AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol.

I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -

I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND

I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov
Moscow State University of Environmental Engineering, Russia

Keywords: salinization, swamping during irrigation, type of salinization, horizontal

drainage, channels, drains, vertical drainage, combined drainage, temporary drainage,
norm of pumping out, drainage tubes, protecting filtering material, drain mouths,
observation well, drainage flow, washing norm, combating filtration in channels, water
losses, biological drainage.

Contents

1. Inundation and salinity of irrigation land

2. Reasons of secondary irrigated land salinity

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3. Soil salinity types

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4. Salt - resistance of crops
5. Need in drainage and its types
6. Drainage of irrigated lands
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7. Washing of salined lands
8. Water loss reduction in irrigation system
9. Biological drainage
Glossary
Bibliography
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Summary
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Theoretical and practical questions concerning drainage of irrigated land are considered.
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The main causes of inundation and secondary salinization are discussed, and
calculations are presented for rise of groundwater level and accumulation of toxic salts
on irrigated land. Information on soil salinity types and their effect on growth and
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development of crops are summarized. Calculations are presented for assessment of the
need for drainage on irrigated land, for both horizontal and vertical drainage, and their
parameters. The final section provides information on biological drainage, including its
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construction and disposition schemes, as well as its efficiency.

1. Inundation and salinity of irrigated land

Land irrigation as mean of agricultural intensification was important as long ago as the
third and fourth centuries B.C. At that time, there were complex and effective irrigation
systems in many countries (e.g. Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, etc.).

At the same time, history knows many cases where large areas of irrigated land became
worthless as a result of radical change of hydrological and geochemical conditions, and
land salinity. Prevention and struggle against these phenomena, in spite of centuries-old
experience, was only achieved in our time. According to the Wyoming Experimental
Station and the US Bureau of Drainage Research, even in the earliest days of drainage
development in the western states of USA, there were serious complications connected

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AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

with land inundation and salinity. Also, the emphasis was put on raising the level of
groundwater, even where it was relatively deep (≥ 10-20 m). This report relates to 1908-
1909 but in 1944, according to the Department of Agriculture, as a result of inundation
and salinization more than 100 000 ha of irrigated land was removed from agriculture.
Disastrous over-inundation and salinization of irrigated land has occurred in other
countries of Europe, Asia and Africa.

Inundation of irrigated lands is linked with rise of groundwater level, following soil
over-moisturing and intensive evaporation. The value of the level may be determined by
means of critical bedding depth ( Δ )
cr

Δcr = 170 + 8t ± 15sm (1)

The evaporation from groundwaters surface with (Er) depending on bedding depth may

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be determined as

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n
⎛ Δ ⎞
Er = E ⎜1 − ⎟ , mm (2)
0⎜ Δ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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cr

where t is average annual air temperature, in oC; E0 is evaporation from water surface,
in mm; Δ is bedding depth of groundwaters, sm; n is exponent, n=1-2.
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The main reasons for rise in groundwater level and inundation of irrigated land are
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filtration water losses from irrigation channels and water losses during watering (in a
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leaching regime).
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The probability and timing of groundwater level rising to critical values and causing
land inundation may be determined by means of long-time prognosis of groundwater
dynamics, depending on hydrogeological conditions, methods and technology of land
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irrigation. The methods of groundwater dynamics calculation were based on solution of

equations of unsteady water motion in grounds with different degrees of saturation.
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For the easiest hydrogeological conditions, the calculation of groundwater level

dynamics may be carried out by means of the following equations:

Flow scheme Calculation dependencies

Unrestricted flow x → ± ∞ ωt
Δ= (3)
μ
Band stratum ωt
Δ = Fω (τ);
( x) μ
with х<A Fω(τ) = [Fω(τ1)+ Fω(τ2)] /2 (4)
with х>A Fω(τ) = [Fω(τ1) - Fω(τ2)] /2

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AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

ΗΚ at at
?= ; τ1 = 2 ; τ2 = ;
μ (A + x ) (A − x ) 2
o
Sem-irestricted stratum ωt
Δ = Fω (λ); (5)
( x) μ
x
λ=
2 at
ΗΚ
?= ;
μ
o

where Δ - rising of groundwaters level in a time t, m; t - time, days; ω - intensity of

filtration load, m/day; Δω = ФK + g , ФK - filtration losses from irrigation channels.
1− η

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ФK = O (6)
η p

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η - coefficient of efficiency of irrigation channels system; Op - net watering norm, mm;
g - filtration water losses during watering (leaching regime), mm; μ - moisture shortage
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of aeration

zone grounds, in parts of volume; Fω (τ ) and Fω (λ ) - functions whose values may be

found on Figures 1, 2 in dependence of values τ and λ ; A - size of irrigated land, m; a

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HK
- coefficient of stratum conductivity a =
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, sq.m/day; H - depth of water-bearing

μO
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stratum, m; K - coefficient of hydraulic permeability with full saturation of water-

bearing grounds, m/day; μ о - coefficient of water-transfer, in parts of volume.

The literature contains the calculation methods Δ for lands of any configuration and
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size.
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Figure1. Function Fω (λ )

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AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

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As a rule, prognoses are made for 5, 10 or 15 years. Simultaneously with prognosis of
groundwater level change, prognosis can be made for mineralization and chemical
composition change.
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2. Reasons of secondary irrigated land salinity

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Land salinity may be primary (natural) or secondary (technogenic). Naturally saline

soils are those whose solid and liquid phases contain readily soluble salts in a
concentration high enough to decrease soil fertility and negatively affect the growth and
development of crops. Secondary saline soils are those where readily soluble salts have
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accumulated during irrigation. Without analyzing the existing water and salt regimes in
the soil and forecasting possible changes in these regimes during irrigation, it is
impossible to identify in advance land prone to secondary salinization. In general terms,
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lands liable to secondary salinization during irrigation are those where the soil, subsoil
and groundwater contains readily soluble salts which may create toxic conditions for the
crop during irrigation.

Methods for calculation of salt regime dynamics during irrigation are based on joint
solution of equations of salt and water motion in soils, subsoil and groundwater, taking
into account convective diffusion, salt dissolution in solid phase, and phenomena of ion
exchange sorption.

Theory and practice of irrigation in different countries of the world show that secondary
soil salinity depends on natural and economic factors including groundwater level and
mineralization, value of watering norms, the technical condition of irrigation systems,
methods and technology of crop watering, mineralization and chemical composition of
irrigation water, and physical and chemical properties of soils. Accumulation of salts in

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

soils with the above-mentioned factors (especially the presence of readily soluble salts
in soil, subsoil and groundwater) can be expressed by the following equation:

O ⎛ C −1 ⎞
O =
p
=
1 ⎜ r + 1⎟ (7)
p E −O 1− C ⎜ Δ ⎟
c n ⎝ ⎠

where Op - watering net norm, mm; E and O - evaporation and precipitation, mm;
c
C
C = n , C - mineralization of irrigation water, g/l; C - permissible content of salts
n C n
C
in a soil solution (threshold of salt resistibility), g/l; C = r , C - groundwaters
r C r
mineralization, g/l;

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Δ

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Δ= , Δ - bedding depth of groundwaters level, m; λ - parameter of
λ0⋅m 0
hydrodynamic dispersion, m; m - soil porosity, in parts of volume.
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Equation (7) permits detection of the main causes of secondary salinity and its causative
factors.
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If the irrigation system uses fresh water ( C = 0 ) and there are no readily soluble salts
H

n
in the subsoil and groundwater ( C = 0 ), secondary salinization of irrigated land is
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r
excluded. These conditions may be observed in Mongolia where irrigation systems are
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used with relatively fresh water and subsoils are not saline. If irrigation water contains
salts ( C > 0 ) and mineralized groundwater ( C > 0 ) lies at a good depth ( Δ > Δ ),
n r cr
the main cause of secondary salinity may be accumulation of salts from irrigation water.
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With C > 0 , C > 0 and Δ ≤ Δ , that is with a high level of mineralized

n r cr
groundwater, the main causes of secondary salinity are salt accumulation from irrigation
and groundwater.
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3. Soil salinity types

Saline soils are found mainly in arid regions. The general area of saline soils, as a
percentage of the arid land, is as follows: in Europe and Asia 20%, Africa 6%, North
America 3%, South America 35%, and Australia 57%.

Among saline soils there are those containing salts in the upper layer (0-100 cm); badly
salined areas where salts are present in in the 100-200 cm layer, and potentially saline
areas where salts may be found in underlying strata (within the aerated zone) or in
groundwater.

Besides the depth of the salt horizon, salined soils can be categorized by salinity degree,

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

salt composition and their distribution in salt profile.

Salt composition may be estimated by ion correlation, salinity degree (as total or toxic
salts), or content of particular ions. For categorizing soils by salinity degree, data from
water extraction analysis S BB (1 : 5) , as a percentage per 100 g of soil, mg.eqv for 100 g
of soil, or data from electroconductivity of past extraction ECA, in msm/sm, are applied.

The conversion of conductivity from pastes data (ECA, msm/sm) into water extraction
data ( S ,% ), with soil moisture equal to minimum water capacity, will be done by
BB
means of the dependence

2 K⋅ EC ⋅ MWC
= A

S
S (8)

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BB 10 ⋅ γ

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where S - salt containing in soils, %; K - conversion coefficient, msm/sm to g/l
BB
(with EC ≤ 5msm/sm K=0.64, with ECA>5 msm/sm K=0.80); MWC – minimum
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A
water capacity, in parts of volume; γ - soil density, g/sm3.

Salinity chemism (ion correlation, mg.eqv./100 g of soil)

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Neutral salinity (pH<8.5) Alkaline salinity (pH>8.5)

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Sulphate-sodium
Chloride-sodium Sulphate-
and sodium-
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Soil salinity Chloride, and sodium- chloride-

degree Chloride- sulphate
sulphate- Sulphate chloride Cl:SO4>1, carbonate
sulphate Cl:SO4<1,
chloride Cl:SO4<0.2 HCO3>(Ca+Mg), HCO3>Cl,
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Cl:SO4=1-0.2 HCO3>(Ca+Mg),
Cl:SO4>1 HCO3>Cl HCO3>SO4,
HCO3>Cl
HCO3<(Ca+Mg)
Soil toxicity
0.05*) < 0.1 < 0.15 < 0.1 < 0.15 < 0.15
threshold (non-
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<1 <2 <3 <2 <3 <3

salined soils)
0.05 to
0.1 to 0.25 0.15 to 0.3 0.1 to 0.15 0.15 to 0.25 0.15 to 0.3
Small 0.12
2 to 6 3 to 7 2 to 6 3 to 6 3 to 7
1 to 4
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0.12 to
0.25 to 0.5 0.3 to 0.6 0.15 to 0.3 0.25 to 0.4 0.3 to 0.5
Medium 0.35
6 to 10 7 to 13 6 to 7 6 to 9 7 to 10
4 to 8
0.35 to
0.5 to 1.0 0.6 to 1.5 0.3 to 0.5 0.4 to 0.6
Strong 0.7 Not occur
10 to 20 13 to 30 7 to 10 9 to 13
8 to 16
> 0.7 > 1.0 > 1.5 > 0.5 > 0.6
Very strong -
> 16 > 20 > 30 > 10 > 13
*)
Numerator is a sum of toxic salts in soil ( S ), in %; denominator is electroconductivity of
BB
pastes extraction (ECA), msm/sm.

Table 1.Soil classification by degree and type of salinity

The criteria of soil characterization by salinity degree and salt composition, obtained by
means of analysis of water extraction (1:5) and extraction from pastes, are listed in

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AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

Table 1.

The soil salinity type may be determined in dependence on ion correlation in water
extraction ( S ), (see Table 1).
BB
-
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Bibliography

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Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management, 1990, 130 p. [In this article the limits of water and
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Averjanov S.F. (1978). Struggle against irrigated lands salinity. Moscow. Colos, 265 p.(In Russian).
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substances supervision in farm lands: needed technologies and investigations].

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Bresler A., Maklin B.L., Carter D.L. Salined soil. (1968). Experience of soil salinization classification
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Dregne H.E. (1976). Soil of Arid regions, Amsterdam, 70 p.[Soil characteristic of arid regions is given].
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filtration, hydrological design of inlet and drainage structures].

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

AGRICULTURAL LAND IMPROVEMENT:AMELIORATION AND RECLAMATION – Vol. I - Drainage of Irrigated Land -
I.P. Aidarov and L.F. Pestov

Singh N.T., Tomar O.S. (1993). Agroforestry in salt affected soil bulletin 17, Central soil salinity research
institute. Karnal - 132001. India, 59 p.[Agroforestry recomendations].
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shown].

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