Lesson 1: Understanding Politics

“What is politics?”
―Politics is an activity that involves the interaction of people whose relationship is characterized by
conflict and cooperation, and come together to solve such disagreements through binding solutions.‖
(Heywood, 2013, History of Politics)

“What makes social interactions a political one?”

Any form of social interaction that involves the art of government, public affairs, compromise and
consensus, or power and distribution of resources is political.
Politics is thus inextricably linked to the phenomena of conflict and cooperation. The existence of rival
opinions, different wants, competing needs and opposing interests guarantees disagreement about
the rules under which people live. According to Hannah Arendt, political power acts in a concert.
However, people recognize that, to influence these rules or ensure that they are upheld, they must
work with others.

The word ̳politics‘is derived from polis, meaning literally ̳city-state‘. Ancient Greek society was divided
into a collection of independent city-states, each of which possessed its own system of government.
The largest and most influential of these city-states was Athens, often portrayed as the cradle of
democratic government. In this light, politics can be understood to refer to the affairs of the polis – in
effect, ̳what concerns the polis‘. The modern form of this definition is therefore ̳what concerns the
state‘. This view of politics is clearly evident in the everyday use of the term: people are said to be ̳in
politics ‘when they hold public office, or to be ̳entering politics‘ when they seek to do so.

Politics and Governance in the Philippines

Politics - denotes a social activity which underlies the creation of maintenance and amendment of
social norms and rules. It is also the art and science of the government concerning the realm of public
affairs or the state.
Governance - is the exercise of power/authority by political leader for the well-being of their country‘s
citizens or subject. It also refers to the manner of steering/governing and or directing and controlling a
group of people or the state.

BASIC CONCEPT OF POLITICS

1. ORDER – is the central to the study of politics because it shows different
components of human society.
STRUCTURES OF ORDER
A. COMMUNITY – is one of social order which refers to the association of individual who shares a
common identity.
B. GOVERNMENT – is the higher level of social order that exist primarily for the maintenance and
perpetuation of the community.
C. STATE – is the largest social order today and in which the term politics originally derived.

2. POWER – the main source of reign of the Government and the possession to govern or rule the
state.
3. JUSTICE – the process of legalizing and penalizing the abuse of political power and power to rule.
Justice is in effect if the government gives what people need, protect and respect their rights, and put
the common good over and above the personal interest of the leaders.
TWO APPROACHES to the STUDY of POLITICS
 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY – It is the traditional approach in which the primary goal is to understand
the essence or the truth about politics.
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 POLITICAL SCIENCE – It is the empirical/objective approach in which it places little emphasis on
abstract and normative question and concentrates on a dispassionate and objective of the realities of
politics.

Concepts of Government:
1. Worth of the Individual. All people are created equal and deserve an opportunity to pursue their
potential.
2. Equality of all persons.
a. equality of opportunity and
b. equality before the law.
3. Majority Rules with Minority Rights.
4. Necessity of compromise
5. Individual freedom

PROCESSES AND ACTORS IN GOVERNANCE

Decision-Making - refers to the process by which a person or group of persons, guided by socio-
political structures, arriving at a decision involving their individual and communal needs and wants.
Implementation - is the process that logically follows the decision.

Actors and Structures

An actor - is a sector or group or institution that participates in the process of decision-making and
implementation.
A structure - refers to an organization or mechanism that formally or informally guides the decision-
making process and sets into the motion the different actors and apparatuses in the implementation
process.
Informal Actors and Bad Governance – Their influence is felt more clearly in local governments, such
as organized crime syndicates and powerful families, and in rural and urban areas. Most often than
not, these actors are the cause of corruption, in that legitimate government objectives are distorted by
their illegal and private interests. Worse, they manipulate government officials and agencies, and
cause widespread yet organized violence in the community. In urban and rural areas, for example,
the rich and powerful families control the economy by controlling the local government officials. They
bring about a controlled environment so that decisions must always favor them.

INDICATORS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

1. Participation – is the active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making
process. Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine
Constitution contains provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral governance. The Local
Government Act of 1989 was borne out of the need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As
such, these and other related legislations may be considered as normative standards for good
governance.
2. Rule of Law – in this indicator, democracy becomes essential. It demands that the people and the
civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that the government acts within the
limits of the powers and functions which are prescribed by the law. In the Philippines however, this
needs proper implementation and reformation particularly among the law making body. Despite being
one of the oldest democracies in the region, it ranked last among seven indexed Asian countries
according to the World Justice Project Rule of Law Index. Generally, the reasons for ranking last are
―lack of respect for law ―pervasive and systemic corruption in the government, and
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―circumvention of the law. Lack of respect for law is generally caused by distrust on the integrity of
law enforcement agencies.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency – this indicator requires that actors meet the needs of the society for
effective governance. This means that the valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or
underutilizing any of them. Enhancement and standardization of the quality of public service delivery
consistent with international standards, professionalization of bureaucracy should be observed while
efforts must be made in order to attain effectiveness and efficiency in Philippine governance. The
Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA), for instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen‘s
Charter for a simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions. Also, many government
departments and agencies pursued a rationalization program to check excessive and redundant
staffing.
4. Transparency – this indicator means that people are open to information regarding decision-making
process and the implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on matters of
public concern are made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected. It also means
that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible to the people.
Efforts were made in pursuit of transparency in Philippine governance and as far as the government
sector is concerned, the current administration, consistent with its drive of curbing corruption,
promotes honesty and integrity in public service. It has currently passed the Freedom of Information
Bill and other related legislations, as well as intensified people‘s engagement in local governance.
Transparency in budget and disbursements are, however, still far from being substantially
implemented.

5. Responsiveness - means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a timely and
appropriate manner. It also means that actors and structures of governance easily give genuine
expression to the will or desire of the people. Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive
governance in the Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen‘s charter in all frontline agencies
(as required by ARTA), and gender sensitivity programs. First, through decentralization, local
governments, which are more proximate to their constituents, serve more promptly the people, who in
turn become more involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency now has it
Citizen‘s Charter, which provides time frames for every step in attaining frontline services. Agencies
now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or interested parties within a
period of ten days, otherwise there will be delayed service. However, this aspect of governance still
remains to be one of the causes for the decline of public‘s confidence in the public sector. Although
the ARTA has been passed, there is still so much delay in public service delivery. The failure of the
government agencies to explain the charters to the stakeholders is one of the main reasons why
there is still delay.

6. Equity and Inclusiveness - means that all the members of the society, especially the most
vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Social
equity, as an example, refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate
members of the society. The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity
and inclusiveness. The Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the promotion of social
justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social legislations like the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil.

7. Consensus Oriented - Governance is consensus oriented when decisions are made after taking
into consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of the society. Among the things done by the
Philippines in promoting a consensus oriented governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of
representation in the Congress; (2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subjects legislation

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to the evaluation of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or
consultations of various governmental policies and actions.

8. Accountability - means answerability or responsibility for one‘s action. It is based on the principle
that every person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect public
interest. Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial accountability.
Political accountability refers to the accountability of public officials to the people they represent.
Hierarchical accountability refers to the ordered accountability of the various agencies and their
respective officers and personnel in relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability
refers to employee accountability based on organization and individual performance.

CURRENT STATE OF GOVERNANCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is plagued by bad governance. Based on the six dimensions of governance in the
Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), it ranks in the lower half of the percentile. In 2010-2011, the
Philippines ranked only 85th in the Global Competitive Index (GCI), lagging most of its Southeast
Asian neighbors. The decline of trust on the actors of governance and the consequential poor
economic condition were brought about by the systemic corruption among and between public
officials and private organizations. In 2013, it ranked 94th among 177 countries in the Corruption
Perception Index. Among the key institutions in the Philippines perceived to be most corrupt based on
the Global Corruption Index are ―political parties, ―judiciary, ―police, ―public officials and civil
servants, and ―legislature. This means all branches of the Philippine government are now
challenged.

Performance Task 1
Clip a Photo: Cut at least 5 photos from newspapers, books, pamphlets, etc. which shows
involvement in political activities. Create a caption of these photos.

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Lesson 2: Political Ideologies Practiced in Philippines

Unlocking Difficulties:

Ideology (Kaisipan)-A system of ideas and ideals (Uliran, Huwaran, Modelo), especially one which
forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.
The set of beliefs characteristic of a social group or individual.

Political Ideology-In social studies, a political ideology is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles,
doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how
society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order.

There are five main political ideologies. However, according to the study of Buendia (10), in the
Philippines only three political ideologies were evident: Liberalism, Conservatism, and Socialism. It is
a fundamental insight that more than one solution is available for any given societal problem.

1. Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Whereas
classical liberalism emphasizes the role of liberty, social liberalism stresses the importance of
equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles,
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but generally they support ideas and programmes such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press,
freedom of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic societies, secular governments, gender
equality, and international cooperation.
2. Conservatism as a political and social philosophy promotes retaining traditional social
institutions in the context of culture and civilization. Some conservatives seek to preserve
things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others, called reactionaries,
oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were".
3. Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterized by social ownership of the
means of production and workers' self-management. Social ownership can be public, collective
or cooperative ownership, or citizen ownership of equity. Socialism is an economic system
where everyone in society equally owns the factors of production. The ownership is acquired
through a democratically elected government. It could also be a cooperative or a public
corporation where everyone owns shares. The four factors of production are labor,
entrepreneurship, capital goods, and natural resources.

Other ideologies:

Monarchy – Form of government with a monach (King, Queen, Datu, Raja,) is the head.

Communism – All property is publicly own, and each person works and is paid according to their
abilities and needs.

Anarchism – Society with no authority or governing bodies. (Ex. One day anarchy in the movie
The PURGE wherein one can do anything even crimes, freely with no punishment)

Feminism – Advocacy of women’s right based on equality of sexes.

Written Work 1

Based on what you have learned from the lesson, write an open letter showing your satisfaction or
dissatisfaction to the present administration. Focus on either accomplishments or inadequacies in the
exercise of political ideologies aimed for initiating reforms which are geared towards promoting
national improvement and sustainable economic growth.

Rubrics:
Content – 10pts.
Organization of ideas – 5pts.
Format and mechanics – 5pts.
Total: 20pts.

Performance Task 2

Write a Position Paper or Position Statement on any pressing issues or problems in Philippine
politics.

1. You must make both a “diagnosis” and “prognosis of the issue/problem selected as well as
clear stand on the issue or problem.
2. You must first make a diagnosis of the problem by describing its nature and causes or by
addressing the questions, what is wrong? Or What went wrong?
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3. You then make a prognosis of the problem by identifying ways or means to address the
problem. It can be done by addressing the questions, what can be done to address the problem? Or
how can the problem be resolved?
4. Lastly, you must take a clear position on the issue by specifying a course of action that can be
undertaken. Your position must be derived from your critical analysis of the causes of the problem
and your proposed response to the problem.
5. You can propose a policy reform or changes, reorganization or restructuring of certain
agencies of the government, the formation of new laws, rules, and policies, a review or audit of
powers, functions, and duties of certain public offices and officials and others. The proposed action or
course of actions must reflect the result of your assessment of the problem and the viability of your
proposed solution.
6. You can write in English or Filipino.
7. You can use a separate sheet of paper.
8. You can submit a hard copy or soft copy.
9. You may work with 2 more students.

RUBRIC

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Lesson 3: Power

POWER - In social science and politics, power is the capacity of an individual to influence the actions,
beliefs, or conduct (behaviour) of others. The term authority is often used for power that is perceived
as legitimate by the social structure. Power in the natural sciences can be easily established through
a single equation, which signifies the quantifiable nature of physical power. Power in society, and by
extension in the social sciences, on the other hand, is more complicated because it is continuously
being molded by the dynamic nature of society and the objective and subjective capacity of man.

FORCE – maybe sociological, cultural and political and it is coercive (may use threats), forceful,
intimidating, tough, with/without consent or permission. It often dynamic (means active- anytime “may
resulta o naganap”). It is power in action.

Sources of Power:
1. OrganizationalPower
1.1 Reward Power is defined as the use of rewards to get an employee to follow an instruction or
order, with power coming from one's ability to withhold there ward for noncompliance. Unlike personal

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power, reward power comes from one's formal authority to issue rewards. Examples of rewards
include: Bonus.

1.2 Coercive Power is the ability of a manager to force an employee to follow an order by threatening
the employee with punishment if the employee does not comply with the order. The most important
concept to understand about coercive power is that it uses the application of force.

1.3 Legitimate Power is power you derive from your formal position or office held in the organization's
hierarchy of authority. For example, the president of a corporation has certain powers because of the
office he holds in the corporation.

1.4 Information Power is the most transient form of Power. Information power doesn't last. Give away
a piece of information and you give your power away. On the other hand, knowledge and know-how is
more enduring than informational power, but it's limited to the area of expertise.

1.5 Process Power. Politics is common phenomenon in organization. It is used by people or group to
gain power. Miles described that organizational politics is the process whereby individual or groups
use whatever power they can accumulate to influence organizational decisions in the direction of their
own interests.

1.6 Representative Power. Powers of representatives. Representatives are elected by the public, as
in national elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to select
other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the
Prime Minister in the latter case.

2. Individual Power/ Personal Power

2.1 Expert Power is power based upon employees' perception that a manager or some other member
of an organization has a high level of knowledge or a specialized set of skills that other employees or
members of the organization do not possess.

2.2 Rational Persuasion. This power usually comes from someone who is an expert in their field and
is based on using logic and evidence to influence others. A great example of this is a doctor.

2.3 Referent Power. Nationalism, patriotism, celebrities, mass leaders and widely- respected people
are examples of referent power in effect. Definition: Referent power refers to the ability of a leader to
influence a follower because of the follower's loyalty, respect, friendship, admiration, affection, or a
desire to gain approval.

Consequence of Power
1. It can give punishment (mas makapangyarihan ay nabibigyang parusa ang mga walang
kapangyarihan)
2. It can prevent or withhold something (binabawalan o hindi binibigay)
3. It can make us to obliged and lose our power (naoobligahan na sumunod ang mga walang
kapangyarihan o ang mas kaunting kapangyarihan)

Written Work 2

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With the crisis that we are currently facing today (e.g., rice, human rights violations, international
relations, etc) , create a short editorial article expressing your opinions as to how the government
should exercise its political powers in order to help alleviate the problems. Limit only to four major
arguments on areas where the government should carefully exercise its power and authority to
address the needs of people during this crisis.
Use the rubrics below.

Rubrics:
Ideas------------------ 10
Organization----------10
Choice of words-----10
Total --------------------30

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Lesson 4: Globalization

Concept of State
A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion
of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience,
and enjoying freedom from external control.

Elements of State

These definitions draw attention to the fact that the state has four essential elements.
These are:
(1) population - the whole number of people or inhabitants in a country or region
(2) territory - geographic area belonging to or under the jurisdiction of a governmental authority.
(3) government - an administrative subdivision of a country
(4) sovereignty (or independence) - freedom from external control

The first two elements constitute the physical or material basis of the state while the last two form its
political and spiritual basis.

Concept of State

Components of State and Transition Models. State and transition models have four primary
components: states, transitions, thresholds, and triggers. The reference vegetative state refers to a
recognizable and repeatable plant community (ecological site) that typically occupies a specific type
of soil.

Distinction between State and Nation (Murali, et.al.2005)

In political science, a "nation" refers to a group of people who feel bound into a single body by shared
culture, values, folkways, religion and/or language. A "state" just refers to a patch of land with a
sovereign government. States often coincide with nations (and are called "nation-states," but not
always.

An Official Definition of Globalization by the World Health Organization (WHO)

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According to WHO, globalization can be defined as ” the increased interconnectedness and
interdependence of peoples and countries. It is generally understood to include two inter-related
elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance,
people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that
facilitate or promote such flows.”

Heywood (2013) defined globalization as the process through which societies have become so
intertwined or interconnected that events and decisions in one part of the world have significant
effects on the lives of the people in the part of the world.

Development: Examples of Globalization

Economic globalization: is the development of trade systems within transnational actors such as
corporations or NGOs; (ang mga produkto ng bang bansa ay ipinakakalat sa buong mundo)

Financial globalization: can be linked with the rise of a global financial system with international
financial exchanges and monetary exchanges. Stock markets, for instance, are a great example of
the financially connected global world since when one stock market has a decline, it affects other
markets negatively as well as the economy as a whole.(kapag ang ekonomiya ng isang bansa ay
bumaba, naaapektuhan nito ang iba pang bansa; ang bitcoin o cryptocoin ay ginagamit na sa buong
mundo; pwedenang magtransfer ng pera kahit sa banko ng ibang bansa.)

Cultural globalization: refers to the interpenetration of cultures which, as a consequence, means

nations adopt principles, beliefs, and costumes of other nations, losing their unique culture to a
unique, globalized supra-culture; (marami sa atin ang nakakapag Korean nasalita o English;
kumakain na din tayo ng pagkain galling sa ibang bansa; ang mga sayaw antin at kanta ay may halo
ng K-POP o galling USA)

Political globalization: the development and growing influence of international organizations such as
the UN or WHO means governmental action takes place at an international level. There are other
bodies operating a global level such as NGOs like Doctors without borders ;

Sociological globalization: information moves almost in real-time, together with the interconnection
and interdependence of events and their consequences. People move all the time too, mixing and
integrating different societies; (nakakapagusap na tayo in real time sa ibat ibang parte ng mundo
gamit ang mga social media, may kausap tayong taga China na kasabay ng kausap natin a taga USA
o Africa)

Technological globalization: the phenomenon by which millions of people are interconnected thanks
to the power of the digital world via platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Skype or Youtube.(Dahil
sa kanila, nagaagwa natin ang sociological globalization)

Geographic globalization: is the new organization and hierarchy of different regions of the world that
is constantly changing. Moreover, with transportation and flying made so easy and affordable, apart
from a few countries with demanding visas, it is possible to travel the world without barely any
restrictions; (madali na lang ang bumiyahe patungo sa ibang bansa)

Ecological globalization: accounts for the idea of considering planet Earth as a single global entity – a
common good all societies should protect since the weather affects everyone and we are all

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protected by the same atmosphere. To this regard, it is often said that the poorest countries that have
been polluting the least will suffer the most from climate change.
( Ang Earh Hour na kung saan any nagpapatay tayo ng mga Ilaw sa loob ng isang oras ay galling sa
Australia at ngayon ay ginagawa na ng iba sa Mundo)

What Are the Benefits of Globalization?

1. Access to New Cultures
Globalization makes it easier than ever to access foreign culture, including food, movies, music, and
art. This free flow of people, goods, art, and information is the reason you can have Thai food
delivered to your apartment as you listen to your favorite UK-based artist or stream a Bollywood
movie.
2. The Spread of Technology and Innovation
Many countries around the world remain constantly connected, so knowledge and technological
advances travel quickly. Because knowledge also transfers so fast, this means that scientific
advances made in Asia can be at work in the United States in a matter of days.

3. Lower Costs for Products

Globalization allows companies to find lower-cost ways to produce their products. It also increases
global competition, which drives prices down and creates a larger variety of choices for consumers.
Lowered costs help people in both developing and already-developed countries live better on less
money.

4. Higher Standards of Living Across the Globe

Developing nations experience an improved standard of living—thanks to globalization. According to
the World Bank, extreme poverty decreased by 35% since 1990. Further, the target of the first
Millennium Development Goal was to cut the 1990 poverty rate in half by 2015. This was achieved
five years ahead of schedule, in 2010. Across the globe, nearly 1.1 billion people have moved out of
extreme poverty since that time.

5. Access to New Markets

Businesses gain a great deal from globalization, including new customers and diverse revenue
streams. Companies interested in these benefits look for flexible and innovative ways to grow their
business overseas. International Professional Employer Organizations (PEOs) make it easier than
ever to employ workers in other countries quickly and compliantly. This means that, for many
companies, there is no longer the need to establish a foreign entity to expand overseas.

6. Access to New Talent

In addition to new markets, globalization allows companies to find new, specialized talent that is not
available in their current market. For example, globalization gives companies the opportunity to
explore tech talent in booming markets such as Berlin or Stockholm, rather than Silicon Valley. Again,
International PEO allows companies to compliantly employ workers overseas, without having to
establish a legal entity, making global hiring easier than ever.

Performance Task 3

•Students are asked to draw/make a poster depicting how they about globalization in the Philippine
context.
•The use of one-half cartolina is required.

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Output is graded according to these criteria:
Relevance to the topic 20 points
Abstract Meaning of the picture 20 points
Color Harmony 10 points

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Lesson 5: History of Philippine Politics

Political History of Philippine Politics

I. The Pre-Spanish Government

During this time, the early Filipinos had a government called “balangay”. The head or the leader was
called Datu or Rajah who was assisted by the elders in the community. The powers of the
government were exercised by the datu or rajah. There were three social classes during this time, the
Maharlika (nobles), the Timawas ( Freemen), the Alipin (slaves). The Datu or the Rajah always came
from the Marharlika.

II. Government in the Philippines under the Spanish Rule

The Philippines was colonized by Spain and ruled indirectly by the King of Spain through the viceroy
of Mexico. The Philippines was ruled by Spain until it got the independence in 1898. The national
government was headed by a Spanish General who was appointed by the King of Spain. Below the
national government was the Alcaldia or the provinces headed by the Alcalde mayor. Next were the
Pueblos or recently called as towns which were led by the Gobernadorcillo known as the little
governor and the barangays which were led by the Cabeza de Barangay.

During the Spanish government in the Philippines, many Filipinos established organizations which
main purpose was to overthrow the Spanish government because of its tyranny. Among the key
personalities who rose into rebellion were Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo. Andres Bonifacio
organized the Katipunan and was replaced because it was discovered by the Spanish authorities.
The new government was headed by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President in the Tejeros Convention
held on March 22-23, 1897.

Emilio Aguinaldo then created the Biak-Na-Bato Republic which aimed to separate from Spain. But
Aguinaldo and his men were exiled in Hong Kong. After his exile, he established a Dictatorial
Government which resulted to the proclamation of Philippine Independence in Kawit Cavite on June
12, 1898 and the reorganization of local governments. On January 23, 1899, the first Philippine
Republic was established with Gen. Aguinaldo as the President.

III. The Government During the American Regime

The Americans started the military rule in the Philippines on August 14, 1898. The President of the
United States delegated his authority to the military governor who exercised all powers of the
government (as long as the war lasted) - executive, legislative and judiciary. The Spooner
Amendment ended the military regime in the Philippines. It was changed into civil government
headed by a Civil Governor General on February 6, 1905. The Governor-general has legislative
powers, and he was the President of the Philippine Commission from 1901-1907.

The Philippine commission was the sole lawmaking body of the Philippine assembly as the lower
chamber. The Jones Law of 1916 which became the fundamental law for the Philippines vested the
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legislative power in an all Filipino lawmaking body composed of the Philippine senate and the House
of Representatives.

IV. The Commonwealth Government

The Tydings-McDuffie Law in 1934 established the Commonwealth Government. It was a form of
government in transition towards independence. It provided for a ten- year transition period after
which the Philippine Independence would be proclaimed and established.
The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935. The first national election
in the country was held on September 12, 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was the President, and his vice
President was Sergio Osmena. The Commonwealth Government functioned in exile during World
War II in Washington, USA, from May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944. It was re-established in Manila on
February 27, 1945. The USA turned over to a Filipino President the full powers and responsibilities of
the Commonwealth Government under the 1935 Constitution.

V. The Government under the Japanese Occupation

The Japanese military administration was established in Manila on January 3, 1942. A civil
government which was called the Philippine Executive Commission was established with Jorge B.
Vargas as Chairman. It had legislative and executive powers, but the laws enacted through were
subject to approval by the Commander-in- Chief of the Japanese Forces. On October 14, 1943, the
Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic with Jose P. Laurel as the President was inaugurated. The
ultimate source of authority was the Japanese administrator. It was dissolved on August 17, 1945.
When the World War II ended, the Philippines was emancipated from the clutch of the dominion of the
Japanese. The Filipinos gained independence and started to elect own leaders of the Republic.

The following are the Presidents of the Republic of the Philippines.

1. Emilio Aguinaldo (1898-1901) - The first President of the Philippines. He led the Filipinos in fighting
against the Spaniards and the Americans.
2. Manuel L. Quezon (1935-1944) - The first Senate President elected as President of the Philippines.
First elected in a national election. He made Tagalog as the national language of the Philippines.
3. Jose P. Laurel (1943-1945) - The President of the Philippines during the Japanese occupation in
World War II.
4. Sergio Osmena(1944-1946)-HewastheoldestPresidentat65toholdoffice. He rehabilitated the
Philippine National Bank, and the Philippines joined the International Monetary Fund.
5. Manuel Roxas (1946-1948) - The first President of the Third Republic and during his administration
the Philippines started reconstructing war damages. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947
granting the United States a 99- year lease on designated military bases in the country.
6. Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953) - Vice President Quirino ascended to the presidency when Roxas died
in 1948. He ran for president in his own right in 1949 winning a four-year term. He served as the
second President of the Third Republic. Noted with the two objectives of his administration which
were the economic Reconstruction and Restoration of people’s trust. He created rural banks.
7. Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957) - He succeeded Quirino but was not able to finish his term as he
died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957. he was immensely popular with the ordinary people.
8. Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961) - The 4th President of the Third Republic who was known for his
Filipino First policy. He also implemented cultural revival and economic nationalism.
9. Diosdado Macapagal(1961-1965)-He succeeded Garcia. His administration was known for its
socio-economic programs, the abolition of tenancy and the establishment of Land bank. He sought
relations with neighboring Asian countries. He changed the celebration of independence from July 4
to June 12.
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10.Ferdinand Marcos (1965-1986) - He became President in 1965 and was re- elected in 1969.
Marco declared Martial law on September 21, 1972, by proclamation No. 1081. Marcos by virtue of
Presidential Decrees curtailed press freedom, closed down Congress and media establishments.
Opposition leaders and militant activists were arrested including his critic Senator Benigno Aquino Jr.
11. Corazon Aquino (1986-1992) - She became the first woman President in Asia. She lacked political
experience, but she survived seven attempted coup attempts. She was responsible for the restoration
of democratic processes and institutions in the Philippines. The members of the Philippine Senate in
1991 rejected the treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the
Philippines.
12. Fidel Ramos (1992-1998) - He declared national reconciliation and was known for his program
the “Philippines 2000” where he attempted to make the Philippines as a “Tiger Economy of Asia”.
During his administration, capital punishment was re-imposed.
13.Joseph Estrada (1998-2000) - He became President by a landslide victory in 1998. He was
removed from office on January 20, 2001 by EDSA Revolution 2 because of the controversial
impeachment trial against him. He was tried and convicted for plunder and spent six years in prison
but given Presidential pardon by his successor Gloria M. Arroyo, his former Vice President.
14.Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001-2010) - The daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal.
She has the vision of “Sugpuin ang Kahirapan”. Her nine- year administration was marked with issues
like cheating in the Presidential election, poverty, Expanded VAT Law, fertilizer scam, Jueteng, and
ZTE scandal.
15.Benigno Aquino III (2010-2016) - The son of former President Cory Aquino and hero Ninoy Aquino.
He ascended to presidency in 2010 elections.
16. Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016-2022) – First president from Mindanao. Serve as Mayor of davao City
for more than 2 decades. Controversial for his War on Drug campaign, where nearly 6000 people
were killed in his first 6 months as president.

The Philippines During Martial Law

Proclamation of Martial Law: On September 21, 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos placed the
Philippines under Martial Law. The declaration issued under Proclamation 1081 suspended the civil
rights and imposed military authority in the country. Marcos defended the declaration stressing the
need for extra powers to quell the rising wave of violence allegedly caused by communists. The
emergency rule was also intended to eradicate the roots of rebellion and promote a rapid trend for
national development. The autocrat assured the country of the legality of Martial Law emphasizing the
need for control over civil disobedience that displays lawlessness. Marcos explained citing the
provisions from the Philippine Constitution that Martial Law is a strategic approach to legally defend
the Constitution and protect the welfare of the Filipino people from the dangerous threats posed by
Muslim rebel groups and Christian vigilantes that places national security at risk during the time.
Marcos explained that martial law was not a military takeover but was then the only option to resolve
the country’s dilemma on rebellion that stages national chaos threatening the peace and order of the
country. The emergency rule, according to Marcos’s plan, was to lead the country into what he calls a
“New Society”.

Marcos used several events to justify martial law. Threat to the country’s security was intensifying
following the re-establishment of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) in 1968. Supporters of
CPP’s military arm, the New People’s Army, also grew in numbers in Tarlac and other parts of the
country. The alleged attempt to the life of then Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile gave Marcos a
window to declare Martial Law. Marcos announced the emergency rule the day after the shooting
incident. Marcos also declared insurgency in the south caused by the clash between Muslims and
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Christians, which Marcos considered as a threat to national security. The Muslims were defending
their ancestral land against the control of Christians who migrated in the area. The minority group
organized the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in Malaysia and pushed for the autonomy of
Mindanao from the national government.

Juan Ponce Enrile the move was initially supported by most Filipinos and was viewed by some critics
as a change that solved the massive corruption in the country. Martial law ceased the clash between
the executive and legislative branches of the government and a bureaucracy characterized by special
interest. Marcos started to implement reforms on social and political values that hindered effective
modernization. To match the accomplishments of its Asian neighbors, Marcos imposed the need for
self-sacrifice for the attainment of national welfare. His reforms targeted his rivals within the elite
depriving them of their power and patronage but did not affect their supporters (US Library of
Congress, Martial Law and the Aftermath).

Thirty-thousand opposition figures including Senator Benigno Aquino, journalists, student and labor
activists were detained at military compounds under the President’s command (Proclamation 1081
and Martial Law). The army and the Philippine Constabulary seized weapons and disbanded private
armies controlled by prominent politicians and other influential figures (Proclamation 1081 and Martial
Law). Marcos took control of the legislature and closed the Philippine Congress (Proclamation 1081
and Martial Law). Numerous media outfits were either closed down or operated under tight control
(Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos also allegedly funneled millions of the country’s money
by placing some of his trusted supporters in strategic economic positions to channel resources to him.
Experts call this the “crony capitalism.”

Former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr. The deterioration of the political and economic condition
in the Philippines triggered the decline of support on Marcos’ plans. More and more Filipinos took
arms to dislodge the regime. Urban poor communities in the country’s capital were organized by the
Philippine Ecumenical Council for Community and were soon conducting protest masses and prayer
rallies. These efforts including the exposure of numerous human rights violations pushed Marcos to
hold an election in 1978 and 1981 in an aim to stabilize the country’s chaotic condition. Marcos, in
both events, won the election; however, his extended term as President of the Republic of the
Philippines elicited an extensive opposition against his regime. Social unrest reached its height after
former Senator Benigno Aquino was murdered. The incident sent thousands of Filipinos to the streets
calling for Marcos’ removal from post. Turning again to his electoral strategy, Marcos held a snap
election in 1986 but what he hoped will satisfy the masses only increased their determination to end
his rule that seated Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino, as President of the Philippines
ousting Marcos from Malacañang Palace and ending the twenty-one years of tyrant rule.

Written Work 3

Write a critique paper about the events that occur during martial law. Express your satisfaction or
dissatisfaction to the controversial regime of former President Ferdinand Marcos.

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Lesson 6: Executive Branch

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Section 1 article VII of the Philippine constitution dealing with the Executive Department begins with
the enunciation of the principle that the executive power shall be vested in the President of the
Philippines. This means that the president of the Philippines is the executive of the government of the
Philippines.

Branches of the government

1. Executive Branch – a branch of government that carries out laws. It is composed of the President
and the Vice-President who are elected by direct popular vote and serve a term of six years. The
Constitution grants the President authority to appoint his Cabinet. These departments form a large
portion of the country’s bureaucracy. (Refer to Philippine Constitution, Article VII)
2. Legislative Branch – a branch of government that authorized to make laws, alter, repeal them
through the power vested in the Philippine Congress. This institution is divided into the Senate and
the House of Representatives. (Refer to Philippine Constitution, Article VI)
3.Judicial Branch – a branch of government that evaluates laws. It holds the power to settle
controversies involving rights and are legally demandable and enforceable. (Refer to Philippine
Constitution, Article VIII)

The Executive Branch

 Charged with the execution and administration of a country’s laws
 In general, the executive branch sets the direction of national policy
 Executive power in the government is vested in the office of the President of the Republic

Qualifications of President and Vice-President

 Natural born citizen of the Philippines
 Registered voter
 Literate (can read and write)
 At least 40 years old on election day
 Resident of the country for 10years
 Elected at large by plurality

Term Limits
 The term of the President is for six years which shall begin at noon on the thirtieth day of June
following the day of election. It shall end on the at noon of the same day and month six years after.
 No person who has succeeded and served as President for four (4) years can run again to the
same office at any time

Roles and Responsibilities

 Appoints the head of the different executive departments (Appointing power)
 Appoints ambassadors, consuls and public ministers
 Serves as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (Military power)
 Appoints Armed Forces Personnel from the rank of colonel or naval captain
 Contracts/guarantees foreign loans (Borrowing power)
 Negotiates foreign treaties
 Makes appointments not otherwise provided for by law
 Suspends the writ of habeas corpus (Control Power)
 Declares martial law
 Prepares the national budget
 Refuses or approves a bill or joint resolutions thus prevent its enactment (veto)
 Performs acts of clemency
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 Acts of Clemency
 Pardon – which is an act of grace that sets aside punishment for a crime.
 Commutation – which is an executive clemency that changes a punishment to
one which is less severe as from execution to life imprisonment.
 Reprieve – which means temporary relief from or postponement of execution
of criminal punishment or sentence.
 Remission of fines and forfeitures – which is the condonation of the financial
obligation and the return of properties confiscated by reason of the commission
of the offense and conviction of the offender.
 Amnesty – denotes the general pardon to rebels for their treason and other
high political offenses, of the forgiveness which one sovereign grants to the offender of the law of
nations.

The President Cannot (Limitations)

 Holds any other office or enjoy any other form of employment
 Makes appointments two months prior to the next elections
 Makes appointment within the 4th civil degree of consanguinity
 Increases his/her salary or that of the Vice-President during his/her term
 Ratifies foreign treaties
 Grants clemency in cases of impeachment

Privileges of the President

 Official residence – the president shall have an official residence. He is the
only official of the government provided with a residence maintained by public
funds.
 Salary – is also entitled to a salary like all other public officers. The salary of
the president shall be determined by law and shall not be decreased during
their tenure.
 Immunity from suit – the president is accorded the immunity from suit, both
civil and criminal. The rationale for the grant to the President of this privilege of immunity from suit is
to assure the exercise of presidential duties and functions free from any hindrance or distraction.

Causes of Vacancy
 Death
 Permanent Disability
 Resignation
 Impeachment
 Written declaration that he/she is unable to discharge the powers and duties of
the office
 If a majority of the cabinet makes a written declaration that the President cannot
discharge the powers and duties

More on Vacancy
 The President can, at a later time, inform congress that he/she is fit to perform his/her duties again
 Congress can judge otherwise by a two-thirds votes of both houses voting separately
If the President falls seriously ill, the public will be informed of his/her state of health; members of the
cabinet in charge of national security and foreign relations shall have access to the president; the
chief of staff of the Armed Forces shall have access to the President.
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Lesson 6: Legislative Branch

Our government is a tripartite system of government composed of three great branches, the
Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Departments. They are independent but coordinate departments
and the powers of government have been carefully apportioned between these three distinct
departments.

Composition of Congress of the Philippines

As mentioned earlier, the Congress of the Philippines is a bicameral congress consisting of two
bodies/houses, the Senate is the upper house while the House of Representatives is the lower house.
The members of the Senate are called Senators, but members of the House of Representatives are
called Representatives or Congressman and sometimes even “Members of Congress”

1. Senate of the Philippines

The senate is the upper chamber of Congress. We looked upon the Senate as the second level to
that of the President and Vice-President. Often, the Senate is also looked upon as a training ground
for the Presidency.

a. Composition
The Senate consists of 24 members elected at large by qualified voters, which means that they are
national elected officials. In fixing the composition of the members of the Senate at 24, no
consideration has been made in terms of its proportion to the number of populations.

b. Qualifications
The qualifications for Senators are the following:
1. Natural-born citizen of the Philippines.
2. At least 35 years of age.
3. Able to read and write.
4. A registered voter.
5. A resident of the Philippine for not less than two (2) years

c. Term of Office
The term of office of Senators is six (6) years which shall begin unless otherwise provided by law at
noon on the 30th day of June after their election. Term of office which refers to the period fixed by
law/constitution during which a member of congress or an elective official will hold office, should be
distinguished from tenure of office which speaks of the actual number of years during which the
official hold the office.
No Senator can serve for more than 2 consecutive term, and since the term of office is 6 year then
what is prohibited under the constitution is more than 12 successive years. The purpose of this
prohibition as to the number of competent and deserving to be elected senator.

2. House of Representatives
The House of Representatives consists of men and women who are the
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elected representatives of the Filipino people. We expect the members of the House to represent our
needs and aspirations and to carry our desire on matters of national concerns.
a. Composition
The House of Representatives is composed of 10 times larger than the membership in the Senate. It
is composed of not more than 250 members unless otherwise fixed by law. It consists of two kinds of
members namely:
DistrictRepresentatives–electedfromlegislativedistrictsapportioned among the provinces, cities and
the Metropolitan Manila area. They constitute the majority (eight percent) of members of the House of
Representatives.
2. Party-list Representatives – elected through the party-system of registered national, regional and
sectoral parties or organization. They shall constitute twenty percent of the total number of
representatives.
b. Qualifications

b.1. Qualification for district Representatives

The qualifications for District Representatives are:
1. Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
2. At least twenty - five (25) years of age
3. Able to read and write
4. A registered voter in the district in which he shall be elected
5. A registered of the district in which he shall be elected for not less
than one year.

b.2 Qualifications for Party-list representatives

The qualifications for party-list representatives are the same as that of the district representatives
except a registered voter and resident of the district. For party-list representatives, the place of
registration to vote and residence can be anywhere in the Philippines. This is because a party –list in
the Philippines. This is because a party-list does not represent a district in the house of
Representatives.

c. Term of Office
Under the present constitution, the term of office of congressman is reduced to three years and like a
senator, shall commence at noon on the thirtieth day of June unless otherwise fixed by law next
following their election.
They can only be elected for three (3) consecutive years or a continuous service of 9 years, however,
like the Senators there is no limit as to the number of years a person can hold office as congressman.
They can still be elected for the same office, provided there is an interruption after serving for 3
consecutive terms.

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