16.

Kinetics II
The rate of reaction is defined as the change in concentration of a substance in unit time
Its usual unit is mol dm-3s-1

When a graph of concentration of reactant is plotted vs Initial rate =

time, the gradient of the curve is the rate of reaction. gradient of

concentration
tangent
The initial rate is the rate at the start of the
reaction where it is fastest

Reaction rates can be calculated from graphs of

concentration of reactants or products
time
Techniques to investigate rates of reaction
There are several different methods for measuring reactions rates. Some reactions can be measured
in several ways
Measurement of the change in volume of a gas
This works if there is a change in the number of moles of
gas in the reaction. Using a gas syringe is a common
way of following this. If drawing a gas syringe make
(CH3)2C=CH2(g) + HI(g) (CH3)3CI(g) sure you draw it with some
measurement markings on the
HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq)  2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g) barrel to show measurements
can be made.

Measurement of change of mass

This works if there is a gas produced which is allowed to

escape. Works better with heavy gases such as CO2
HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq)  2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g)

Titrating samples of reaction mixture with acid, alkali, sodium thiosulfate etc
Small samples are removed from the reaction mixture, quenched (which
stops the reaction) and the titrated with a suitable reagent.

HCOOCH3(aq) + NaOH(aq)  HCOONa(aq) + CH3OH(aq) The NaOH could be titrated with an acid

BrO3 –(aq) + 5Br –(aq) + 6H+(aq)  3Br2(aq) + 3H2O(l) The H+ could be titrated with an alkali

CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) → CH3COCH2I(aq) + H+(aq) + I–(aq) The I2 could be titrated with sodium
thiosulfate
Colorimetry.

If one of the reactants or products is coloured H2O2(aq) + 2I- (aq) + 2H+(aq)  2H2O(l) + I2(aq)
then colorimetry can be used to measure the
change in colour of the reacting mixtures The I2 produced is a brown solution

Measuring change in electrical conductivity

Can be used if there is a change in the number HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq)  2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g)
of ions in the reaction mixture

Measurement of optical activity.

If there is a change in the optical activity through
the reaction this could be followed in a CH3CHBrCH3 (l) + OH−(aq)  CH3CH(OH)CH3 (l) + Br−(aq)
polarimeter
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 Rate Equations
The rate equation relates mathematically the rate of reaction to the concentration of the reactants.

For the following reaction, aA + bB  r is used as symbol for rate

products, the generalised rate equation is: r = k[A]m[B]n
The unit of r is usually mol dm-3 s-1

The square brackets [A] means

m, n are called reaction orders the concentration of A
Orders are usually integers 0,1,2 (unit mol dm-3)

0 means the reaction is zero order with respect to that reactant k is called the rate constant
1 means first order
2 means second order
The total order for a reaction is worked
NOTE: the orders have nothing to do with the stoichiometric out by adding all the individual orders
coefficients in the balanced equation. They are worked out together (m+n)
experimentally

Calculating orders from initial rate data

For zero order: the concentration of A has no effect on the

initial

rate of reaction r = k[A]0 = k

For first order: the rate of reaction is directly proportional

to the concentration of A r = k[A]1

For second order: the rate of reaction is proportional to the

concentration of A squared r = k[A]2

For a rate concentration graph to show the

Graphs of initial rate against concentration show the
order of a particular reactant the
different orders. The initial rate may have been
concentration of that reactant must be varied
calculated from taking gradients from concentration
whilst the concentrations of the other
/time graphs
reactants should be kept constant.

Continuous rate experiments

Continuous rate data

0.060 This is data from one experiment where the concentration

of one substance is followed throughout the experiment.
If half-lives are constant
[A]

then the order is 1st order

For this method to work the concentrations of the
0.030 reactants not being followed must be in large excess in
the experiment so their concentrations stay virtually
constant and do not affect rate.
0.015
0.0075
This data is processed by plotting the data and calculating
successive half-lives.
t½ t½ t½
Time (min) The half-life of a first-order reaction
is independent of the concentration and is constant

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 Second order zero order
0.060
0.060 If zero order the rate
stays constant as the
reactant is used up.
This means the

[A]
If half-lives rapidly increase
concentration has no
[A]

0.030 then the order is 2nd order

0.030 effect on rate.

0.015
0.015
0.0075
0.0075

t½ t½ t½
Time (min) Time (min)

The rate constant (k)

1. The units of k depend on the overall order of For a 1st order overall reaction the unit of k is
reaction. It must be worked out from the rate s-1
equation For a 2nd order overall reaction the unit of k is
2. The value of k is independent of concentration and mol-1dm3s-1
time. It is constant at a fixed temperature. For a 3rd order overall reaction the unit of k is
3. The value of k refers to a specific temperature and mol-2dm6s-1
it increases if we increase temperature

Example (first order overall)

Rate = k[A][B]0 m = 1 and n = 0 Remember: the values of the reaction orders must
- reaction is first order in A and zero order in B be determined from experiment; they cannot be
- overall order = 1 + 0 = 1 found by looking at the balanced reaction equation
- usually written: Rate = k[A]
Calculating units of k

1. Rearrange rate equation 2. Insert units and

to give k as subject cancel

k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1

Unit of k = s-1
[A] mol dm-3

Example: Write the rate equation for the reaction between A and B
where A is 1st order and B is 2nd order.

r = k[A][B]2 overall order is 3

Calculate the unit of k

1. Rearrange rate equation to 2. Insert units and 3. Simplify fraction

give k as subject cancel
k= s-1
k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1 Unit of k = mol-2dm6s-1
mol2dm-6
[A][B]2 mol dm-3.(moldm-3)2

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Working out orders from experimental initial rate data

The initial rate is the rate at the start of the reaction, where it is fastest. It is Initial rate =
often obtained by taking the gradient of the conc vs time graph. gradient of

concentration
tangent
Normally to work out the rate equation we do a series of
experiments where the initial concentrations of reactants are
changed (one at a time) and measure the initial rate each time.
This data is normally presented in a table.

time

Example: Deduce the rate equation for the following reaction, A+ B+ 2C  D + 2E, using the initial rate
data in the table

Experiment [A] [B] [C] Rate In order to calculate the order for a particular
mol dm- mol dm-3 mol dm-3 mol dm-3 s-1 reactant it is easiest to compare two
3
experiments where only that reactant is
1 0.1 0.5 0.25 0.1 being changed
2 0.2 0.5 0.25 0.2
If conc is doubled and rate stays the same: order= 0
3 0.1 1.0 0.25 0.4
If conc is doubled and rate doubles: order= 1
4 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1
If conc is doubled and rate quadruples : order= 2

For reactant A compare between experiments 1 and 2

For reactant A as the concentration doubles (B and C staying constant) so does the
rate. Therefore the order with respect to reactant A is first order

For reactant B compare between experiments 1 and 3 :

As the concentration of B doubles (A and C staying constant) the rate quadruples.
Therefore the order with respect to B is 2nd order

For reactant C compare between experiments 1 and 4 :

As the concentration of C doubles (A and B staying constant) the rate stays the same.
Therefore the order with respect to C is zero order

The reaction is 3rd order overall and the unit of the

The overall rate equation is r = k [A] [B]2
rate constant =mol-2dm6s-1

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Working out orders when two reactant concentrations are changed simultaneously

In most questions it is possible to compare between two experiments where only one reactant has its initial
concentration changed. If, however, both reactants are changed then the effect of both individual changes on
concentration are multiplied together to give the effect on rate.

In a reaction where the rate equation is r = k [A] [B]2

If the [A] is x2 that rate would x2
If the [B] is x3 that rate would x32= x9
If these changes happened at the same time then the rate would x2x9= x 18

Example Deduce the rate equation for the reaction, between X and Y, using the initial rate data in the table

Experiment Initial concentration of Initial concentration Initial

X/ mol dm–3 of Y/ mol dm–3 rate/ mol dm–3 s–1

1 0.05 0.1 0.15 x 10–6

2 0.10 0.1 0.30 x 10–6

3 0.20 0.2 2.40 x 10–6

For reactant X compare between experiments 1 and 2

For reactant X as the concentration doubles (Y staying constant) so does the rate.
Therefore the order with respect to reactant X is first order

Comparing between experiments 2 and 3 :

Both X and Y double and the rate goes up by 8

We know X is first order so that will have doubled rate

The overall rate equation is r = k [X] [Y]2
The effect of Y, therefore, on rate is to have quadrupled it.
The reaction is 3rd order overall and the unit of
Y must be second order
the rate constant =mol-2dm6s-1

Calculating a value for k using initial rate data

Using the above example, choose any one of the experiments and put the values into the rate equation that
has been rearranged to give k. Using experiment 3:

r = k [X] [Y]2 k= r k = 2.40 x 10–6 k = 3.0 x 10-4 mol-2dm6s-1

[X] [Y]2
0.2 x 0.22

Remember k is the same for all experiments done at the same temperature.
Increasing the temperature increases the value of the rate constant k

5
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Effect of Temperature on Rate Constant: The Arrhenius Equation

Increasing the temperature increases the value of the rate constant k

k
Increasing temperature increases the rate constant k.
The relationship is given by the Arrhenius equation k = Ae-EA/RT where A is
the Arrhenius constant, R is the gas constant, and EA is activation energy.
temperature

Using the Arrhenius equation (equations will be given in the exam )

k = Ae-EA/RT
The Arrhenius equation is usually rearranged to (You don’t need to know how)
ln k = ln A – EA/(RT)
You should be able to do rearrangements
and substitute values into both these
Units equations.
Temperature uses the unit K
R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1
Activation energy will need to be in J mol-1 to match the units
of R
The unit of the Arrhenius constant A will be the same as the
unit of the rate constant k

Example
A reaction carried out at 30oC has a value of k = 4.26 × 10−8 s−1
The activation energy Ea = 95.8 kJ mol−1
The gas constant R = 8.31 J K−1 mol−1
Calculate a value for the Arrhenius constant, A, for the reaction.

Using Equation k = Ae-EA/RT

k = 4.26 × 10−8 = 4.26 × 10−8 4.26 × 10−8

Rearrange to A = =
e-EA/RT e-95800/(8.31x308) e-37.4 5.55× 10−17

= 7.67 × 108 s-1

Example
A reaction carried out at 25oC has a value of k = 3.3 × 10−3 mol-1 dm3 s−1
ln A = 17.1
The gas constant R = 8.31 J K−1 mol−1
Calculate a value for the activation energy in kJ mol-1
Using Equation ln k = ln A – EA/(RT)

Rearrange to EA = (ln A - ln k) x RT = (17.1 - - 5.71) x 8.31 x 298

= 56486 J mol-1
= 56.5 kJ mol-1

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Calculating the activation energy graphically from experimental data
Using the rearranged version 1/T

ln k = ln A – EA/(RT)

ln (Rate)
k is proportional to the rate of reaction so ln k can be
replaced by ln(rate) Gradient = - EA/ R
From plotting a graph of ln(rate) or ln k against 1/T the
activation energy can be calculated from measuring EA = - gradient x R
the gradient of the line.

1/T
Example
0.0029 0.003 0.0031 0.0032 0.0033 0.0034
Temperature time t -1.6
T (K) 1/T (s) 1/t Ln (1/t) x1,y1
297.3 0.003364 53 0.018868 -3.9703 -2.1
310.6 0.00322 24 0.041667 -3.1781 ln (Rate)
317.2 0.003153 16 0.0625 -2.7726 -2.6

323.9 0.003087 12 0.083333 -2.4849

-3.1
335.6 0.00298 6 0.166667 -1.7918

-3.6
x2,y2
gradient = y2-y1 The gradient should
x2-x1 always be -ve -4.1

In above example gradient =-5680 • use a line of best fit

• the plotted points should fill all graph paper
EA = - gradient x R (8.31) (generally don’t start at the origin)
= - -5680 x8.31 • choose points far apart on the graph to
= 47200 J mol-1 calculate the gradient

The unit of EA using this equation will be J mol-1 .

Convert into kJ mol-1 by dividing 1000
EA = +47.2 kJ mol-1

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Rate Equations and Mechanisms

A mechanism is a series of steps through which the reaction Each step can have a different rate of
progresses, often forming intermediate compounds. If all the reaction. The slowest step will control the
steps are added together they will add up to the overall overall rate of reaction. The slowest step
equation for the reaction is called the rate-determining step.

The molecularity (number of moles of each substance) of the molecules in the slowest
step will be the same as the order of reaction for each substance.
e.g. 0 moles of A in slow step would mean A is zero order.
1 mole of A in the slow step would mean A is first order

Example 2 overall reaction

Example 1 A + 2B + C  D + E
overall reaction Mechanism
A + 2B + C  D + E Step 1 A + B  X + D fast
Mechanism Step 2 X+CY slow
Step 1 A + B  X + D slow Step 3 Y+BE fast
Step 2 X+CY fast
Step 3 Y+BE fast r = k [X]1[C]1
r = k [A]1[B]1[C]o The intermediate X is not one of the reactants so
must be replaced with the substances that make
C is zero order as it appears in the up the intermediate in a previous step
mechanism in a fast step after the slow step A+BX+D
r = k[A]1[B]1[C]1

Investigating the rate of reaction between iodine and propanone

Propanone reacts with iodine in acidic solution (the acid is a catalyst) as shown in the equation
below.
CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) → CH3COCH2I(aq) + H+(aq) + I–(aq)

This reaction can be followed by removing small samples from the reaction mixture with a
volumetric pipette. The sample is then quenched by adding excess sodium hydrogencarbonate to
neutralize acid catalyst which stops the reaction. Then the sample can be titrated with sodium
thiosulfate using a starch catalyst

2S2O32-(aq) + I2 (aq)  2I- (aq) + S4O62-(aq)

yellow/brown sol colourless sol

[I2] This reaction is zero order with respect to I2 but 1st order
with respect to the propanone and acid catalyst

The rate equation for the reaction is

Rate = k[CH3COCH3(aq)][H+(aq)]

If there is a zero order reactant there must

be at least two steps in the mechanism
because the rate determining step will not
involve the zero order reactant
Time (min)

The rate determining step of this reaction must therefore contain one propanone molecule and one H+ ion
forming an intermediate. The iodine will be involved in a subsequent faster step.

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 Example 3: SN1 or SN2?

Remember the nucleophilic substitution reaction of halogenoalkanes and hydroxide ions.

This is a one step mechanism

H CH3 H - H
δ+ δ-
H3C
-HO:
C Br  HO C Br
H3C C OH + :Br -

H
H H

CH3CH2Br + OH-  CH3CH2OH + Br- slow step

Primary halogenalkanes tend to
The rate equation is This is called SN2.
Substitution, Nucleophilic, react via the SN2 mechanism
r = k [CH3CH2Br] [OH-] 2 molecules in rate
determining step

SN1 nucleophilic substitution mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes

Tertiary halogenoalkanes
CH3 CH3 CH3 undergo this mechanism as the
+
tertiary carbocation is stabilised
H3C C Br H3C C :OH- H3C C OH by the electron releasing methyl
groups around it. (see alkenes
CH3 CH3 CH3
topic for another example of this).
Also the bulky methyl groups
The Br first breaks away The hydroxide
prevent the hydroxide ion from
from the halogenoalkane nucleophile then attacks
the positive carbon attacking the halogenoalkane in
to form a carbocation the same way as the mechanism
intermediate
above.

Overall Reaction
The rate equation is This is called SN1.
(CH3)3CBr + OH–  (CH3)3COH + Br – Substitution, Nucleophilic,
r = k [(CH3)3CBr] 1 molecule in rate
Mechanism: determining step

(CH3)3CBr  (CH3)3C+ + Br – slow Primary halogenoalkanes do not do the SN1 mechanism

because they would form an unstable primary carbocation.
(CH3)3C+ + OH–  (CH3)3COH fast

Example 4
Example 5
Overall Reaction
Using the rate equation rate = k[NO]2[H2] and
NO2(g) + CO(g)  NO(g) + CO2(g)
the overall equation 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g), the
following three-step mechanism for the reaction was
Mechanism:
suggested. X and Y are intermediate species.
Step 1 NO2 + NO2 NO + NO3 slow
Step 1 NO + NO  X
Step 2 NO3 + CO  NO2 + CO2 fast
Step 2 X + H2 Y
• NO3 is a reaction intermediate
Step 3 Y + H2  N2 + 2H2O
NO2 appears twice in the slow steps so it
is second order. CO does not appear in Which one of the three steps is the rate-determining step?
the slow step so is zero order. Step 2 – as H2 appears in rate equation and combination of
r=k [NO2]2 step 1 and 2 is the ratio that appears in the rate equation.

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