AN INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH & RESEARCH METHODS
Research can be one of the most interesting features of any degree course as it
offers you a measure of control and autonomy over what you learn.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH:
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical research The aim of Predictive
research is research can be often extends the research is to
undertaken used to identify Descriptive speculate intelligently
when few or and classify the approach to on future possibilities,
no previous elements or suggest or explain based on close
studies exist. characteristics of why or how analysis of available
the subject, e.g. something is evidence of cause and
number of days happening, e.g. effect, e.g. predicting
lost because of underlying causes when and where
industrial action. of industrial action. future industrial
An import action might take
place.
RESEARCH APPROACHES:
Research can be approached in the following ways:
Quantitative/Qualitative
Applied/Basic
Deductive/Inductive
CHARACTERISTICS OF POSITIVISTIC & PHENOMENOLOGICAL
APPROACHES & PERSPECTIVES TO RESEARCH
1. Positivistic
Positivistic approaches to research are based on research methodologies
commonly used in science . Positivistic approaches are founded on a
belief that the study of human behaviour should be conducted in the
same way as studies conducted in the natural sciences (Collis & Hussey,
2003, p.52).
2. Phenomenological
Phenomenological approaches are particularly concerned with
understanding behaviour from the participants’ own subjective frames
of reference.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Positivistic Phenomenological
• Surveys • Case Studies
• Experimental Studies • Action Research
• Longitudinal Studies • Ethnography (participant observation)
• Cross-sectional Studies • Participative Enquiry
• Feminist Perspectives
• Grounded Theory
Examples of Past Research Projects
Title Approach Methodology
How do financial advice Positivistic approach Cross-sectional study
services market to the
‘youth market’?
Disability awareness Phenomenological Participant observation
training within leisure approach
organisations
Age discrimination in the Positivistic and Survey & case study
workplace phenomenological
approaches/feminist
perspectives
STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Establish a general field of interest
2. Background & Preparatory Reading
3. Gather Information & Data
4. Preparation of information gathering ‘tools’, e.g. questionnaires, interview
sheets etc (if relevant) & then information gathering stage.
5. Collation, analyse and interpretation of research data.
6. Write first draft of research project report.
7. Revision and re-write dissertation; submit dissertation.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The researcher can play an overt or covert role and the role the researcher can
adopt in this situation has been summarised by Gill & Johnson (1977):
Complete participant
Complete observer
Observer as participant
Participant as observer
Data Collection as a Participant Observer
This can be in the form of:
Primary Observations: where the researcher notes what actually happened or
what was actually said at the time
Secondary Observations: interpretative statements by observers of what
happened
Experiential Data: a record of the researcher’s feelings/values and how these
changed, if applicable, over time
QUESTIONNAIRES
a) Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or a sample of people,
to respond to the same questions.
b) There are five types of questionnaire approaches:
1. On-line (electronic)
2. Postal (printed)
3. Delivery & collection (printed)
4. Telephone (electronic/printed)
5. Interview face to face/group (electronic or printed)
c) You need to absolutely clear before you design a questionnaire what it is you
want to learn
d) The validity and reliability of the data you collect depend on the design of the
questionnaire and the words that you use.
e) Questions can be open or closed:
Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left for the respondent’s
own answer
e.g. Please tell me which brand you prefer, and why in the space that
follows
Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to the set question
are provided.
e.g. Please tick the box shown below with the brand you prefer
f) The order and flow of questions should be logical to the respondent.
g) There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so they need to be
introduced carefully and courteously to potential respondents.
h) All questionnaires should be piloted
SIZE & SAMPLING
Sampling strategies are divided into two main groups: probability and non-probability
sampling.
Probability Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling:
Where the researcher has a significant Where the researcher has little initial
measure of control over who is selected control over the choice of who is
and on the selection methods for choosing presented for selection, or where
them. controlled selection of participants is not a
critical factor.
Main Methods:
Main Methods:
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling Voluntary Sampling
Purposive Sampling
‘Snowball’ Sampling
Event Sampling
Time Sampling
RESPONSE RATES
Follow-up calls
Pre-contact with respondents
Type of postage
Rewards
Personalizing the questionnaire
Emphasising Confidentiality
Appeals to the respondent
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
The rights of privacy of individuals
Voluntary nature of participation – and the rights of individuals to withdraw
partially or completely from the process
Consent and possible deception of participants
Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or
identifiable participants and their anonymity
Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect
data
Effects on participants of the way in which data is analysed and reported
Behaviour and objectivity of the researcher
SOME USEFUL INTERNET SITES FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS
Bank of England (UK economic reports)
http://www.bankofengland.co.uk
BIZED (useful site for business studies students)
www.bized.ac.uk/
BIDS (academic publications)
http://www.bids.ac.uk
DTI Publications (UK government)
http://www.dti.gov.uk/publications
Economist (magazine)
www.economist.com
Emerald (academic publications)
http://fiordiliji.emeraldinsight.com
European Union
www.europa.eu.int
FAME (financial and other data from Companies House)
http://fame.bvdep.com
Financial Times (news and annual reports service)
www.ft.com
FreePint (range of useful Market Research resources, including featured articles, archive
and student ‘bar’ for help on tricky research questions & issues
www.freepint.com
HMSO Publications (UK government)
http://www.hmso.gov.uk
HRM (links & guides for HRM in UK, USA, Canada & Australia)
www.HRMGuide.net
HSBC (Business Profiles: economic & business information for over 40 countries)
www.hsbc.com.hk/hk/bps
ICAEW (accounting publications)
http://www.icaew.co.uk/library
Ingenta (academic publications)
http://www.ingentaselect.co.uk
Institute of Fiscal Studies (UK taxation and economics)
http://www.ifs.org.uk
ISI Web of Science (citation index)
http://wos.mimas.ac.uk
JISC (academic publications)
http://www.jisc.ac.uk
Listed Companies (annual reports for listed companies in Europe and USA)
www.carolworld.com
National Statistics Online (UK government)
http://www.statistics.gov.uk
Mintel (market analysis)
www.mintel.co.uk
NISS (news, publications & other information & good links to academic libraries)
http://www.niss.ac.uk
Research Index (list of UK market research & telemarketing companies)
www.researchindex.co.uk
Small Business Portal
http://www.smallbusinessportal.co.uk/index.php
Small Business Service (UK government)
http://www.sbs.gov.uk
Social Sciences Information Gateway (including business, economics & research
methods) www.SOSIG.ac.uk
UkOnline (UK government)
http://www.ukonline.gov.uk
United Nations (news & publications)
http://www.un.org
WWW Virtual Library (useful links to business related sites)
http://www.vlib.org
