Introduction to Fundamentals of
Deformable Bodies
BES 122 – Fundamentals of Deformable Bodies
WMSU Reference/s:
Beer, F., Johnston, R., DeWolf, J., & Mazurek, D. (2015). Mechanics of materials (7th
Edition). 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
This document is for classroom use only and should not be shared outside the WMSU
community.
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OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this presentation, you should be able to:
❑ Classify loads with respect to time, cross section, and
distribution.
❑ Explain the concept of stress.
❑ Calculate stress under axial loading.
❑ Distinguish the fundamental difference between centric and
eccentric loadings.
❑ Recall the methods used in the analysis of structures (method
of joints and method of sections)
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INTRODUCTION
Strength of Materials/Fundamentals of Deformable
Bodies/Mechanics of Materials
Branch of mechanics that studies the relationships between the
external loads applied to a deformable body and the intensity of
internal forces acting within the body.
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INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this subject is to aid the future engineers in
their analysis and design of various machines and load-bearing
structures involving the determination of stresses and
deformations.
In the design process, it is first necessary to apply the principles
of statics to determine the forces acting both on and within the
various members of the structure or machine.
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LOAD CLASSIFICATION
Loads
Time ❑ Dead load includes load that are relatively
constant over time, including the weight of
Static Dynamic the structure or machine itself.
❑ Gradually applied load is a load applied
Dead
slowly rather than quickly or suddenly, such
as slowly sitting on a chair when the
Gradually stability of the chair is in question.
Applied - Gradually applied loads eventually become
dead load after a certain period of time.
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Loads
Time
❑ Impact load is a load applied over a short
Static Dynamic period of time such as when two or more
bodies collide.
Impact
❑ Fatigue loading is a continuous loading
which is a cumulative effect that causes a
Fatigue
material to fail after repeated applications of
stress.
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Loads
Distribution
❑ Concentrated loads are point forces considered as
spot loadings. Concentrated
Distributed
❑ Distributed loads are distributed over the active area
of the body.
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Loads
❑ Axial centric loads refer to
forces with uniform stress
Cross
distribution along the axis.
Section
❑ Axial eccentric loads Normal Shear
refer to forces not being
applied directly through Transverse
Axial Shear
the centroid.
Eccentric Eccentric
- with non-uniform stress Transverse
Axial
distribution along the length Shear
of the material. Tensile Compressive
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❑ Transverse shear loads refer to load which are Loads
parallel to the surface and pass through the
longitudinal axis of the body.
Cross
Section
Normal Shear
❑ Eccentric transverse shear loads refer Transverse
Axial Shear
to the loads that are parallel to the surface
and do not pass through the longitudinal Eccentric Eccentric
Axial Transverse
axis of the body.
Shear
Tensile Compressive
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LOAD CLASSIFICATION
Loads
Time Distribution
Cross
Section
Static Dynamic Concentrated
Normal Shear
Dead Impact Distributed
Transverse
Axial Shear
Gradually
Fatigue Eccentric
Applied Eccentric
Axial Transverse
Shear
Tensile Compressive
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CONCEPT OF STRESS
Every solid material is elastic in nature, but
there is a limit to which elastic recovery is
possible for any given material.
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CONCEPT OF STRESS
Whenever external forces act on a body/material, it undergoes
some deformation.
L2
F F
L1
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As the body deforms, its molecules set up some internal resistance
to the deformation. This resistance per unit area to deformation is
known as stress.
Mathematically, stress may be defined as the applied force per
unit area:
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨
❑ Stress is the measure of how much force an object experiences
per unit area.
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Where:
𝑁 𝑙𝑏
𝜎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑟 2
𝑚 𝑖𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 in 𝑚2 or 𝑖𝑛2
Note:
𝑁 𝑁
1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 2 , 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 1000𝑃𝑎 = 1000 2
𝑚 𝑚
𝑙𝑏
1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 1 2 , 1 𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 1000𝑙𝑏, 1 𝑘𝑠𝑖 = 1000𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑖𝑛
Elasticity, the property of certain materials of returning back to
their original position, after removing the external force.
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NORMAL STRESS
Normal stress is the stress developed when a
body is subjected to an axial load P, i.e., the
load P is perpendicular to the cross-sectional
area (resisting area) of the body as shown in
the figure. (Axial Loading)
In practice, it is assumed that the
distribution of normal stresses in an axially
loaded member (or body) is uniform, as
shown in Fig.1.8(b).
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NORMAL STRESS
However, uniform distribution is only
possible when the line of action of the
concentrated load P and P’ passes through the
centroid of the section considered (Fig. 1.12).
This type of loading is called centric
loading and will take place in all straight
two-force members found in trusses and pin-
connected structures, such as in Fig.1.1.
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NORMAL STRESS
Eccentric loading is a load which is
nonsymmetric with respect to the central
axis of the body (Fig1.13), thereby
producing a bending moment. On this type
of loading, the distribution of stresses
cannot be uniform, nor symmetric.
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ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
❑ Method of Joints
Method of joints is based on the fact that if the entire truss is in
equilibrium, then each of its joints must also be in equilibrium.
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a means for analyzing a truss
using the method of joints.
❑ Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known
force and at most two unknown forces. (If this joint is at one of
the supports, then it may be necessary first to calculate the
external reactions at the support.)
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ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
❑ Use one of the two methods described for establishing the sense
of an unknown force.
❑ Orient the x and y axes such that the forces on the free-body
diagram can be easily resolved into its x and y components then
apply the two force equilibrium equations σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.
Solve for the two unknown member forces and verify their correct
sense.
❑ Using the calculated results, continue to analyze each of the other
joints. Remember that a member in compression “pushes” on the
joint and a member in tension “pulls” on the joint. Also, be sure to
choose a joint having at most two unknowns and at least one
known force.
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ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
❑ Method of Sections
When only a particular member of a truss is needed, the truss can be
analyze using the method of sections. This method is based on the
principle that if the truss is in equilibrium then any segment of the
truss is also in equilibrium. Sectioning the members is the same as
cutting the members into a segment.
Note: In using this method, it is best to select a section that passes
through not more than three members in which the forces are
unknown, since only three equilibrium equations can be used to the
FBD of any segment.
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ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
Procedure for the Analysis
1. Make a decision on how to cut or section the truss through the
members where forces are to be determined.
2. Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary
to determined the truss support reactions, then apply the
equations of equilibrium.
3. Draw the free-body diagram of that segment of the sectioned
truss which has the least number of forces acting on it.
4. Use one of the two methods described for establishing the sense
of the unknown member forces.
5. Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the
intersection of the lines of action of two unknown forces, so that
the third unknown force can be determined directly.
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TYPES OF CONNECTIONS AND THEIR REACTIONS
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TYPES OF CONNECTIONS AND THEIR REACTIONS
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Determine the force in each member of the
structure shown, which was designed to support a
30 kN load. It consists of a boom AB with a 30 x
50 – mm rectangular cross section and a rod BC
with a 20-mm diameter circular cross section.
These are connected by a pin at B and are
supported by pins and brackets at A and C,
respectively.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
From the structure of problem no. 1, assume
that the rod BC is made of steel with a
maximum allowable stress 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
165 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Can rod BC safely support the
load to which it will be subjected?
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
If aluminum with an allowable stress
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎 is to be used in rod BC,
what would be the minimum diameter of the
aluminum rod?
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Two cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing
that 𝑑1 = 30 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑑2 = 50 𝑚𝑚, find the
average normal stress at the midsection of
(a) rod AB, and (b) rod BC.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Two cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing
that the average normal stress must not
exceed 150 MPa in either rod, determine the
smallest allowable values of the diameters
𝑑1 and 𝑑2 .
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are
welded together at B and loaded as shown.
Knowing that 𝑃 = 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠, find the average
normal stress at the midsection of (a) rod
AB, and (b) rod BC.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Each of the four vertical links has an 8 x 36mm
uniform rectangular cross section, and each of the
four pins has a 16-mm diameter. Determine the
maximum value of the average normal stress in
the links connecting (a) points B and D, and (b)
points C and E.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
1
Knowing that link DE is in. thick and 1
8
in. wide, determine the normal stress in
the central portion of the link when (a)
𝜃 = 0, and (b) 𝜃 = 90.
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