Liquids have a property that their free surface behaves like a stretched elastic membrane fends to occupy a and has a natural tendency to contract, i.c., the free surface of a liquid t minimum surface area. This property of liquids is called the surface tension. The following experiments illustrate the property of surface tension of liquids. Experiment 1. Consider a circular frame of a thin wire cotton thread is loosel ; soar solution is formed on the frame by immersing it in the soap solution. The loop of thread lies on the film in an irregular manner [Fig. 3.2 (a)]. Now ifthe film inside the loop is broken by a needle, the thread immediately assumes a circular form [Fig. 3.2 (b)). (a) This shows that on breaking the film inside the loop, (b) . hn Ili Fig. 3.2. A loop of a thread lying the film outside the loop contracts, thus pulling in on a soap film . the thread into a circle. Since, for a given perimeter, the circle has a largest area, so the film outside the in which a closed loop of y tied. A thin film of soap loop contracts to a smallest area. Experiment 2. If we immerse a shaving brush in water, its hair remain separated from each other inside the water. If the brush is taken out, the hair stick together. This happens because a'water film is formed between the hair which contracts as the brush is taken out of the water, so they stick together. Similarly, the insects and mosquitoes swim on the surface of water in ponds, a needle floats on the surface of water, small drops of liquid (such as rain drops, bubbles soap solution) take the spherical sHape, This is all due to surface tension.NN Fluid Mechanics RE Explanation of surface tension on the basis of inter-molecular forces Inter-molecular forces are of the two types : (i) cohesive force and (ii) adhesive force. The force of attraction between the molecules of same substance is called the cohesive force and that between the molecules of different substances is called the adhesive force. These forces are different from the gravitational forces and do not obey the inverse square law (F< V/r?), but these forces are'inversely proportional to the eighth power of the distance between the molecules (i.e., F « I/r8), If the distarice between the molecules is greater than 10”? m, the force of attraction between them is negligible, but within this limit, the force increases very rapidly as the distance between the molecules decreases. The maximum distance (~ 10-° m) up to which the two molecules attract each other is called the molecular range, Laplace explained the phenomenon of surface tension on the basis of inter-molecular forces as below : Ifwe draw a sphere of radius equal to the molecular range with a molecule as centre, then only those molecules which are enclosed within this sphere, can attract or can be attracted by the molecule at the centre of the sphere. This sphere is called the sphere of molecular influence, Fig. 3.3 shows a vessel filled with a liquid. A, B, C and D are the four molecules of liquid at different positions, with their spheres of molecular influence. It is clear from the diagram that (@ The sphere of influence of the molecule A is well inside the liquid. This molecule is attracted equally in all directions. Hence the resultant cohesive force acting on the molecule A is zero. (i) The sphere of influence of the molecule B which is a little below the liquid surface, lies partly outside the liquid. Thus the number of molecules in the upper half which attract it upwards, is less than the _ Fig. 3.3. Forces acting on number of molecules in the lower half which attract it __‘ifferent molecules of a liquid downwards. Hence, the molecule B experiences a net downward (or inward) force. - Gii) The sphere of influence of the molecule C which is on the free surface of liquid, lies half outside the liquid and half inside. As such, it experiences a maximum downward (or inward) force. (iv) The molecule D also experiences a net inward force, but this force decreases as the distance of molecule from the liquid surface increases and the force becomes zero at a distance equal to the molecular range (= 10~° m) above the liquid surface. Thus all the molecules situated between the surface and a plane at a distance equal to the molecular range below the surface, experience a net downward (or inward) cohesive force. This force is maximum at the free surface of liquid and becomes zero at a distance equal to the molecular range (= 10~? m) below and above the surface of liquid. FREE SURFACE Definition of surface tension-Fig. 3.4 OF LiauiD. represents the free surface of a liquid on which an imaginary line AB is drawn in any direction. The surface on either side of this line exerts an attractive force on the surface on the other side. This force lies in the plane of the surface and is normal to the line AB. If the length of the line AB is / and the total Fig. 3.4. Free surface of liquid force acting normally on it is F, then surface tension 9,Unified Physics : First Year (Second Pa THE If in above eqn. (3.1), /= 1, then T= F Hence, the surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length Plane of the liquid surface, acting normally on either side of an imaginary line dr, that surface, Obyiously, the S.1. unit of the surface tension is newton/metre (N/m). saat vera When the surface area of a liquid is increased, molecules from the interior of th liquid, rise to the surface, As these molecules reach near the surface, work is done the inward cohesive force. This work is stored in the molecules in the form of poter energy. Thus, the potential energy of molecules lying on the surface is greater than, potential energy of molecules which lie in the interior of the liquid. Since a system in equilibrium has the minimum potential energy, therefore to acquire a minimum poter energy, the liquid surface tends to have a minimum number of molecules on it, i. liquid surface tends to contract to occupy a minimum surface area and behaves {i stretched elastic membrane. In Fig. 3.5, ABCD is a rectangular frame of wire, which another wire GH can slide without friction. A fil is formed within the frame by immersing it in the solution. The film has the two rectangular surfaces ‘th upper surface and the lower surface. a The force on the wire GH due to surface ten F=T x 21, which acts inwards and tends to contract’ film, Here, T is the surface tension of the liquid (i force acting on unit length) and / is the length of the H GH. Here, the length has been taken as 2/ because o! Fig. 3.5. Work done in sliding a two free surfaces of the film. To keep the wire GH a wire on a film position, a force equal to F acting outwards, is require it. If the wire GH is displaced through a distance x by the force F, the work done on the (Ge, the increase in potential energy) is c Fxx But F=T x 2/ c W= (Tx 20x=T x AA where AA = increase in the area of film = 1% x+/ x x= 2be (because of the tg surfaces of the film) u If in eqn. (3.2), AA= 1 m’, then T= W joule i surface tension can also be bearicad as Jim? Work done in formation of a bubble-A bubble has the two free surfaces becal the bubble is hollow from inside, Therefore, the work needed to form a soap bubbl radius ris T x (2 x 4nr*) = 8nrT, where T is the surface tension of the soap solution. ‘Work done to form a drop-A drop has a single surface. Hence, the work require form a drop of radius r is T x 47? = 471 “Work done in splitting a big drop into n smalll drops-Ifa big liquid drop splisi a number of small equal drops, some work is done and so the potential energy deertonne Fluld Mechanica _ an fence temperature fils, But Ife munber oFanall arg “he potential energy increases and hens MNT Leta big drop of radine R splits in Volume of one big di Ps combine to form a big drop, © temperature rises, No n equal small drops exch of eudius r. Then Nop Total volume of n small drops Sid ad: PAR x LAR’ or pn ar or Surface aren of one big deop © ak? ( . 2 Total surface area of n small Mrops = 91 x Arey? oe 1 dye (; we) n mnt? an? “Increase in the surface area AA = OY ARRE he? m de R2( ql i) Hence, Work done W = 'T AA = ant R2 9 —1) where Tis the surface tension of the liquid, Ais to be noted that this Work is dot and hence the temperature of i drops falls fat Contact! hen the free surface of a liquid comes in contact with near the point of contact, The angle inside the at the point of contact makes with th pair of solid and liquid. The shape of the meniscus depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesive force between the liquid molecules and the s adhesive force between the molecules of liquid. and the molecules of the solid. If the force of adhesion is more than the force of cohesion (such as water-glass), the meniscus is concave (Fig. 3.6 (a)] and if the force of cohesion is more than the force of adhesion (such as mercury-glass), the (b) MERCURY.GLass meniscus is convex [Fig. 3.6 (b)]. Fig. 3.6, Angle of contact The angle of contact differs with the for thos liquids for py is 90: (3,3), ne by the liquid, so its internal energy decreases 4 solid, it becomes curved liquid which the tangent to the liquid surface ¢ solid surface, is called the angle of contact for that SOLID SURFACE (a) WATER-GLASS Pairs of solid-liquid. Its value vaties from 0° to 180° ® liquids which wet the solid surface (such as waterglass) ant nn obtuse for those Which do not wet the solid surface (such as mercury-glass). For water-glass, itis 8°, hie rand clean glass, it is 0°; for mereury-glass itis 135° and fern water-silver it * (this is why the surface of water in a silver vessel at the edges remains horizontal), Effects of angle of contact-(i) The liquid wets the solid surfice ifthe angle of contact for tha t pair of liquid-solid is acute, (i) The liquid does not wet the solid surface if the angle of contact for that pair of liquid-solid is obtuse, i) Te the angle of contact is acu ‘ve and the liquid rises in ti (iv) If the angle of conta Sonvex and the liquid falls do . The angle of contact is acute te, the meniscus of he capillary, ct is obtuse, the meniscus of li wn in the capillary, liquid in a capillary tube is Cone: iquid in the capillary tube isvam 1067 Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) Pressure Difference between the two sides of a curved liquid Surface The free surface ofa liquid can be of three types-(a) plane, (b) concave and (c) convey = (a) If the free surface of 4 e e ao liquid is plane [Fig. 3.7 (ay), 4 molecule on the surface is attracteq equally in all the directions by the other nearby molecules, hence the resultant force on the molecule is zero. (b) If the free surface of a liquid is concave [Fig. 3.7(b)], each molecule on the — surface experiences a resultant force due (a) PLANE SURFACE SURFACE SURFACE Fig. 3.7. Pressure difference between the sides of the curved surface of liquid to all other molecules, acting normally outwards. (c) If the free surface of a liquid is convex [Fig. 3.7 (c)], each molecule on the surface experiences a resultant force duc to all other molecules, acting normally inwards. Obviously, for the equilibrium of a curved surface, there must be a difference of pressure between its two sides so that the force due to this excess pressure may balance the resultant force due to molecular attraction. Thus, if the free surface of the liquid is concave or convex, the pressure on concave side of the surface is comparatively greater than the pressure on the convex side. i.e., in a concave surface [Fig 3.7 (b)], the pressure is more on the upper side than on the lower side. Whereas in the convex surface (Fig. 3.7 (c)], the pressure is more on the lower side, than that on the upper side. This pressure difference depends on the surface tension of liquid and radius of curvature of the surface. The excess pressure is 2T/R for a spherical surface, where T is the surface tension of liquid and R is the radius of curvature of the surface. :Capillarity When a glass capillary tube of narrow bore, open at both ends is dipped vertically a liquid which sticks with glass (such as water, oil etc.), the liquid rises up in the tube tog certain height above the water level outside the tube [Fig. 3.13 (a)]. On the other hand, if the tube is dipped in a liquid which does not stick with glass (such as mercury), the liquid depresses in the tube below the outside level [Fig. 3.13 (b)]. This effect of rise or fall of liquids in a capillary tube is called capillarity. This effect is due to surface tension, Experimentally, we find that narrower the tube, greater is the rise or fall of liquid. The liquids which wet the glass, rise in capillary, while the liquids which do not wet the glass, fall in capillary. Cause of capillarity action—When a capillary tube is dipped in water (or a liquid which wets the glass), the water meniscus inside the tube is concave. The pressure just below the meniscus is less than the pressure just above it by 2T/R, where T is the surface tension of water and R is the radius of curvature of the meniscus. Therefore to make up theFluid Mechanics Jeficiency of pressure 2T/R below the meniscus, water rises in the capillary to a height h ich that the pressure of water column Speight h becomes equal to 2TIR i.e, jdg= 2T/R, where d is the density of water and & is the acceleration due to avity. . La A jf the capillary is dipped in a quid which does not wet the glass (ach as mercury), the meniscus of MERCURY liquid inside the capillary is convex, (a) CAPILLARY IMMERSED (b) CAPALLART IMMERSED int 1 IN WATER IN MERCURY The pressure at a point just below the : 7 convex surface inside the capillary jg P1813. Rise and fal of iquid in a eapllary more than that above it by 2T/R, due to which the liquid falls to a depth h inside the capillary so that hdg = 2T/R. Rise of liquid in a capillary tube of insufficient length—If a liquid of density d and surface tension T rises in a capillary tube to a height A, then 2T 2T hdg = > or AR = — = constant for a gi n liquid R dg ~ 008 for a given liqui where R is the radius of curvature of the meniscus in the tube. Obviously, if the length of the tube is greater than h, the liquid rises in the tube to a height h (where h = 2T/Rdg). But if the length of the tube is less than (say +), then the liquid rises up to the top of the tube and increases its radius of curvature from R to R' such that AR = ht R' = 2T/dg (constant). No liquid emerges out of the capillary. Rise of liquid in a capillary in the weightlessness condition—If a capillary tube 's dipped in a liquid in the weightlessness condition (for example in a freely falling lift or inside a satellite), then g=0, hence R=co ie, the liquid rises up to the top of the tube and the free surface of liquid at the end of capillarity becomes plane. No liquid emerges out of capillary. It may be mentioned here that if a capillary dipped in a liquid is slanted from the {etical, the vertical height of liquid column in the capillary remains unchanged, although the lengtb-of liquid inside the capillary is increased. ‘ome practical examples of capillarity—Some of the examples of capillarity in dhily life are given below : (() The kerosene oil in lanterns rises through the capillaries formed in the cotton wicks and then it burns, (ii) The melted wax in a candle rises through the capillaries formed in the cotton ‘thread and then it burns. (iii) The water given to the fields rises in the capillaries formed in the stems of plants and trees and thus reaches the branches and leaves of the plants. ope”) Writing nib is split in the middle so that a fine capillary is formed in it. When it is Aipped in ink, the ink rises in the capillary. (¥) When a blotting paper is placed on wet ink, the ink rises in its fine pores. This is Why we cannot write on the blotting paper. (Vi) The farmers plough their fields after rains so that the capillaries formed in the soil te broken and the water remains in the lower layers of the soil for the plants. If ploughing wing done, the water of the lower layers will rise through the capillaries in the coil sed Will evaporate, the {ill Hfone end of a towel is dipped in water filled in a bucket, the water rises through a “Janumerable capillaries formed between the threads of the towel and ultimately the tite towel gets wet, iEffect of temperature—The surface tension of a liquid decreases with the Tise in temperature, i.e., a liquid occupies more surface area with the rise in temperature, 4 hot soup is tasty than a ‘cold one because the hot soup occupies a larger surface area on the tongue than the cold soup. Similarly, hot water has the more cleansing effect than the col water, Effect of impurities—If there is contamination (such as dirt, grease or oil) on the liquid surface, its surface tension decreases. If the impurity added to the liquid is rapidly soluble, the surface tension of the liquid increases. For example, by dissolving salt in water, the surface tension increases. If the impurity added to the liquid is less soluble, the surface tension of the liquid decreases. For example, by adding detergent, soap, dettol or phenol in water, its surface tension decreases. This is why the soap solution has a more cleansing effect than the pure water. Similarly, the surface tension of foams of toothpaste is less than that of pure water, (1) By rise in capillary tube—Let a clean capillary tube of glass having a uniform bore of radius r is dipped vertically in water which rises to a height / above the level outside the tube. The water meniscus 2nrTcos8. in the tube is concave (Fig. 3.14). Tk circular circumference of the curved surface of water inside the tube is 2nr. Let T be tht surface tension of water and @ be the angle of contact for water-glass. Due to surface tension of water, a force equal to T pet unit " length acts at all points on the circumferen® (@) Sait (b) of circle, directed inwards at an angle 6 fro Fig. 3.14. Rise in capillary tube the wall of the tube. The wall of the th= uid Mechanics SHB exerts an equal and opposite force of reaction R it jreumference of water meniscus, directed outwards, This) fore abe teen os components : (i) T cos @ per unit length acting vertically upwards, and @t sin @ per unit length acting horizontally outwards. For the entire circumference, the resultant of horizontal ‘components is Zero, while the vertical components being in ¢ same direction are added to give a total upward force = 2nr T cos @ as shown in Fig. 3.14 @®)- It is this force which supports the weight of the water column of height jie, in equilibrium, ‘Weight of water column of height h inthe capillary = Resultant upward vertical force due to surface tension. But weight of water column of height h = mass of water. column x acceleration due to gravity g = volume x density x = (n2h) dg (nrh) dg = nr T cos 0 __rhdg or Tao B21) For pure water and glass, the angle of contact is nearly zero. Then cos 0° = 1 _ rhdg saa (3.22) Thus, by measuring / and r, the surface tension of water T can be determined. (pire method—The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.15. It consists of a bottle R fitted with a cork on its mouth. The cork has two openings. A funnel F containing water and provided with a stop cock S passes through one opening and a bent tube CD passes through the other opening. The tube CD is provided with a manometer M and a capillary tube BA atits end D. The capillary tube is dipped in the experimental liquid up to a length 2-3 cm nearly and it is kept vertical. The bottle R is filled up to Qn nearly 3 part of it with water by means of the funnel F. The arms of the manometer are generally filled with a liquid of low density (say water). Theory—The stopcock S is opened so gently that the water from the funnel drops slowly into the bottle R. The pressure of air in the bottle thus : creases, due to which the difference in the levels Fig. 3.15. Jaeger’s apparatus fliquid in the manometer arms increases. A small Atantty of ait then forces out from the bottle towards the capillary through the tube CD fo Which the water column in the capillary tube falls and an air bubble is formed at \end A of the capillary inside the liquid. The radius of curvature of the bubble decreases increase of air pressure and ultimately the radius of the bubble becomes equal to the radius of the capillary tube. At this tage, a further increase in pressure of air causes a decrease in the internal pressure of the bubble, so it gets detached from the capillary eat this instant, the radius of bubble is just equal to the radius of the capillary tube and a i gestte inside the bottle R is maximum. said Whi ea bbe ahale be the atmospheric pressure and p' be the density of liquid used i meter, atte instant when the bubble gts detached from the capillary tbe, H be the rain agence in levels of liquid in the limbs of manometer, then the pressure inside the bubble 'S instant ig P, =P + Hp! g and the pressure outside. the bubble at the same instant isUnified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) P)=P+ pg, where h is the depth of capillary tube dipping inside water in the beaker and pis the density of water. +. Excess pressure inside the bubble p = P) — P) =(P + Hp' g)— (P+ hpg) = g (Hp'— hp) _ G23) But the bubble has only one surface and itis spherical in shape. Therefore, if ris radius of capillary tube and T is the surface tension of water, then 2 20 The excess pressure inside the bubble = —~. 2-(3.24) Wehr 2r F Hence, in equilibrium, > =a(Hp'- hp) or T= F cap’ hp) 13.25) If the liquid used in the limbs of moni jometer is the same as the experimental liquid Ge. p=p"), then T= Pan G26) In experiment, the radius of capillary tube r is measured by the microscope, the height h of the capillary dipping into the liquid in the beaker is also measured with the help of microscope and the height H is noted in the monometer when it is maximum, Thus, knowing all the quantities in the eqn. (3.26), the surface tension T of the liquid is determined. Advantages The advantages ofthis method are: (i fresh air bubbles are formed, so. the errors arising due to oxidation and contamination of liquid are avoided, (ii) the radius of capillary is needed only at the end, so the error due to non-uniformity of the capillary is avoided, (if) itis not necessary to Know the angle of contact for calculating the surface wae 9fTiquid. (1) Small drops of a liquid are s a drop of aliquid is poured on a glass pl to acquire the lowest Position. of gravity is negligible in comparison to the force of tension, so the drop takes the 1 shape (because for a given For a small drop, the force Fig. 3.16. Small drops of a liquid are spherical spherical, while the bigger ones are flat flee of a liquid, the surface area of a sphere is mini i the force of gravity is not negligible. Due to the force nt or imum). But for a big drop, ce of gravi i drop lowers, due to which the drop becomes fat ig. 316) He Sense of pay of Iving the reaction of the « jon i surface tension it rents, we find that the horizontal components, each; _ “Fluid Mechanics GN oa ‘05 @ , cancel each other, while the vertical components, |» arsine T sin 9, get added upwards, which balances the weight 7, needle acting downwards. z This is why the insects and mosquitoes swim on the urface of water in ponds and lakes, Their weight is so less ihit they are not able to break the film formed on the surface gf water. If some Kerosene oil or soap powder ig sprayed on La mhe water surface, the surface tension of water decreases and Fig. 3.17, Floatation of a insects and mosquitoes sink into the water due to their _ Needle (or blade) on the weight and they are killed, 3 Nrater surface, (3) Spraying results in coldness—When a liquid is sprayed into a large number f droplets, the surface area of liquid increases. In this process, work is done against the pohesive force, which results in the decrease in internal energy of the liquid. Consequently, ‘temperature of the drops falls. ‘ (4) Dancing of camphor on water—When small pieces of camphor are made to float n a clean surface of water, they begin to dance, The reason is that a piece of camphor is regular in shape and less soluble in water. When a piece of camphor is added in water, a of itis dissolved much more than the other. Therefore, the surface tension of water on side where the camphor is dissolved becomes less than that of the other side where the ynphor is not dissolved. As a result, a net force acts on the camphor piece in a direction from the region of lower surface tension to the region of higher surface tension and so the jpiece of camphor moves in the direction of resultant force. Wherever it goes, the same ing happens. Thus, it dances on the surface of water. Similarly, if we stick a piece of camphor to one side of a toy-duck made of cork (or Plastic) and float it on water, the duck runs in the direction opposite to the side on which the amphor is stuck. If a small quantity of oil is sprayed on the surface of water, the dancing amphor or the motion of duck ceases because the oil film on water reduces the surface ion of water to a greater extent. (5) Soap solution helps in cleaning the clothes—This is because on dissolving the ep in water, the surface tension of soap solution becomes less than that of water. Hence, Soap solution covers more surface area than that covered by pure water, As a result, the 2p solution enters in those fine pores where the pure water cannot reach and brings out she dust particles with it. (6) Formation of lead shots—To form the lead shots, the molten lead is allowed fall on water by spraying it from some height. Due to surface tension, the melted lead ing its fall acquires a spherical shape and it becomes solid on entering the water, (7) Itis difficult to separate the two sticky plates of glass wetted with water, because He a large force has to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of . (8) Oil is sprayed on sea waves to calm them—This is because on spraying oil, the ‘Ze Spreads the oil on the sea water in its own direction, The surface tension of sea water joe! Oil is greater than that of the oily water, Hence, the water without oil pulls the oily "Sr against the direction of breeze and the sea waves us Flulds? When a beaker conta ing a liquid is rotated, it is observed that the liquid in ide "eaker also comes into motion. When the rotation of beaker is stopped, the liquid ith “Ts in motion for some time and then comes to rest. If this experiment is repeated different liquids, some liquids come to rest immediately after the rotation of beaker is-/” Unified Physics ; First Year (Second Paper) liquid is stream line, is called the critical velocity. For’a liquid flowing in a tube, according to Reynolds, the critical velocity v. is (i) inversely proportional to the density p of the liquid, (ii) inversely proportional to the radius r of the tube and (iii) directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity 1 of the liquid i.e., sat ha KN 3.31 veo he ove Fp 3.31) Here, K is a constant, called the Reynolds’ number, Its value is nearly 1000 for a capillary tube or a tube of small bore. Itis clear that smaller the radius of the tube, more are the chances of stream line flow for a liquid of high viscosity and low density. On the other hand, the flow of less viscous and high density liquid in a tube of large bore is mainly the turbulent flow, For an ideal liquid, n=0, «. ve =0, e,, the flow of an ideal liquid is always turbulent, howsoever smaller may be radius of the tube. Thus, Reynolds’ number determines the maximum velocity of flow of a liquid to be in stream line condition. It may be mentioned here that when the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity, the flow of liquid is determined by its viscosity and its density has no effect on the flow. On the other hand, if the velocity of flow is more than the critical velocity, the flow of liquid is determined by its density and its viscosity has no effect on the flow. ster eatin i When an ideal fluid (non-viscous and incompressible) flows in a streamline condition through a tube of non-uniform cross-section, at each section of the tube, the product of the area of cross-section and velocity of fluid is constant. This is called the principle of continuity, ; Let an ideal liquid of density p be flowing in a tube AB of non-uniform cross-section (Fig, 3,20), The area of cross-section of the tube at the end A is ay and the velocity of flow of liquid at the end A is v4. The area of cross section of the tube at the end B is ag and velocity of flow Fig, 3.20, Fluld flowing of liquid is vy. : oe through a tube of non- A ae uniform ernas-section Since, the liquid entering at the end A travels @ distance v, in one second, therefore the volume of liquid entering per second at the end A is a,v and mass of liquid entering per necond at the end Ais ayyip. Similarly, the volume and mass of the liquid leaving out per second at the end Bate ayy2 and ayy, p respectively, Since, no liquid collects at any point of the tube (the liguid which enters at one ets comes out from the other end of the tube), therefore mass of the liquid entering per second at the end A= mass of liquid Jeaving out per second ut the end B, GV {P= GV2p OF ayY, = dg¥y = COUStNL av © constant (302)rae Fluid Mechanics NS ~», The equation (3.32) is called the equation o, inuit i i flow of the liquid is less at the wider part ofthe a pie eo of while the velocity of flow of the liquid is more at the narrower part of the tube. In other words, in a = < tube of non-uniform cross-section, the streamlines Fig. 3.21. Streamlines in liquid flowing are rare in the wider part and condensed (or closer) {na tube of non-uniform cross-section in the narrower part of the tube (Fig. 3.21). stay Of a Flowin We know that each fluid (liquid or gas) has inertia. Therefore, when a fluid flows, it has the kinetic energy. A fluid has the potential energy due to its state. When pressure acts ona fluid, it has the Pressure energy. Thus, when a fluid flows from one Point to the other, ithas the following three forms of energy : (i) Kinetic energy, (ii) Potential energy and (iii) Pressure energy. The energies for unit mass of fluid, expressed in gravitational units are called the velocity head, gravitational head and pressure head respectively. (i Kinetic energy—If m kg mass of a fluid occupying a volume V m? flows with a velocity v m/s, its kinetic energy = hmv? joule. For a unit mass of a fluid, kinetic energy = 5 vag and velocity head = v7/2g metre (3.33) For a unit volume of a fluid, kinetic energy = mv*/2V = ; pv J/m? (3.34) (where m/V = p, density of fluid). (ii) Potential energy—If m kg of a fluid is flowing at a height h metre above the ground, its potential energy = mgh joule. For a unit mass of a fluid, potential energy = gh J/kg and gravitational head = h metre +(3.35) For a unit volume of a fluid, potential energy = mgh/V = pgh Jim? +(3.36) (ii) Pressure energy—If a pressure P N/m? acts on an area A m? of a flowing fluid and the fluid displaces by x metre, the pressure energy = work done by the fluid in displacement x or pressure energy = force x displacement = (pressure * area) x displacement = (PA) xx=PV joule : PV_P For a unit mass of a fluid, pressure energy = “>= = J/kg Ps and = — metre, pressure head pe For a unit volume of a fluid, pressure en Jim?