Introduction to AC Machinery

(Synchronous Machines)

INSTRUCTOR
Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this discussion, students will be able to

• CLO1. understand the fundamental principles of AC
machinery.
TLO1. Discuss and analyze rotating magnetic field, magnetomotive
force and flux distribution on AC machines, AC machines power
flows and losses, voltage regulation and speed regulation.

• CLO2. determine the principles and operations of

Synchronous generator.
TLO2. Know the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a
synchronous generator.

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 2

Synchronous Generators
99% of the electric power allover the
world is generated by Synchronous
Generators
 System Components
• The main components of power systems are:
1. Generators (Synchronous Generators).
2. Power Transformers.
3. Transmission lines and cables.
4. Loads:
- Static (lighting, heating,…)
- Dynamic (Motors).
 Generators
• The Generator converts mechanical power into electrical
power.
• Synchronous generators are constant speed generators.
• The conversion of mechanical power into electrical power
is done through a coupling field (magnetic field).

Input Magnetic Electrical Output

Mechanical
 Construction

Stator Armature

Mechanical Electrical

Field
Rotor
 Synchronous Generators

Generator

Exciter
View of a two-pole round rotor generator and exciter.
(Westinghouse)
 Synchronous Generators

Stator with
B+
C- laminated iron core

N Armature Windings
- +
- +
-
A-
+
A+ - +
Rotor with - + Slots with
dc winding S phase
Field Windings C+ winding
B-

Construction of a two-pole salient pole generator

Salient Pole Generator

Slip
rings

Pole

DC excitation
winding
Fan

Rotor of a four-pole salient pole generator

Difference of Salient-Pole and Non-Salient
Pole synchronous generator

The salient pole type structure has

the following special features,
They have a large diameter and
short axial length.
• The pole shoes cover about ⅔ of
the pole pitch.
• Poles are laminated to reduce
eddy current losses.
• These are employed with
hydraulic turbines or diesel
engines.
 Difference of Salient-Pole and Non-Salient
Pole synchronous generator
The non-salient pole type structure has the
following special features,
• They are of small diameter and of very
long axial length to reduce the
peripheral velocity
• This type of construction offers fewer
windage losses
• High speeds are obtained i.e., 1500 to
3000 rpm.
• Better in dynamic balancing and quieter
in operation.
• This type of construction is mechanically
very strong compared to the salient pole
type.
 Operation Concepts
Flux f
nsy
B+
C-

N +
+
- + A-
- +
A+ - +
-
- S

B- C+

Operating concept of a synchronous generator

 Flux Linkage

Maximum flux linkage with phase A No flux linkage with phase A

C- B+ C- B+
- + - +
-
N
N
+ - + - + -
A+ A- A+ S A-
S +
- + - +
B- C+ B- C+

(a) Flux is perpendicular to phase A (b) Flux is parallel to phase A

Flux linkage variation.

Rotating Flux

rot t link
nsy
C- B+

+
N +
- +
A+ - 30 + A-
- +
-
- S

B- C+

Rotating flux linkage to phase A.

 EMF Equation
According to Faraday’s law,
the induced emf in the armature coil of Nsta turns is given by:

d  link (t )
E s (t )  N sta Esta  Emax cos(t  90)
dt
 link (t )   rot cos( t ) Emax  N sta  rot 
N sta  rot 
E s (t )   N sta  rot  sin(  t )
where Erms 
2
 N sta  rot  cos( t  90) Erms  4.44 N sta  rot f
  2 f
 Speed and Frequency

• nS is the synchronous speed (r/m)

• f is the frequency in Hz.
• 2P = total number of poles.

Pns
f 
60
Example:
calculate the frequency of a 1800 rpm , 4 pole synchronous generator

ns = 1800 r/m, 2P = 4 Then, f = 2*1800/60 = 60 Hz

 Armature Reaction
nsy
B+
C-

+
N +
- + A-
30 +
Field flux f A+
-
- +
- Armature
- S
flux ar
C+
B-

The main field flux (Φf) and the load generated rotating fluxe (Φar)
 Armature Reaction

Load current generates a rotating flux reducing the main flux and
induced voltage

I arm (t )  2 I sta cos( t )

 arm (t )   ar cos( t )

d arm (t )
Ear (t )  N sta   N sta  ar  sin ( t )
dt
N sta  ar 
E arm 
2

Vt  E sta  E arm
 Armature Reactance

dI (t ) d
E ar (t )  Larm arm
 Larm 2 I sta cos( t )
dt dt
  Larm 2 I sta sin(  t )
  X arm 2 I sta sin(  t )

N sta  ar 
X arm 
2 I sta

X syn  X arm  X leakage

 Equivalent Circuit

E arm syn  I sta ( j X syn )

Vt  E sta  E arm syn  E sta  I sta j X syn

Single-phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator.

Phasor Diagram

Ia

 
E  E V  V0

E  V0
I
jX
 Power Calculations

The apparent Power S is given by

S  VI *
S  V I  P  jQ
* *

Using the current expression derived from the equivalent circuit we get
E  V0
S  P  jQ  V0  (
*
)
jX
VE V2 EV V2
     90  j
X90 X90 X X

EV EV V2
P sin  Q cos 
X X X
Power Angle

P Pmax = EV/X

Power – Angle characteristics

 Example 1

A 1,250-kVA, three-phase, Y-connected, 4,160-V ,

ten-pole, 60-Hz generator has an armature
resistance of 0.126 ohms per phase and a
synchronous reactance of 3 ohms per phase.
Find the full load generated voltage per phase at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging.
 Example 2
A 3-phase, wye-connected alternator is rated
1600 kVA, 13.5 kV. The effective armature
resistance and synchronous reactance are
1.5 ohms and 30 ohms, respectively. What is
the percent regulation for a load of 1280 kW
at 0.80 leading power factor?
 Example 3
A 1500 kVA, 6600-V, 3-phase, Y-connected
with a synchronous impedance of (0.40 +
j6.0) ohms per phase delivers full load
current and 0.80 power factor lagging
current at normal voltage. What will be the
terminal voltage for the same excitation and
load current at 0.80 leading power factor.
 END OF PRESENTATION

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 27

The Lasallian Prayer

“I will continue, O my God,

to do all my actions for the love of Thee.”

Saint John Baptist de La Salle, pray for us.

Live Jesus in our hearts, forever.

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 28

Synchronous Generators
(Alternators)

INSTRUCTOR
Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this discussion, students will be able to
• CLO1. understand the fundamental principles of AC machinery.
TLO1. Discuss and analyze rotating magnetic field, magnetomotive
force and flux distribution on AC machines, AC machines power flows
and losses, voltage regulation and speed regulation.

• CLO2. determine the principles and operations of Synchronous

generator.
TLO2. Know the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a
synchronous generator.
• Generated Voltage
• Pitch and Distribution factors
• Voltage drops
• Voltage Regulation

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 2

 AC Generators are usually
called alternators. They
operate on the same
fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction as
Principle of AC dc generators.
Generators
Alternators are driven at a
definite constant speed
called synchronous speed
and the frequency of the
generated emf is determined
by that speed.
In practice, stationary armature and moving fields
is preferable than a stationary field and moving
armature for several reasons:
• The armature winding is more complex than the field and
can be constructed more easily on a stationary structure.
• The armature winding can be braced more securely in a
rigid frame.
• The armature winding is cooled more readily.
• The low voltage field can be constructed for efficient high-
speed operation.
 Generated Voltage in an Alternator
The fundamental law of generator action states that an
average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire if the flux
passing through that turn changes at the rate 1 x 108
maxwells per second.

Where:
ERMS = effective generated voltage
EAVE = average generated voltage
N= No. of coil turns
F= Frequency, Hertz
Φ= flux per pole, maxwells
Note: 1 weber = 1x108 maxwells
 Armature Windings
• The armature windings in the alternators are different from those used in dc
machines. In alternators one end of the windings is joined to the neutral point
and the other is brought out as output terminals (star – connected armature).

The two (2) types of armature windings most commonly used for 3 – phase
alternators:
• Single – layer winding (half – coiled)
• 1 coil side per slot
• ½ coil per slot
• P/2 groups of coils
• Coils are connected such that successive
groups of coils carry current in opposite direction.
• Double – layer winding (whole – coiled)
• 2 coil sides per slot
• 1 coil per slot
• P (poles) groups of coils
• Coils are connected such that successive
groups of coils carry current in the opposite direction
 Coil Pitch and Pitch Factor

• The pole pitch is the distance between the centrelines of

adjacent north and south poles, measured along the
circumference at the armature surface (always 180 electrical
degrees). The distance between the 2 sides of a coil is its coil
pitch. If the 2 sides of an armature coil is equal to the pole pitch,
the armature winding is a full pitch. F the coil pitch is less than
180 electrical degrees, the winding is called a fractional pitch
winding. The ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional –
pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full –pitch coil is called
the pitch factor.

Where:
Kp = pitch factor
P0 = span of coils in electrical degrees
 Distribution Factor
When several coils in a group are connected in series,
the total voltage generated by that group is not
equal to the voltage per coil multiplied by the no. of
coils in the group. The factor to be multiplied to the
voltage generated per coil is called distribution
factor.

Where:
Kd = distribution factor
n= number of slots per pole per phase
do= no. of electrical degrees between adjacent slots
Corrected Voltage of Alternators
 Example 1

A 3 – phase alternator has the following data:

Slots = 48, P = 4, armature winding: lap – wound single
layer distributed type
Turns /coil = 8
φ/pole = 4.2 x 106 maxwells
coil pitch is short by 2 slots.
Find the generated voltage per phase.
 Example 2

A 3-φ, 10-pole, Y-connected alternator runs

at 600 r.p.m. It has 120 stator slots with 8
conductors per slot and the conductors of
each phase are connected in series.
Determine the phase and line e.m.fs. if the
flux per pole is 56 mWb. Assume full-pitch
coils.
 Example 3

A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-

connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 30
mWb sinusoidally distributed. Find the
frequency, the phase and line voltage if the
speed is 375 rpm.
 Alternator Regulation
The terminal voltage of an alternator is affected by three (3)
factors namely:
• The armature winding resistance
• The armature reactance
• The effect of armature reaction
 Loading an alternator also affects the terminal voltage.
These types of loads depend on their power factor such as:
• Unity power factor – causes to drop about 8%-20% below
the no – load value
• Lagging Power Factor – causes the terminal voltage to
drop about as much as 25% - 50% below the no load
value
• Leading power factor – raises the terminal voltage above
the no – load value, voltage regulation is negative which
indicates that full – load voltage is greater that the no –
load voltage.
Alternator Regulation
 Voltage drops in the armature
The voltage drops in the armature that affect the terminal
voltage drop or use on the character of the load are:
• Armature – resistance voltage drop (I Ra)
• Armature reactance voltage drop (IX)
• Armature reaction voltage drop (EAR) – a voltage drop due
to the reaction of the armature flux with the main pole flux
 Synchronous Reactance and Impedance
• Synchronous reactance voltage drop is the combined
reactance voltage drop and armature reaction voltage
drop. Both voltage drops bear the same 90o.
 Example 4

A 3-φ star-connected alternator is rated at 1600 kVA,

13,500 V. The armature effective
resistance and synchronous reactance are 1.5 Ω and 30 Ω
respectively per phase. Calculate the percentage
regulation for a load of 1280 kW at power factors of (a)
0.8 leading and (b) 0.8 lagging.
 END OF PRESENTATION

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 19

The Lasallian Prayer

“I will continue, O my God,

to do all my actions for the love of Thee.”

Saint John Baptist de La Salle, pray for us.

Live Jesus in our hearts, forever.

22 February 2024 Prepared By: Engr. Jerny D. Catibayan 20