TLR camera [5]

2. Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras: The mirror and prism system is the backbone of
the single-lens reflex camera (SLR). The photographer can see what will be captured
 Digital Electronics Systems|125

Fig. 6.9 SLR camera [6]

in real-time because of the camera's transparent lens. Pressing the shutter button on a
mechanical SLR causes the mirror to flip out of the way, allowing light to reach the
photosensitive sensor and the image to be captured.
3. DSLR cameras: Digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras, as opposed to point-
and-shoot models, offer superior image quality due to their larger image sensors. It
allows for extensive manipulation of the shot by letting the user switch lenses and
adjust the exposure settings (aperture, shutter speed, ISO, etc.).

Fig. 6.10 DSLR camera [7]

4. Mirrorless Cameras: Mirrorless cameras are an improvement on DSLRs because
they use a digital display system instead of an optical one. The image sensor acts as
 126|Consumer Electronics

a makeshift reflex mirror by relaying its signal to the viewfinder in the absence of a
reflex mirror. In this way, the photographer can view the image in real-time on a
tiny LCD screen located on the camera's back. This display serves as both the
viewfinder and the control panel, eliminating the need for the latter.
6.5.3 Additional Accessories
Photography can be made efficient in terms of time and labour through the use of
various cameras accessories which include:
1. Tripod: Tripods are extendable, three-legged stands typically used to mount
cameras, with the foremost purpose of maintaining a steady and secure camera in a
particular spot. Long exposures and taking multiple pictures from the same vantage
point both necessitate it.
2. Filters: Filters, which are small pieces of glass fastened to lenses, help to filter the
light that enters the lens. Therefore, it modifies the photo's hue, saturation,
brightness, and contrast, and can even add some effects. Moreover, they protect the
lens from debris, UV rays, and scratches.
3. Flash: The flash is the most popular piece of artificial lighting used in still
photography, and it works by emitting a burst of light for a fraction of a second.
Flashes are commonly built into modern cameras and when the shutter button is
pressed during flash photography, the flash automatically activates to illuminate the
subject. However, in order for external flashes to work in conjunction with the
camera, a trigger cable or wireless trigger must be employed.
6.6 CAMCORDER
6.6.1 Introduction
With the help of a camcorder, you can record video and audio onto a mini cassette or DVD,
or memory card. This is accomplished by combining the functions of a television camera, a
video recorder, and a synchronization pulse generator. After that, the signals are reproduced
on a standard DVD or another storage device. Microelectronics, IC design, and
inventiveness in design have all combined to produce the digital camcorders of today.
However, although the picture quality may not match with full-size professional equipment
still is a good, cost-effective solution for personal usage. Furthermore, most of the time the
user's lack of expertise rather than the camcorder itself is the cause for the substandard
quality of the resulting images. The light-sensitive chip used in modern camcorders was
first developed for satellite television. The digital system permits capturing stills along with
some sound, and the compression greatly reduces the amount of space needed for storage.
 Digital Electronics Systems|127

Two innovations in the late '80s made it possible for camcorders to become much smaller.
For instance, the VHS-C (Video Home System - Compact) videotape format was
introduced. Which was compact and lightweight because the tapes could be played on any
VHS player with the help of an adapter. Although the tapes could only hold up to 40 minutes
of recordings, the devices' reduced size and weight made them useful in a wider range of
situations. Moreover, the introduction of 8 mm tapes was the second major development for
the video recording industry. Even though these tapes were much smaller than VHS tapes,
they were still capable of holding two hours of high-quality video. However, a significant
drawback was that they required a direct connection to a VHS or Betamax player in order
to play or re-record footage.

Fig. 6.11 Camcorder [8]

6.6.2 Types of Camcorders

1. MiniDV: A digital tape format called MiniDV, which was the smallest tape ever
developed up until that point, was widely adopted by camcorders by the end of the
1990s. Multiple copies could be made with little to no degradation in quality, and
many formats can store more than three hours of video on a single tape. MiniDV is
widely used in digital camcorders because it strikes a good balance between
portability and cost.
2. Digital8 camcorder: Digital8 camcorders provide a novel digital alternative to
standard video recorders. These digital tapes are compatible with both 8 mm and
Hi8 systems, so they are an excellent option for those who wish to update from a
lower-quality format. However, they cannot compare to the perks of MiniDV. Some
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new types of digital camcorders have lately become more popular due to falling
prices of recordable media and portable storage,
3. DVD camcorders: DVD camcorders are DVRs that can also record to DVD-RAM
or DVD-R discs for long-term storage. Due to its impending portability and low
cost, the DVD format has seen an exponential rise in sales. Micro drives and flash
memory-based mobile devices typically use flash memory or a specialised memory
format to store video. Due to the high cost of storage for media larger than 2GB,
flash-based camcorders are now a niche product.
UNIT SUMMARY
Among the many digital electronic systems most widely used are fax machines,
photocopiers, air conditioners, refrigerators, digital cameras, and camcorders. In order to
send and receive faxes, a regular telephone line is used. However, a document must be
digitised before it is modulated to sound for transmission. Moreover, to verify that the fax
was successfully sent, some devices generate a confirmation page after sending.
The fundamental working principle of photocopiers is based on the law of attraction
and the fact that some materials increase their electrical conductivity when exposed to
electromagnetic radiation. Essential parts of any photocopier incorporate the photoreceptor
drum, lamp and lenses, corona wires, fuser and toner which facilitate the photocopying
procedure.
In order to improve the comfort of their users, air conditioners can adjust the relative
humidity and temperature of a room by processing the refrigerant in the cooling cycle. There
are many variations of the central air conditioner, but some of the most common is the mini-
split, central ducted systems, central plant cooling, portable units, and packaged air
conditioners.
Furthermore, the primary purpose of a refrigerator is to prolong the life of perishable
foods by decreasing the growth of harmful bacteria. that's why it's been deemed essential
for every home. The cooling process in a fridge is carried out by several different
components, such as the refrigerant fluid, compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion
valves, evaporator, and receiver.
The term "camera" refers to any optical device that can record moving or still images
and send or store them. Moreover, modern cameras, which evolved from the traditional
camera, share many characteristics with the human eye. There is a wide variety of digital
cameras, including point-and-shoot models, rangefinder models, single-lens reflex (SLR)
models, digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) models, and mirrorless cameras. A camcorder
 Digital Electronics Systems|129

combines the functions of a television camera, a video recorder, and a synchronisation pulse
generator to record video and audio onto a mini cassette, DVD, or memory card and then
reproduce the signals on a standard DVD or another storage device

EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is not true for facsimile machines?
a. The majority of them employ a thermal printer
b. The width of the thermal printer is 8.5 inches
c. It includes a paper cutter
d. The height of the thermal printer is 8.5 inches
2. In a photocopier, __________ becomes charged when exposed to light.
a. Corona wires
b. Photoreceptor belt
c. Toner
d. Fuser
3. The refrigerant has high pressure and low temperature when it passes from ____
a. Evaporator to compressor
b. Compressor to condenser
c. Condenser to expansion valve
d. Expansion valve to evaporator
4. An ADC is used in a digital camera.
a. True
b. False
5. A camcorder is a combination of ______
a. Sync pulse generator, TV camera & video recorder
b. TV camera, video recorder & amplifier
c. Amplifier, sync pulse generator & video recorder
d. TV camera, sync pulse generator & ADC
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions
(1) d (2) b (3)c (4) (5)a
 130|Consumer Electronics

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. Briefly describe how to send a fax.
2. Explain the working of a photocopier.
3. State the different types of air-conditioning units.
4. Describe any 2 types of digital cameras.
5. Write a short note on a camcorder.
6. Explain in detail the workings of a fax machine. Draw the block diagram.
7. List and explain various components of a photocopier.
8. With the aid of a suitable diagram, explain how an air conditioner works.
9. State and describe the components of a refrigerator system.
10. Define and explain the laws that govern how a refrigerator functions.
11. Explain details of digital camera systems and their types.

PRACTICAL
1. Study the working of a fax machine
2. Study the working of a photocopier and diagnosis basic operational faults.
3. Study the working of standard types of air conditioners and diagnosis of basic
operational faults.
4. Study different components of a refrigerator system.
5. Study the working of a digital camera system and its types.

KNOW MORE
● The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that by 2050, there will be 5.6
billion air conditioners in use throughout the world. According to estimates, this
constituted about 20% of 2018's global building electricity consumption.
● In 1902, American inventor Willis H. Carrier put in place the first commercial air
conditioning system at the Sackett-Williams Lithographing & Publishing Company.
The Sackett-Williams office was in New York City.
● In 1959, Xerox introduced commercial xerographic office photocopying, which
quickly began to displace older duplicating technologies like the Verifax, Photostat,
carbon paper, and mimeograph machines. Office photocopying using commercial
xerography was Xerox's big break.
 Digital Electronics Systems|131

● Carlson, the inventor of the photocopier, was arthritic and found the procedure of
producing multiple duplicates of significant documents to be a time-consuming
endeavour, so he decided to study photoconductivity.
● The Beta movie BMC-100P from Sony was the very first consumer camcorder, and
it was released in 1983. But since it takes a Betamax cassette and sits on the
operator's shoulder, it's not one that can be held with one hand.
● Kodak engineer Steve Sasson came up with the idea for the first digital camera in
1975 and built it out of scrap materials and unused kit components that were lying
around the factory.
● First introduced in Japan in May 1999, the Kyocera Visual Phone VP-210 was the
first mass-produced camera phone. The front-facing camera had 110000 pixels and
could store 20 JPEG digital images for later transmission via e-mail or phone.

REFERENCES
[1] Fax machine, accessed 10 September 2022, <https://indianrenters.com/fax-machine-
on-rent/>
[2]Photocopier, accessed 10 September 2022,
<https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/photocopier>
[3]Refrigerator, accessed 10 September 2022,
<https://www.mylloyd.com/refrigerator/direct-cool-refrigerator/gldf213sbbt2pb>
[4] Point and Shoot camera, accessed 10 September 2022, <https://digital-photography-
school.com/does-a-point-shoot-camera-still-make-sense-for-you/>
[5] TLR camera, accessed 10 September 2022,
<https://www.lomography.com/magazine/319470-8-tlr-cameras-for-the-creative-
photographer>
[6] SLR camera, accessed 10 September 2022, <https://flynngraphics.ca/the-
collection/the-cameras/canonflex/>
[7] DSLR camera, accessed 10 September 2022,
<https://www.smartprix.com/cameras/dslr-type>
 132|Consumer Electronics

[8] Mirrorless Camera, accessed 10 September 2022,

<https://www.bhphotovideo.com/c/product/1659385-
REG/canon_xf605_4k_pro_camcorder.html>
[9] Sinclair, I. (2011). Electronics simplified. Newnes.
[10] Frenzel, L. (2017). Electronics Explained: Fundamentals for Engineers, Technicians,
and Makers. Newnes.
[11] Bishop, O. (2001). Understand electronics. Elsevier.
[12] Gates, E. (2011). Introduction to electronics. Cengage Learning.
[13] Turner, L. W. (Ed.). (2013). Electronics engineer's reference book. Butterworth-
Heinemann.
[14] Gibilisco, S. (2001). The illustrated dictionary of electronics. McGraw-Hill
Companies.
[15] Eggleston, D. L. (2011). Basic electronics for scientists and engineers. Cambridge
University Press.
[16] Lancaster, K. (2018). DSLR Cinema: A beginner’s guide to filmmaking on a budget.
Routledge.
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REFERENCES FOR FURTHER LEARNING

[1] Gupta, R. G. (2010). Audio & Video Systems, 2e. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.

[2] Harris, K. D. (2007). U.S. Patent Application No. 29/224,646.

[3]Gulati, R. R. (2005). Monochrome and colour television. New Age International.

[4] Frenzel, L. (2017). Electronics Explained: Fundamentals for Engineers, Technicians, and
Makers. Newnes.
 134|Consumer Electronics

CO AND PO ATTAINMENT TABLE

Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the programme outcomes (POs) after
the completion of the course and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze
the gap. After proper analysis of the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be taken
to overcome the gaps.

Table for CO and PO attainment

Attainment of Programme Outcomes
Course
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
PO‐1 PO‐2 PO‐3 PO‐4 PO‐5 PO‐6 PO‐7 PO‐8 PO‐9 PO‐10 PO‐11 PO‐12
CO‐1
CO‐2
CO‐3
CO‐4
CO‐5
CO‐6

The data filled in the above table can be used for gap analysis.
 135

INDEX

3D TV……..74, 75
Acoustic feedback……..30
Air-conditioning……..117,130
Ambient noise……..30, 35
Aspect ratio……..17, 38, 44, 60, 62, 63, 70, 74
Back porch……..48, 63
Camcorder….3, 11, 21, 109, 110, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132
Cavity magnetron……..98, 105
CD players……..16, 24, 25, 27, 36
Component video….83,84,88,90
Composite video…7, 17, 19, 38, 47, 63, 69, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 90
Compression……..2, 3, 4, 74 , 86, 87, 123, 126, 131
Decibel……..4, 5, 9, 21, 25
Digital audio console……..26, 27, 35, 36, 135
Digital camera……..3, 21, 109, 110, 123, 128, 129, 130, 131
Digital TV…….18, 69, 85
Dolby-B……..10, 25, 26, 34, 35, 36
Dynamic range……..7, 20, 30, 33, 36
Electrical conductivity……..116, 128
Electromagnetic field……..16, 95, 105
Electromagnetic induction……..11, 19
Facsimile machine……..111, 129
Flicker……..17, 45, 60, 63, 73
FM tuner……10, 16, 23, 27, 28, 36
Frequency response……..2, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18
Front porch……..48
 136

Fuzzy logic……2, 20, 94, 104, 105, 108

HDTV……..2, 8, 18, 66, 67, 74, 83, 85, 88, 90, 92
Impedance matching……..23, 31
Interlaced scanning……..10, 17, 45, 50, 52, 60, 62, 63, 74
LCD TV……..11, 18, 71, 91
LED TV…….18,.72, 73, 92
Microcontroller……..93, 98, 105
Microwave oven…2, 11,12,20,93,94,95,96,97,98,105,106,107, 108
Microwave radiation……..97, 98
Monochrome….2, 10, 17, 38, 39, 41, 42, 50, 52, 53, 60, 61, 63, 64
Optical device……..123, 128
Optical scanner……..111, 112
PA systems……..10, 11, 35
PAL system……..17, 38, 53, 63
PAL-D……..2, 7, 11, 18, 66, 67, 68, 70, 88, 89, 90
Phase delay……..31
Photocopier…3, 11,20, 110, 112, 113, 115, 116, 128, 129, 130, 131
Plasma TV……..18, 73, 74, 76, 79
Primary colours……..50, 52, 61, 62
Projection TV…….2, 19, 67, 74, 75, 76, 88, 90, 92
Receivers……..11, 18, 41, 53, 63, 67, 68, 88
Refrigerant……3, 110, 118, 119, 121, 122, 128, 129
Reverberation……..30
Sensitivity……..2, 7, 8, 9, 15, 18
Separate video……..8, 19, 83
Sound intensity……..4, 5, 30
Surround sound……..2, 16, 23, 24, 34, 35, 37, 51
System Controller……..101, 102, 105, 106
 137

Thermodynamics……..122
Time period……3, 12, 19, 48
Transformer……..8, 9, 11, 14, 29, 97, 98, 105
Velocity……..3, 11, 20, 21
Video amplifier…2, 19, 67, 69, 79, 80, 88, 90
Video interfaces…….82, 88, 89
Waveguide…….98, 105, 106
Wavelength……..3, 20, 51, 52, 54, 62
138