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12-2017

Solving the Rubik's Cube using Group Theory

Courtney Cooke

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Part of the Algebra Commons, and the Other Mathematics Commons

 Solving the Rubik’s Cube using Group Theory
∗
Courtney Cooke

December 2017

∗
Special Thanks to Stephanie Costa
 Abstract

While he was working in his mother’s apartment in 1974, the professor of

architecture from Budapest, Erno Rubik, had no idea he was inventing one
of the most popular toys in history, the Rubik’s Cube. As an estimated 350
million Rubik’s cubes have been sold, and approximately one in every seven
people have played with one (which is about 1 billion people) it is not surprising
to see that the algorithm of solving the Rubik’s cube has been applied to the
field of mathematics. By using abstract algebra and more specifically, group
theory, the Rubik’s Cube, no matter what the starting configuration, can be
solved. The notes on an intensive course written by Janet Chen guide this
project by making the Rubik’s cube a group where all of the possible moves are
the elements in the group. By looking at the different subgroups and the moves
in said subgroups, we can find the algorithm in which we can reconfigure the
Rubik’s cube back into its starting configuration. A Mathematical Approach
To Solving Rubik’s Cube by Raymond Tran also helped provide some different
methods in achieving the correct configuration the Rubik’s Cube. By utilizing
these two texts we will prove that using these methods indeed gives us a viable
solution to solve a Rubik’s cube.
“If you are curious, you’ll find the puzzles around you. If you
are determined, you will solve them. ” -Erno Rubik

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Contents
1 The Rubik’s Cube and Subgroups 3

2 Cycle Notation for the Rubik’s Cube 7

3 Analyzing Position and Orientation 11

4 Solving the Rubik’s Cube 15

4.1 Stage 1- Top Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Stage 2- Middle Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Stage 3- Bottom Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Bibliography 30

6 Appendix 31

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1 The Rubik’s Cube and Subgroups
In order to talk about the Rubik’s Cube as a group we must first define the
notation we will be using. We will be using a notation developed by David Singmaster,
where we refer to the faces as Right (r), Left (l), Up (u), Down (d), Front (f), and
Back (b). When we are referring to the moves of a given face we will write them as
uppercase letters of the corresponding face, R, L, U, D, F, and B. This will be in
reference to one clockwise turn of the face when you are looking directly at it. When
we twist the face twice in a clockwise direction we will refer to it as the face letter
squared (eg. D2 ). Lastly, when we twist the face once in a counterclockwise direction
(or three times clockwise) we will refer to it as the inverse of the face (eg. D−1 ). It
is important to note that two moves will be considered the same if they result in the
same end configuration. For example D−1 = D3 .
Definition 1.1. Cubie and Cubicle: A cubie is one of the 26 colored blocks on the
Rubik’s cube. A corner cubie has 3 visible faces while an edge cubie only has 2. When
referring to the cubies we will name them based off of the starting location of the
cubie, not on the colors of the faces. A Cubicle, on the other hand, is the space in
which the cubie lives. If you rotate the face of the cube the cubicles do not move but
the cubies do.
Remark. To name a corner or edge cubie we list the visible faces in clockwise order.
For example the cubie that lies on the up, right, front corner of the cube is named
urf. This cubie can also be referred to a rfu or fur if we do not care about the
orientation of the cubie.
Definition 1.2. Orientation: The orientation of a cubie refers to the position the
cubie has been twisted into no matter what cubicle the cubie is in. Thus the urf cubie
can be in the urf cubicle but can be in the orientation of fur because the original
Front face is on the Up face, the Up on the Right, and the Right on the Front. Thus,
when we are referring to oriented cubies rfu, fur, and urf are not the same.

It is interesting to note the immense number of possible configurations of the

Rubik’s cube Since their are 8 corner cubies there are 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 8!
possible positions of the corner cubies. Since their are 3 faces of a corner cubie, and
therefore 3 orientations of a corner cubie, there are 38 possible ways the corner cubies
could be oriented. In the same way we can look at the edge cubies and see their are
12! possible positions and with 2 different faces 212 different orientations. Thus, if we
combine all of the different possibilities we see that 212 38 8!12! or 5.19 × 1020 potential
configurations the Rubik’s cube could be in- that is about 519 quintillion. However,
it is important to note that some of these are actually not valid based on the starting
configuration of the cube.
Theorem 1.1. The set of moves of the Rubik’s Cube is a group denoted (G, ∗)

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Proof. In order to show that (G, ∗) is a group we must show that G closed under ∗,
that a right identity exists, a right inverse exists, and ∗ is associative. Let M1 and
M2 be two moves in G. If M1 and M2 are moves then Let M1 ∗ M2 is a move as well.
Thus G is closed under ∗.
If we let e be the ”empty move”, which means it does not change the faces of the
Rubik’s cube at all, then M ∗ e = M . Hence G has a right identity.
If M is an arbitrary move, then let the reverse steps of that move be M 0 . Then M ∗M 0
means to first do all the moves of M and then undo all of the moves of M , leaving
us in the same configuration we started in. Thus M ∗ M 0 = e and therefore M 0 is the
inverse of M and every element of G has a right inverse.
If C is an oriented cubie, we will write M (C) for the oriented cubicle that C ends up
in after we apply the move M , with the faces of M (C) written in the same order as
the faces of C. That is, the first face of C should end up in the first face of M (C),
and so on. Let M1 and M2 be two moves in G, then M1 ∗ M2 is the move where
we first do M1 and then do M2 . The move M1 moves C to the cubicle M1 (C) and
the move M2 then moves it to M2 (M1 (C)). Thus, (M2 ∗ M1 )(C) = M2 (M1 (C)). To
show ∗ is associative, we must show that (M1 ∗ M2 ) ∗ M3 = M1 ∗ (M2 ∗ M3 ) for
any moves M1 , M2 , and M3 . That is, we want to show that [(M1 ∗ M2 ) ∗ M3 ](C) =
[M1 ∗ (M2 ∗ M3 )](C) for any cubie C. As previously stated in this proof we know that
[(M1 ∗ M2 ) ∗ M3 ](C) = M3 ([M1 ∗ M2 ](C)) = M3 (M2 (M1 (C))). On the other hand,
[M1 ∗ (M2 ∗ M3 )](C) = (M2 ∗ M3 )(M1 (C)) = M3 (M2 (M1 (C))). So, (M1 ∗ M2 ) ∗ M3 =
M1 ∗ (M2 ∗ M3 ). Thus ∗ is associative.
Hence, (G, ∗) is a group. [1]

Remark. From now on we will write the group operation ∗ as multiplication. For
example instead of writing D ∗ R we will write DR, which means the move D followed
by the move R.

Definition 1.3. Commutator: Let M1 , M2 ∈ G, the commutator is a subgroup of G

such that [M1 , M2 ] = M1 M2 M1 −1 M2 −1

Theorem 1.2. G is not abelian.

Proof. Let M1 be R and M2 be B. Let us look at cubie urf in starting position. M1 M2

moves urf to the ulb position. Now if we do moves M2 M1 with urf in the starting
position the urf cubie moves to the bru position. Since M1 M2 and M2 M1 produce
different configurations, which we see from urf being in different positions, we can
say that G is not abelian.

Theorem 1.3. Let C1 and C2 be two different unoriented corner cubies, there is a
move of the Rubik’s cube which sends C1 to C10 and C2 to C20 .

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Proof. Let C1 and C2 be two different unoriented corner cubies. Suppose that C1 and
C1 ’ share a face, without loss of generality call it f. Then Fn send C1 to C1 ’. Let C2 ”
denote the position of C2 after Fn . If C2 ” = C20 then we are done.
Suppose C2 ” 6= C20 . Since C1 6= C2 , we can’t have C10 = C20 or else two different cubies
would occupy the same position. So C10 , C20 , and C2 ” are three different corner cubies.

1. Case 1 There exists a face, shared by C2 ” and C20 but not C10 . Without loss of
generality call it b, rotate it Bn times and we have C1 → C10 and C2 → C20 .

2. Case 2 C2 ” and C20 share a face with C10 .

(a) Case a More than 2 faces are shared with C2 ”, C20 , and C10 . This is
impossible based on the configuration of the Rubik’s Cube.
(b) Case b C2 ” and C20 do not share a face. Since every corner cubie shares
a face with all but one other corner cubie, C2 ” and C20 each share at least
one face with C10 . C2 ” and C10 do not share at least one face, without loss
of generality, call that face l. C2 ” can be moved Ln times to share a face
with C20 but not share a face with C10 . Without loss of generality call this
face R, then C2 ” can be moved to C20 by Rn moves. Thus, C1 → C10 and
C2 → C20 .

Suppose that C1 and C1 ’ do not share a face. Note, each corner cubie does not share
a face with only one other corner cubie. Thus, C1 can be moved by one move to any
other adjacent corner and will now share a face with C10 , without loss of generality,
call that face f. Fn moves will then put the C1 cubie into the C10 position. If C2 ” = C20
then we are done.
Suppose C2 ” 6= C20 . Note, as mentioned earlier C1 = C2 and C10 6= C20 . So C10 , C20 and
C20 are three different cubies.

1. Case 1 There exists a face shared by C2 ” and C20 but not C10 . Without loss of
generality call this face u. Un can move C2 ” and C20 and therefore, C1 → C10
and C2 → C20 .

2. Case 2 There does not exist a face shared by C2 ” and C20 but not C10 .

(a) Case a Every face shared by C2 ” and C20 is shared with C10 . This is
impossible based on the configuration of the Rubik’s Cube.
(b) Case b C2 ” and C20 do not share a face. Since every corner cubie shares a
face with all but 1 other cubie, C2 ” and C20 both share at least one face with
C10 . There is a face on C2 ” that does not share a face with C10 (otherwise
they would be in the same position). Without loss of generality call that
face d. Rotate C2 ” Dn times such that C2 ” and C20 share a face (which is

5
 possible since only the original position of C2 ” will not share a face with
C20 ).

and C2 ” does not share the same face that C20 and C10 share. Without loss of
generality, call the face that C2 ” and C20 , but not C1 , share r. Rotate the face
Rn times until C2 ” is in the C20 position. Hence, C1 → C10 and C2 → C20 .

Thus, there is a move of the Rubik’s cube which sends C1 to C10 and C2 to C20 .

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2 Cycle Notation for the Rubik’s Cube
As to more easily describe what happens to the cubies when we apply different
moves of the faces we use a modified cycle notation that describe the position, and
later the orientations, of the Rubik’s Cube cubies. Let us look at the move of the
right face of the Rubik’s cube. If you look at rfu after the move R is applied to it,
it moves to the position rub. Meanwhile rub moves to rbd, rbd moves to rdf and
rdf moves to rfu. We can write these moves, combined with what the move R does
to the edge pieces, in cyclic notation as, R = (rfu, rub, rbd, rdf)(ru, rb, rd, rf).
Remark. We can look at all of the elements of G as products of disjoint cycles as
follows:
D = (dlf, dfr, drb, dbl)(df, dr, db, dl)
R = (rfu, rub, rbd, rdf)(ru, rb, rd, rf)
U = (ulb, ubr, urf, ufl)(ul, ub, ur, uf)
L = (luf, lfd, ldb, lbu)(lu, lf, ld, lb)
F = (fur, frd, fdl, flu)(fu, fr, fd, fl)
B = (bul, bld, bdr, bru)(bu, bl, bd, br)
Using these cycles we can compose them to find the disjoint cycles of any other move.

One of the exercises in Janet Chen’s course is to find the order of the move DR.
This can be found by looking at the disjoint cyclic notation of the move DR. We can
compose the moves D and R and we can visually see the cycles as we perform the
moves on the Rubik’s Cube. The move DR = (dlf, ruf, rub, rbd, dlb)(df, rf, ru, rb,
rd, db, dl), note the cubies drf, flu and ulb stay in the same position so they are not
part of the corner cycle moves. Since the order of the individual cycles are 5 and 7,
the order of DR is 35. However, it is important to note that this is the order if you
are only looking for the cubies to be in the same position, not the same orientation.
If you want to find the order of this move such that you arrive at the same starting
configuration with the same orientations then the order is 105. This is because each
corner cubie has 3 faces and 3 · 35 = 105, this was also physically verified by applying
the moves to the Rubik’s cube.
One of the most useful exercises explored in Janet Chen’s course is exploring the
elements of the subgroup H =<D2 ,R2 >:
Example 2.1. Let H be the subgroup of G generated by D2 and R2 ; that is,
H =<D2 ,R2 >. How many elements does H have?

First, let us look at D2 and R2 .

D2 = (dlf, drb)(dfr, dbl)(df, db) (dr, dl)

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R2 = (rfu, rbd)(rub, rdf)(ru, rd)( rb, rf)
By analyzing the composition of these two elements we can find all of the possible
elements within H. Let us look at some of these compositions:
D2 R2 = (dlf, rfu, drb)(df, db)(drf, dlb, rbu)(dr, dl, ru)(rf, rb)
R2 D2 = (dlf, drb, rfu)(df, db)(drf, rbu, dlb)(dr, ru, dl)(rf, rb)
D2 R2 D2 = (dlf, ruf)(ru, dl)(ru, rl)(rb, rf)(dlb, rub)
R2 D2 R2 = (dlf, ruf)(df, db)(dl, ur)(rb, rf)(dlb, rub)
For brevity the rest of the cycles are not included but can be found by further
composing D2 , R2 . Note, D2 is never composed with D2 and R2 is never composed with
R2 because you would not change the configuration. After analyzing the compositions
up to (D2 R2 )6 and (R2 D2 )6 the move that got us back starting configuration, the
identity, was found. By comparing the different compositions the following element
pairs were discovered. As stated before, if two moves give us the same configuration
then we count them as the same element. Thus these pairs are the same element in
H.
D2 = (R2 D2 )5 R2
R2 = (D2 R2 )5 D2
D2 R2 = (R2 D2 )5
R2 D2 = (D2 R2 )5
D2 R2 D2 = (R2 D2 )4 R2
R2 D2 R2 = (D2 R2 )4 D2
(D2 R2 )2 = (R2 D2 )4
(R2 D2 )2 = (D2 R2 )4
(D2 R2 )2 D2 = (R2 D2 )3 R2
(R2 D2 )2 R2 = (D2 R2 )3 D2
(D2 R2 )3 = (R2 D2 )3
(D2 R2 )6 = (R2 D2 )6 = e
Thus, after the element (D2 R2 )6 = (R2 D2 )6 = e, we would only get more elements
in the group that equal elements we have already found. Hence, as seen above in the
number of element pairs we have before reaching the identity, there are 12 elements
in the group H. To make sure the group was closed and no elements were missed a
group table of H was created (see next page).
This exploration of the group H let us see that the moves started becoming the
inverse of each other, bringing the configuration back to the starting position (which
can be seen when you look at the pattern of the pairs). This exploration will be

8
useful later on when we are solving the Rubik’s Cube we will be using the squares of
moves composed with other moves, such as the commutator. This also helped identify
patterns to look for within in the cyclic notation.

9
10
3 Analyzing Position and Orientation
Thus far as we have evaluated what the different moves, or elements, of the
Rubik’s Cube we have not really focused on the orientation of the cubies, just where
one move sends the cubie. We will be using the same notation as Janet Chen in order
to track the orientation, as well as the position, of the corner and edge cubies. We
have already discussed how to write the positions of the cubies in cyclic notation,
while not worrying about orientation, but now we will look at the position of the
cubies in a slightly different way. We are going to label each edge and corner cubie
with a number as follows:

For the corner cubies

1 on the u face of the ufl cubie
2 on the u face of the urf cubie
3 on the u face of the ubr cubie
4 on the u face of the ulb cubie
5 on the d face of the dbl cubie
6 on the d face of the dlf cubie
7 on the d face of the dfr cubie
8 on the d face of the drb cubie

For the edge cubies

1 on the u face of the ub cubie
2 on the u face of the ur cubie
3 on the u face of the uf cubie
4 on the u face of the ul cubie
5 on the b face of the lb cubie
6 on the b face of the rb cubie
7 on the f face of the rf cubie
8 on the f face of the lf cubie
9 on the d face of the db cubie
10 on the d face of the dr cubie
11 on the d face of the df cubie
12 on the d face of the dl cubie

11
For the corner cubies we can write this as an element σ of S8 (the element of S8
which moves the corner cubies from their starting positions to the new positions)
where σ : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Thus σ is defined by the place-
ment of the corner cubies in their resulting cubicles after a specific move has been
performed. For the edge cubies we can write this as an element of τ of S12 where
τ : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}. [1] Thus τ is
defined by the placement of the edge cubies in their resulting cubicles after a specific
move has been performed. In Janet Chen’s notes she uses the letter names of the cu-
bies to talk about σ and τ , however for our case we are going to just use the position
numbers coupled with the orientations to analyze where the cubies are being sent.
For example, the move R would change the starting position of σ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8) to σ = (1, 7, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 3). Here we see the 2 cubie moves to the 3 position,
the 3 to the 8, the 8 to the 7, and the 7 to the 2 position.
Now that we have labeled all of the edge and corner cubies we can now look at
the corresponding orientations. Let us first look at the corner cubies. Note that there
are three different faces of the corner cubie, thus the cubie can be in three different
orientations. Additionally, each corner cubie has one numbered face to identify the
position, mark this numbered face 0. From there, going clockwise around the faces
of the cubie label the subsequent face 1, and the last face 2. In order to get a better
understanding of what that looks like let us take a look at a visual representation
provided by Janet Chen [1]. In the first image we see the letter of the face on the
flattened downside of the Rubik’s Cube, then we see how those cubes are labeled for
their position, and lastly, we see the orientation associated with those positions.

In order to look at the orientations of all of the corner cubies at the same time
we can write the resulting orientation of all of the corner cubies after a move has been
performed as an 8-tuple, x. Again using Janet Chen’s notation, for any i between 1
and 8, find the cubicle face labeled i; let xi be the number of the cubie face living in
this cubicle face. [1] Therefore, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 ), were the sub numbers
are in reference to the position of x, or σ. Thus x1 is the orientation of the cubie in
the 1 labeled position. Note, x in the starting position is, x = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0).
Each xi is equivalent to counting the number of clockwise twists the cubie i is away
from having its 0 face in the numbered face of the cubicle. Let us take a look at how
the move R affects the orientations of the corner cubies of the Rubik’s Cube. Again,
we will be using images provided by Janet Chen [1].

12
 In the first two images we see the starting position and orientation, respectively.
In the last image we see the orientation after the move R is applied to the Rubik’s
Cube. In the cubies that are unaffected, and not shown, their orientation stays at
0. However the orientations of x2 , x3 , x7 , and x8 do change. As seen in the above
image, x2 = 1, x3 = 2, x7 = 2 and x8 = 1. We can write the value x after R as
x = (0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1)
This same process can be used for the edge cubies. We can label each face with
a positional number on it 0 and the other face 1. Because there are 12 edge cubies,
we can write the resulting orientation of the edge cubies after a move as an 12-tuple,
y. Such that y = (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 , y6 , y7 , y8 , y9 , y10 , y11 , y12 ), where, like before with x,
yi is the number in the edge cubicle face i, where i is the position we get by looking
at τ . Thus y1 is the orientation of the cubie in the 1 labeled edge position. Observe
that in the starting position y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0). Now lets take a look at
how R affects the orientations of the edge cubies. R only affects the cubies y2 , y6 , y7 ,
and y10 . Interestingly, when R is rotated the orientation stays exactly the same and
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0). In fact when we studied x and y after every move
we found only the moves F and B affected the orientation of the edge cubies, as seen
below.
Example 3.1. Given the Rubik’s Cube is in the starting position, analyze x and y
for the single moves of the Rubik’s Cube: D, U, L, R, F, B.

1. D
x = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)

2. U
x = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)

3. L
x = (2, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 0)
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)

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 4. R
x = (0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1)
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)

5. F
x = (1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0)
y = (0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0)

6. B
x = (0, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 0, 2)
y = (1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0)

These 8-tuples and 12-tuples will be made of use later on as we solve the Cube
to help us prove that we get the correct orientations and positions.
One of the most important moves utilized when solving the Rubik’s Cube is the
commutator. This next example displays not just how the position of the cubies
change when the commutator [D,R] is used but also keeps track of the orientations,
which is necessary to take into account when we actually begin to solve the cube.

Example 3.2. Write the commutator [D,R] in disjoint cycle notation (be careful to
keep track of the orientations of the cubies). What is the order of [D,R]?

[D,R] = DRD−1 R−1 = (dlf, dfr, lfd, frd, fdl, rdf)(df, dr, br)(drb, bru, bdr, ubr,
rbd, rub)
σ = (1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 7, 6, 8)
τ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 7, 8, 9, 11, 6, 12)
x = (0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 2)
y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
Looking at the disjoint cycles of [D,R] we see that the individual orders are 6, 3,
and 6. Thus, given that the lease common multiple is 6, the order of [D,R] is 6.
Note, from now on we will mostly be using the notation of σ, τ, x, and y when
discussing the movement of the cubies based on different elements of G in order to
simplify notation. The table of σ, τ, x, and y for [D,R] is shown in Table 1 in Section
4.

14
4 Solving the Rubik’s Cube
After compiling the necessary notation, definitions, theorems, and practice it is
finally time to begin solving the Rubik’s Cube. Considering the Rubik’s Cube has
43 quintillion possible valid positions A Mathematical Approach To Solving Rubik’s
Cube was referenced to provide guidance on where to start (as well as where to go
and how to end). In this text there are two methods to solving the Rubik’s Cube,
we will be using the second, ”Layer-by-Layer” Method. In this method the top layer,
or the Up face, is solved first, then the middle layer edge pieces of the Front, Right,
Back, and Right faces, and finally the Down face.
Before talking about the actual moves we will be using let us take a look at how
we will be analyzing each move to make sure the cubies we are moving get into the
cubicles we want them to be in. In Table 1 on the next page we are looking at the
commutator move [D, R]. Every move table has four parts: σ, τ , x, and y. As we
talked about before, σ and τ refer to the positions of the corner and edge cubies,
respectively. Where x and y refer to the orientations of the edge cubies. Note that
sometimes there will be negative numbers or positive numbers that are not 0,1, or 2
in the orientation columns thus, every corner cubie orientation should be taken Mod 3
and every edge cubie orientation should be taken Mod 2. This table was constructed
using Macros formulas in Excel such that when we inputed the move, such as D, it
would output the position and orientation in the column for that move of every cubie.
A couple of the following moves were found done out by hand but that was found
to be a very long and tedious processes. Therefore, this program was constructed
in order to more easily analyze moves that have many face twists in them. As said
before, the table is broken up into four parts where each move starts with the cu-
bies in their starting position thus, σ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), x = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0),
τ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12), and y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0). The cubies
resulting positions and orientations by the move described in the table are given under
the column of the last twist in that move, for example the resulting positions and ori-
entations for the table below are σ = (1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 7, 6, 3), x = (0, 0, −1, 0, 0, 2, 0, −1),
τ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 7, 8, 9, 11, 6, 12), and y = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0). As we talk
about the moves used to solve the Rubik’s Cube we will reference the tables provided
in the Appendix in order to prove that the cubies do in fact end up where we need
them to go. Now that we have all of the tools needed to solve the Rubik’s Cube let
us begin to talk about the actual moves used to solve the Cube.

15
 Table 1: DRD−1 R−1 Commutator
σ D R D−1 R−1 x D R D−1 R−1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 6 6 2 0 0 1 1 0
3 3 2 2 8 0 0 2 2 -1
4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0
5 8 8 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
6 5 5 7 7 0 0 0 2 2
7 6 7 3 6 0 0 2 1 0
8 7 3 8 3 0 0 1 0 -1
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 7 7 2 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 2 2 10 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 11 11 7 0 0 0 0 0
8 8 8 8 8 0 0 0 0 0
9 10 10 9 9 0 0 0 0 0
10 11 6 10 11 0 0 0 0 0
11 12 12 6 6 0 0 0 0 0
12 9 9 12 12 0 0 0 0 0

16
4.1 Stage 1- Top Layer
The goal for solving this layer is to first get a cross of all matching colors on the
Up face, making sure that the edge pieces of the cross align with the colors of the
middle pieces on the Back, Left, Front, and Right faces. After the cross is formed, the
corner pieces that match the Up face color and the two other side face colors (Front,
Right, Back, and Left) need to be put into the right position, as well as orientated
correctly.
In order to begin to make the cross we first want to start by trying to place one
of the cubies that belong on the Up face into the correct cubicle position. We are
going to try to place the correct cubie into the ub cubicle, which is cubicle position
1 from our definition of τ . For example if your Up face is green and your Back face
is red, we are looking for the green and red edge cubie to move into the ub cubicle.
Right now do not worry about orientation, we are just trying to get the edge cubie in
the right position. Since there are 12 edge cubicles, there are twelve possible positions
the desired edge cubie could start in. If the cubie is already in cubicle 1, ub, then we
do not need to make any moves. If the cubie is in cubicle 2, ur then we can do the
move U−1 (which is the same thing as U 3 ) and the cubie in ur will now be in the ub
cubicle. This can be verified by composing the move U, see section 2, three times.
Listed below are all of the moves that can be performed depending on which cubicle
the cubie we need to move starts in. The list states the cubicle position τ , the name
of the cubicle, and then the move needed to get the cubie in that cubicle to ub. All
of these moves can be verified by hand, doing the moves on the Rubik’s Cube, or by
composing the moves listed in the beginning of section 2.

3- uf: U2 4- ul: U 5- lb: B−1

6- rb: B 7- rf: RU−1 8- lf: L−1 U
9- db: B2 10- dr: DB2 11- df: D2 B2
12- dl: D−1 B2

After performing one of these moves you will have the edge cubie in the right
position of ub. If the cubie is oriented correctly such that the correct color matches
up with the Up and Back faces then this step can be skipped. However, if the cubie is
unoriented then we must perform one more move to get it in the correct orientation.
The move we can use to change the orientation is B−1 R−1 U−1 . B−1 takes the cubie in
ub and moves it to rb, which is y6 . If we look at the move B in section 3, we see that
it changes the orientation of y6 , and if we look at the composition of B three times
(since B−1 = B3 ) we will see that B−1 also changes the orientation. Now that we have
changed the orientation we can perform R−1 , which does not change the orientation
but sends the cubie to ur, and then U−1 , which sends the cubie back to ub, now in
the correct orientation.

17
 One edge cubie should now be lined up with the Up face middle cubie, as well as
next to the correct color on the middle cubie of the Back face. Now turn the whole
Rubik’s Cube such that the cubie we just placed is now the ul cubicle and the cubicle
we are trying to solve next is the ub cubicle. Do not worry about orientation, we are
just trying to get the cubie into the correct position. Like we did for the first cubicle
we are going to go through all of the possible positions the edge cubie could be in and
then provide the move for that position to get the cubie into the ub cubicle. There
are 11 possible positions the edge cubie could be in, as it cannot be in the ul cubicle,
position 4, because we already solved that cubicle. If the correct cubie is in position
1, ub then it can stay there, if not do the one of the following moves based off of what
cubicle the cubie you want to move to ub is in. Note these moves can be verified by
hand, doing the moves on the Rubik’s Cube, or by composing the moves listed in the
beginning of section 2.

2- uf: RB 3- ul: FR2 B 5- lb: B−1

6- rb: B 7- rf: R2 B 8- lf: F−1 D2 B2
9- db: B2 10- dr: DB2 11- df: D2 B2
12- dl: D−1 B2

Note none of these moves involve the Up or Left face, thus it will not disturb
the correctly placed edge cubie in the ul cubicle. If the cubie in the ub cubicle is
already correctly oriented then we can begin positioning the third Up face edge cubie,
if not we must first orient the edge cubie we just positioned into the ub cubicle. The
move we will use to change the orientation is B2 D−1 R−1 B. Again, this move does not
involve the Up or Left face so it will keep the already placed edge cubie in the ul
cubicle in its place. The move starts with B2 , which keeps the orientation the same
and moves the cubie in the ub cubicle to the db cubicle. Then the move D−1 moves
the cubie to the dr cubicle, followed by the move R−1 which moves the cubie to the
rb cubicle. Neither of those two twists affect the cubie’s orientation. Lastly is a move
of B, which moves the cubie from rb to the ub cubicle and changes the orientation,
as seen in Section 3. We now have a correctly oriented cubie in the correct position
of ub.
Next is the third edge cubie on the Up face. We need to make sure not to
disturb the other two already oriented cubies. Hold the Rubik’s Cube such that the
positioned edge pieces are in the ul and uf cubicles. We are going to be solving the
ub cubicle. The edge cubies in the ul and uf cubicles are already solved so the cubie
that belongs in ub cannot be in those positions and if the cubie is already in position
1, ub, then it can stay in the cubicle. If the cubie that belongs in the ub cubicle
is anywhere besides the lf cubicle, position 8, then the following listed steps can be
taken. Note of these moves can be verified by hand, doing the moves on the Rubik’s
Cube, or by composing the moves listed in the beginning of section 2.

18
 2- uf: RB 5- lb: B−1 6- rb: B
7- rf: R2 B 9- db: B2 10- dr:DB2
11- df: D2 B2 12- dl: D−1 B2

If the edge cubie is in the lf cubicle we must move a positioned edge cubie out of
its cubicle and then replace it because there is no way to move the cubie that needs
to go to ub without disturbing a correctly placed Up face edge cubie. To do this
we are going to perform the move F−1 D2 B2 F. This move twists the Front face once
counterclockwise so that the lf cubie moves to the fd cubicle. Then rotate the Down
face twice so that it brings the cubie to the db cubicle. Next rotate the Back face
twice which moves the cubie from bd to the ub cubicle, the desired position. Note
none of the previous moves affected the correctly positioned ul cubie but it did move
the correctly positioned uf cubie into the fl cubicle. To fix this, we do the last move
of a Front face counterclockwise twist which puts the cubie correctly positioned in
the ub cubicle again. Also notice that the counterclockwise twist does not affect the
ul or the ub cubicles.
Now that we have the edge cubie in the right position of ub with correctly
positioned edge cubies in the ul and uf cubicles, we can use the Back, Down, and
Right faces to correctly orient the third edge cubie, since moving those faces will not
affect the correctly oriented and positioned cubies in the ul and uf cubicles. We can
use the same move we used to orient the second edge cubie, B2 D−1 R−1 B, because
it does not involve the Up, Left, and Front faces. To see the justification and the
path the cubie takes, refer to the paragraph earlier about fixing the orientation of the
second edge cubie.
Placing the fourth edge cubie is a little more difficult because we have to be sure
not to displace any of the other three correctly placed edge cubies, and if we do we
need to replace them back into the same cubicle. Hold the Rubik’s Cube such that the
face without the correct cubie in the cubicle is the Front face, such that the cubicle
we are trying to get the cubie in is uf. If the desired cubie is already oriented on the
Front or Down face then the move is very simple. If the cubie is oriented correctly on
the Down face we need to simply rotate the Down face once, twice, or once counter
clockwise until it is on the front face in the fd cubicle. If the edge cubie is in position
9, db, rotate the Down face twice, if the cubie is in position 10, dr, rotate the Down
face once counterclockwise, if the edge cubie is in position 12, dl, rotate the Down
face once, and lastly if the edge cubie is in position 11, df, it can stay there. Note
that a Down face twist does not affect any of the properly placed edge cubies on the
Up face. With the correct cubie in the fd cubicle in the right orientation we can twist
the Front face twice such that the cubie ends up in the uf cubicle. The only edge
cubie that the front twist move affects is the uf cubie, thus the rest of the properly
placed cubicles will remain in place. If the edge cubie is on the Front face, properly
oriented, then the moves are as follows: if the edge cubie is in position 7, rf, rotate

19
the Front face once counterclockwise, if the cubie is in position 8, lf, rotate the Front
face once, if the edge cubie is in position 11, df, rotate the Front face twice, and lastly
if the edge cubie is in position 3, uf, it can stay there.
If the properly oriented edge cubie is on one of the edge cubicles not on the Down
or the Front face (note- the edge cubie cannot be in any of the other Up face cubicles
besides the uf cubicle because then it would be one of the already properly placed
edge cubies), then we have one extra step. If the edge cubie is in the rb or lb cubicle,
position 6 and 7, then we must get the cubie onto the Down face. Once we get the
cubie into the down face we can follow the steps mentioned in the previous paragraph
about what to do what the cubie is on the Down face. In order to get this edge cubie
onto the Down face we are going to have to displace the properly placed edge cubie in
the ub cubicle, and then reposition it again. If the edge cubie we want to move is in
the rb position then twist the Back face once counterclockwise, moving the desired
cubicle to the db cubicle, then rotate the Down face twice, which will move the cubie
we need to get to the fd cubicle. During those two moves the cubie in the ub cubicle
was moved to the rb cubicle during the Back counterclockwise twist and then kept
there during the Down face twist. Thus the final move is a clockwise twist of the
Back face and we have the cubie correctly positioned in the ub cubicle again. The
process is exactly the same for if the cubie we are moving to uf position is in the lb
cubicle with the exception that we start with one twist of the Back face and end with
one counterclockwise twist of the Back face. Now you will have your cubie in the fd
cubicle and it can be moved to the uf cubicle by two twists of the Front face. If the
fourth edge cubie is in the wrong orientation then we have a couple of extra moves
we must execute.
If the last edge cubie we need to move to the uf cubicle is oriented incorrectly
then our first goal is to get the cubie into one of the Front face cubicles. If the cubie
is already on the Front face we can skip this step. If the edge cubie is on the Down
face then we can move the edge cubie to the Front face into the df cubicle. In the
same way we would move the cubie if it were oriented correctly, when the edge cubie
is in position 9, db, rotate the Down face twice, when the cubie is in position 10,
dr, rotate the Down face once counterclockwise, when the edge cubie is in position
12, dl, rotate the Down face once, and lastly when the edge cubie is in position 11,
df, it can stay there. Note that a twist of the Down face does not disturb any of the
properly placed edge cubies on the Up face. However, if the edge cubie is on one of
the edge cubicles not on the Down or the Front face, then we have to do the same
step described in the previous paragraph. If the edge cubie is in the rb or lb cubicle
then we must get the cubie onto the Down face so we can follow the steps mentioned
in the beginning of this paragraph. As mentioned before, in order to get this edge
cubie onto the Down face we are going to have to displace the properly placed edge
cubie in the ub cubicle, and then reposition it again. If the edge cubie we want to
move is in the rb position then twist the Back face once counterclockwise, moving

20
the desired cubicle to the db cubicle, then rotate the Down face twice, which will
move the cubie we need to the fd cubicle. During those two moves the cubie in the
ub cubicle was moved to the rb cubicle during the Back counterclockwise twist and
then kept there during the Down face twist. Thus the final move is a clockwise twist
of the Back face and we have the cubie correctly positioned in the ub cubicle again.
As said previously, the process is exactly the same for if the cubie we are moving
to uf position is in the lb cubicle with the exception that we start with a twist of
the Back face and end with a counterclockwise twist of the Back face. Now that we
have discussed how to get the unoriented cubie into a Front face edge cubicle we can
now talk about how to orient that cubie and move it to the uf cubicle. With the
desired cubie unoriented on the Front face it will be in one of three positions, the uf
cubicle, the fd cubicle, or the fl/fr cubicles, and they all have different moves that
will position them in the correct orientation in the uf cubicle.

1. Edge Cubie unoriented in the uf cubicle

With the unoriented cubie in the uf cubicle we can perform the move
FU−1 RU to get the cubie with the correct orientation back into the uf cubicle.
In Table 2 in the Appendix it is shown that none of the other Up face edge
cubies are affected by this move in their position or orientation (they are y1 , y2 ,
and y4 ). Also we see that it changes the orientation of uf (y3 ) and puts it back
into the uf cubicle. Table 2 also shows where each cubie moves to during each
twist of the move.

2. Edge Cubie unoriented in the fd cubicle

If the unoriented edge cubie is in the fd cubicle we can perform the move
F R−1 D−1 RF2 to get the cubie into the uf cubicle. Looking at Table 3 we see
−1

that none of the other Up face edge cubies are affected by this move in their
position or orientation. Also we see that it changes the orientation of fd (y11 )
and moves it to the uf cubicle.

3. Edge Cubie unoriented in the fl or fr cubicle

If the cubie is in the fl cubicle rotate the Front face twice such that the
cubie is in the fr spot. This does not affect any of the other three edge cubies
because none of them share a face with the Front Face. Also, the rotation of
the front face twice does not affect the orientation of the cubie now in the fr
cubicle. With the unoriented cubie in the fr cubicle we can perform the move
R−1 D−1 RF2 to get the cubie with the correct orientation in the uf cubicle. If
we take a look at Table 4 we see that none of the other Up face edge cubies
are affected by this move. Additionally, this move changes the orientation of fr
(y7 ) and puts it in the uf cubicle (y3 ).

21
 After completing the moves for either the oriented, or unoriented fourth edge
cubie we have completed the cross for the edge cubies on the Up face and we can now
begin to get the corners oriented and positioned on the Up face.
With the edge cubies forming a cross on the Up face we can look to place the
correct corner cubies in the Up face cubicles. We will be using the move DRD−1 R−1 ,
or [D,R]. It is interesting to note that commutators are used in conjunction with other
face twists as we find more and more moves to continue to solve the Rubik’s Cube.
Let’s take a look at what this move does in Table 1 (see the beginning of Section 4).
When we use this commutator it keeps three of the top corner cubies in their place,
in the same orientation, and switches 3 and 8, which is dbr and ubr. Note that it
does not change the orientation of any of the edge cubies on the Up face so the edge
cubies that we just properly positioned will stay in place. Now that we know the
move that we will use and what corner faces they will switch, dbr and ubr, we need
to look at the two possible configurations we will come across and how to rearrange
them.
The first possible configuration we will have is if the corner cubie we need to
position is on the Down face. If this is the case, hold the cubie such that the cubicle
we need to move the cubie into is in the ubr cubicle, position 3 by the definition
of σ, then twist the Down face either once, twice, once counter clockwise, or don’t
twist it at all, such that we end up with the cubie we are moving in the dbr cubicle.
If the cubie we need to move is in position 5, dbl, then twist the Down face once
counterclockwise, if the cubie is in position 6, dlf, then twist the Down face twice,
if the cubie is in position 8, dfr, then twist the Down face once clockwise, and if
the cubie is in position 8, dbr, then keep the cubie where it is. Then depending on
the orientation of the cubie we will need to perform [D, R] either once, twice, or five
times. This is because if we are trying to switch move the cubie from dbr and move
it to the ubr cubicle, the first time you perform the move it will switch these two
cubies and change their cubicle position. If the move is done a second time then the
two cubies will switch again moving the cubie that started in the dbr cubicle to be
placed back in the dbr cubicle. Thus if the move is done a third time the cubie in
dbr will then be in the ubr cubicle. The same arguement can be made to show this
is why the dbr cubie ends up in the correct cubicle of ubr on the fifth iteration of the
move [D,R]. Note there are three different orientations of the cubie and the move [D,
R] switches x8 , dbr, and x3 , ubr, every time, changing the orientation by two twists.
If you refer back to Table 1, it is verified that x8 and x3 switch positions and change
by an orientation of -1, or two twist. Thus, depending on the orientation we require
the correct orientation will occur during either the first, second, or third time the
cubie gets into the correct cubicle. And the cubie is moved into the correct cubicle
during the first, third, and fifth iterations of the move [D, R].
The second possible configuration we will have is if the corner cubie we need to
position is already on the Up face, either in or not in the right position. What we

22
want to do is get that cubie onto the Down face and then make the same move we just
discussed when the cubie starts on the Down face. With the cubie on the Up face,
in position 1-4, or cubicles ufl, urf, ubr or ulb, hold the Rubik’s Cube such that
the cubie we need to move is in the ubr cubicle. Then use the [D, R] commutator to
move that cubie to the dbr cubicle. Then follow the move instructions for when the
cubie we need is on the Down face, as addressed above.
Repeat this process for each of the four corner cubies we need to place in the
Up face of the Rubik’s cube. As noted before, repeating this process for each corner
cubie will not affect the rest of the Up face cubies because the only Up face cubie
that is affected is ubr, which is the one you are working with to switch with dbr.
Once all of the Up face cubies are placed we are done with the first layer and we can
move onto solving the middle layer edge cubies on the Front, Right, Back, and Left
faces.

4.2 Stage 2- Middle Layer

The goal for solving the middle layer is to get all of the middle layer edge pieces
of the Front, Left, Back, and Right faces into the right position with the correct
orientation. Some of the edge pieces might already be in the correct position and
orientation and this works to our advantage because it means less moves in order to
complete the Cube. We will see that the moves we preform in this layer will only
affect the middle edge cubie we want to change- not any other edge cubies in that
middle layer. Thus, we do not have to worry about possibly switching around already
correctly placed middle layer edge cubies. It is also important to note that none of
these moves will affect the top layer (if done correctly). As we work down the layers
of the Rubik’s Cube more cubies are moved to the correct cubicles, which gives us
longer, more complicated moves since we have less cubies that we can disturb without
consequence.
There are two possible positions for where the edge cubie needed in the middle
layer could start: on the Down face or in the wrong cubicle or orientation in the
middle layer. If it is in the Down face we need only move the edge cubie from the
Down face to the correct cubicle in the middle layer. If it is in the middle layer
already, in the incorrect cubicle, we must first get the cubie to the Down face and
then preform a move to get it back to the correct cubicle in the middle layer.

1. Edge Cubies on the Down Face

If you have an edge cubie on the Down face, one of the edge cubie faces
will be on the Down face and the other will be on either the Front, Right, Back,
or Left face. The first step is to get the color that is on the Front, Right, Back
or Left face directly under the corresponding matching middle cubie color, as
seen in the figure below, where the Down edge cubie matches the same color as

23
the middle cubie on that face. The color on the Down face of this edge cubie
must match the color of the face to the left or right of the face the edge cubie is
on. At this point the cubie needs to go to the cubicle on the left of the middle
cubie or to the cubicle right of the middle cubie, as seen in the figure below.
For instance if we are looking at the Front face, the edge cubie in the fd cubicle
must either move to the fr cubicle or the fl cubicle, depending on the color on
the Down face. If the color on the Down face of the cubie matches the face to
the right then the edge cubie must go to the right, if not the cubie must go to
the left. When performing the following moves we are going to hold the Rubik’s
cube such that we are always trying to move the desired cubie to is the rf edge
cubicle. Thus, hold the Rubik’s cube so the matched up face (shown below) is
the Front face if you are moving the edge cubie to the right, which moves the
edge cubie we are working with from the fd cubicle to the fr cubicle. If the edge
cubie needs to be moved to the left, as shown in the figure, hold the Rubik’s
Cube such that the face shown below is the Right face where the edge cubie
needs to be moved from the rd cubicle to the fr cubicle.

If the cubie we are moving to must go to the right middle layer edge cubicle
of the face it is on, the cubie should be starting in the df cubicle. In order to
get the cubie from fd to fr we must perform the move D−1 R−1 DRDFD−1 F−1 ,
which equals [D−1 , R−1 ][DF]. Since this move switches the positions of fd and
fr, that is why we needed to rotate our whole Rubik’s Cube such that the cubie
we are moving is in the fd cubicle. We can see this in Table 5 where the only
two edge cubies this affects are in the positions 7 and 12, which are rf and df,
the two we are looking to switch. Also, note that it keeps the top layer corner
cubies in the same position and orientation as well so the first layer remains
intact.
If the cubie must go to the left middle layer edge cubicle of the face it
is on, the cubie should be starting in the dr cubicle. Then perform the move
DFD−1 F−1 D−1 R−1 DR, which equals [DF] [D−1 , R−1 ]. This move switches the
positions of rd and fr, which is why we to rotate our whole Rubik’s Cube such
that the cubie we are moving is in the rd cubicle. In Table 6, note that the only
two edge cubies this affects are in the positions 9 and 12, which are rf and dr,
the two we need to switch. Again note that it keeps the Up Face corner cubies

24
 in the same position and orientation as well so the first layer remains intact.

2. Edge Cubies in the Middle Layer

If the cubie is already in the middle layer but in the wrong position then
either move from above can be used to get the edge cubie onto the bottom
layer. Make sure the Rubik’s Cube is held such that the cubie that desired
to be moved to the bottom layer is in the rf cubie, then either DFD−1 F−1
D−1 R−1 DR or D−1 R−1 DRDFD−1 F−1 can be used. These two moves are viable
options because, as mentioned before, the moves switch the cubie that is in the
rf cubicle to either the df or the dr cubicle, depending on which move chosen.
After the cubie is moved to the bottom layer, step 1 can be used to put the
edge cubie into its proper place

This process should be repeated for each of the four cubies that need to be moved
into the edge cubicles. After each of the middle edge cubies are placed we can solve
the bottom layer of the Rubik’s Cube.

4.3 Stage 3- Bottom Layer

We have finally reached the bottom layer. Fortunately, we are almost at our end
goal but unfortunately, that means are moves are more complicated and much longer
in order to not disturb all of the properly positioned and oriented cubies in the top
two layers. While turning the faces in this layer it is important to be precise and keep
track of all of the moves we are making. Some of these moves are very long sequences
and it is very easy to skip one or turn a face in the wrong direction.
In the same fashion as the top layer we are going to begin the bottom layer by
getting the edge cubies into a cross. After finishing the middle layer your Down face
will be in one of four positions: No edge cubies in the right orientation, one edge cubie
in the right orientation, two edge cubies in the right orientation on opposite faces, two
edge cubies in the right orientation on adjacent faces, or all four cubies in the right
orientation. The figure below, provided by Raymond Trans’ article [2], shows these
orientations and how they fall in respect to the Right and Front faces (this is because
we will be using the right and Front faces for the subsequent move). If all four edge
cubies already have the right position then we can move on to the next step, if not we
must perform a few moves first. If the cube is in one of the other three configurations
we will use the move RDFD−1 F−1 R−1 which is R[DF]R−1 . This move rotates the
Down face through the four configurations mentioned above. Note in Table 7 we see
that the top 4 corner cubies are kept in the same position and orientation (we do not
have to worry about the Down face corner cubies yet). Also observe that all of the
edge cubies are also left in the same position and orientation except for 3 of the Down
face edge cubies, y10 , y11 and y12 . If the cube is in the first configuration of no edge

25
cubies in the right orientation then this move must be performed 3 times to get to the
final configuration of all four cubies oriented, being held as the figures in the diagram
show with each R[DF]R−1 move. During the first move it does not matter how your
Rubik’s Cube is held, as long as the Bottom layer is the Down face. Once the Cube
is in the second configuration R[DF]R−1 needs to be performed twice more, hold the
Rubik’s Cube during the first iteration of R[DF]R−1 such that the edge cubies that
match the middle color are in the df and dl cubicles. Then you will either start, or
have performed the moves such that the Cube is in the third configureation and the
move R[DF]R−1 needs to be preformed once more. When you perform the move in
this position be sure to hold the cube such that the edge cubies that match the color
of the middle Down face cubie are in the dl and db cubicles. By doing this move
the desired amount of times it will result in the fourth configuration, where all of the
Down face edge cubies match the middle cubie color. Note that it is very important
to hold the Rubik’s Cube such that the Down face cubies are in the right position
in respect to the Front and Right faces, otherwise the fourth configuration will not
result.

Now that the Down face edge cubies have the right orientation, we have to get
them into the right position so they are lined up with the correct colors on the Front,
Left, Back, and Right faces. First rotate the Down face until at least one face has
an edge cubie lined up with the same color on one of the side faces (it will already
have the correct color on the down face since we just oriented them in the last step).
Note from an earlier exercise that D does not affect the orientations of any of the
edge cubies, only the positions of the Down face edge and corner cubies. Once you
have an edge cubie lined up with its side color call this face F, such that the lined up
edge cubie is in the df cubicle. Note, if you already have two adjacent faces where
the edge cubies lined up you can skip this step. With your positioned cubie on the
front face perform the move F−1 D−1 FD−1 F−1 (D−1 )2 FD−1 D−1 . Shown in Table 8,
this move does not affect any of the upper or middle corner and edge cubies in their
orientation or position. Also the orientation of all of the edge cubies stays the same,
which is exactly what we want since we have already oriented them and just need to

26
change their positions.
From that move, we should now have two adjacent sides in the right position as
well as the right orientation. When this is the case rotate your entire Rubik’s Cube
so one aligned edge is on the Back face, in the db cubicle, and the other is on the Left
face, in the dl cubicle. Then, with the edge cubies that are in the wrong position on
the Right and Left faces, perform the move D−1 R−1 D−1 RD−1 R−1 (D−1 )2 R. In Table
9, we see that the only edge cubies whose positions change are in the positions 10
and 11, which is dr and df, the two edge cubies out of position. Now we have all of
the edge cubies in the right position and orientation.
Next we can begin to look at the corner cubies on the Down face. If a corner
cubie is already in the correct position and oriented this next step is not necessary.
However, if all four corners are in the wrong positions and orientations an extra step
must be taken. The move R−1 DLD−1 RDL−1 D−1 must be performed if all four corners
cubies are in the wrong positions. As seen by Table 10, the position and orientation
of all of the edge cubies stay the same but the 4 Down face corner cubies all change
position and two change orientation. If for some reason doing this move once does
not result in a Down face corner cubie being in the correct orientation and position
then we can repeat this move until one does since, as seen in Table 10, the corner
cubies continue to move into different positions and orientations.
From this point forward, in order to minimize potential mistakes, flip the Rubik’s
Cube so the bottom layer, that still has unoriented cubies, is now the Up face, and
the other two solved layers are the bottom two layers. Thus, now we will have all
unsolved cubies on the Up face and we will be talking about the Up face cubicles
that we are moving the cubies into. Once we have at least one corner in the correct
orientation and position we need to look and see if the three remaining corner cubies
are in the correct positions. If they are already in the correct position (don’t worry
about orientations just yet) then this step can be skipped and we only have to worry
about finding the correct orientation. In order to get the other cubies into their correct
cubicles we will perform the move URU−1 L−1 UR−1 U−1 L with the already positioned
cubie starting in the urf or 2 corner cubie position. In Table 11 notice how 2 and
x2 , or urf stay in the same position and orientation, along with all of the Down face
corner cubies and all of the edge cubies in every layer. If all of the cubies are still not
in the correct position, perform the move again.
After getting all of the corner cubies in the right position and at least one corner
into the correct position on that layer, there are three different possible configurations
that the Rubik’s Cube could be in. It could have two adjacent unoriented corner
cubies, three unoriented corner cubies, or two unoriented corners opposite of each
other. The methods of reorienting the three different orientations of these final cubies
are very similar and explained below. It is important to note that in all 3 configuration
solutions the commutator of [R−1 , D−1 ] is used 6 or 12 times. Recall from an earlier
exercise that the commutator has an order of 6. This means that we are using the

27
commutator back to its original configuration where all of the rest of the cubies
we have already solved are all in the same spot. The specific moves in between the
commutator moves are utilized to reorient the needed unoriented corner cubies. Note,
we are still working with the unoriented corner cubies on the Up face of the Rubik’s
Cube. Let us look at the three different possible configuration solutions,

1. Two Adjacent Corner Cubies

In this configuration have the two unoriented cubies on the Up face, as stated
above, and in the cubicles urf and ufl for both of these cases.

(a) Case 1 The desired color needed on the Up face is in the 1 orientation
face for urf and ufl
If this is the case apply the move R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU−1 R−1 D−1
RD R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU which equals [R−1 , D−1 ]2 U−1 [ R−1 ,
D−1 ]4 U. This is a total of 6 commutators, which brings us back to the start-
ing orientation, paired with U and U−1 , which also brings us back to the
starting orientation. Since the whole move is combined of moves that only
result in the starting configuration this allows the move to keep the po-
sitions of the cubes the same while only changing the orientations. This
move changes the orientation of both of the cubies by two twists. By twist-
ing the orientation twice we move the colored faces from the 1 orientated
face to the 0 orientated face, or the Up face, giving us the whole correct
configuration of the Rubik’s Cube. This is proved in Table 12, where we
see that the only two aspects that are affected are the orientations of x1
and x2 , urf and ufl.
(b) Case 2 The desired color needed on the Up face is in the 2 orientation
face for urf and ufl
If this is the case apply the move R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RD
R−1 D−1 RDU−1 R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU which equals [ R−1 , D−1 ]4 U−1 [ R−1 ,
D−1 ]2 U. This move changes the orientation of both of the cubies by only
one twist. Because we switched where the U−1 move is, this changed the
end orientation by making the cubies twist one less time in their oriented
positions. By twisting the orientation only once this time we move the
colored faces from the 2 orientated face to the 0 orientated face, or the
Up face, resulting in the solved Rubik’s Cube. This is proved in Table 13,
where we see that the only two aspects that are affected are the orientations
of x1 and x2 , urf and ufl.

2. Three Corner Cubies

In this configuration have the three unoriented cubies on the Up face, as stated
above, and in the cubicles ubr, urf, and ufl for both cases.

28
 (a) Case 1 The desired color needed on the Up face is in the 1 orientation
face for ubr, urf, and ufl
When we begin this step with this orientation we want to apply the
move R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1
RDU, which equals [ R−1 , D−1 ]2 U[ R−1 , D−1 ]2 U2 [ R−1 , D−1 ]2 U. Again we
have have groups of moves that bring the cubies back to the same positions
they started in, the 6 [ R−1 , D−1 ] commutators and the 4 U moves. In Ta-
ble 14 we see that x1 , x2 , and x3 , or ubr, urf, and ufl, are twisted twice in
their orientations, resulting in a solved configuration of the Rubik’s Cube.
(b) Case 2 The desired color needed on the Up face is in the 2 orientation
face for ubr, urf, and ufl
If the Rubik’s Cube is in this configuration we must perform the
longest move mentioned in this project. For this configuration we must per-
form the move R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUR−1 D−1 R DR−1 D−1 RDR−1
R−1 D−1 RDU, which equals [ R−1 , D−1 ]4 U[ R−1 , D−1 ]4 U2 [ R−1 , D−1 ]4 U.
This move is also different from the rest of these end moves because it has
12 [ R−1 , D−1 ] commutators instead of 6. This still brings the cubies back
to their starting configuration because 12 is a multiple of 6. In Table 15
and 16 (the moves had to be separated in order to be more easily read)
we see that x1 , x2 , and x3 , or ubr, urf, and ufl, are twisted once in their
orientations, resulting in a completed Rubik’s Cube.

3. Two Opposite Corner Cubies

In this configuration have the two unoriented cubies on the Up face, as
stated above, and in the cubicles urb and ufl. Given this configuration we can
apply the move UR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RD
R−1 D−1 RDU, which equals U[ R−1 , D−1 ]2 U2 [ R−1 , D−1 ]4 U. Note again that we
have groups of moves that bring the cubies back to the same positions they
started in, the 6 [ R−1 , D−1 ] commutators and the 4 U moves. Thus in this
move we are only affecting the orientation, not the position. As we can see in
Table 17, this move only changes the orientation of x1 and x3 , or urb and ufl.
Thus, using this move we can change just those two cubies orientations by one
twist, giving us the desired solved configuration of the Rubik’s Cube.

29
5 Bibliography

References
[1] Janet Chen. Group Theory and the Rubik’s Cube.

[2] Raymond Tran A Mathematical Approach To Solving Rubik’s Cube.

UBC Math308 – Fall 200.

30
6 Appendix

Table 2: FU−1 RU
−1
σ F U R U x F U−1 R U
1 6 4 4 2 0 1 0 0 2
2 1 6 2 6 0 2 1 2 3
3 3 1 6 3 0 0 2 3 0
4 4 3 3 4 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
6 7 7 7 7 0 2 2 2 2
7 2 2 8 8 0 1 1 2 2
8 8 8 1 1 0 0 0 3 3
τ y
1 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 8 3 2 0 0 1 1 0
3 8 4 4 3 0 1 0 0 1
4 4 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 6 8 8 0 0 0 1 1
7 3 3 10 10 0 1 1 0 0
8 11 11 11 11 0 1 1 1 1
9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0
10 10 10 6 6 0 0 0 0 0
11 7 7 7 7 0 1 1 1 1
12 12 12 12 12 0 0 0 0 0

31
 Table 3: F−1 R−1 D−1 RFF
σ F−1 R−1 D−1 R F F x F−1 R−1 D−1 R F F
1 2 2 2 2 7 5 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -1 5
2 7 3 3 6 2 7 0 -1 -2 -2 -3 0 1
3 3 8 8 3 3 3 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 -1
6 1 1 7 7 5 6 0 -1 -1 -2 -2 4 0
7 6 7 6 5 6 2 0 -2 -2 -4 2 -2 1
8 8 6 5 8 8 8 0 0 -4 0 0 0 0
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 6 6 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 7 7 7 7 3 11 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 10 10 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 11 2 2 9 7 3 0 -1 0 0 0 0 1
8 3 3 3 3 11 9 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 2
9 9 9 12 12 12 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 10 11 9 10 10 10 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0
11 8 8 11 11 9 7 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
12 12 12 8 8 8 8 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 -1

32
 Table 4: R−1 D−1 RFF
σ R−1 D−1 R F F x R−1 D−1 R F F
1 1 1 1 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 5
2 3 3 7 1 2 0 -2 -2 -1 2 2
3 8 8 3 3 3 0 -1 -1 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 2 2 5 7 0 0 -1 -1 4 2
7 2 7 5 7 1 0 -1 -2 2 0 3
8 7 5 8 8 8 0 -2 0 0 0 0
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 6 6 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 8 7 0 0 0 0 1 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 10 10 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 2 2 9 3 8 0 0 0 0 1 0
8 8 8 8 7 9 0 0 0 0 1 0
9 9 12 12 12 12 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 7 9 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 11 7 7 9 3 0 0 0 0 1 0
12 12 11 11 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 0

33
 Table 5: D−1 R−1 DRDFD−1 F−1
−1 −1
σ D R D R D F D−1 F−1 x D−1 R−1 D R D F D−1 F−1
1 1 1 1 1 1 8 8 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 0
2 2 3 3 7 7 1 1 2 0 0 -2 -2 1 1 2 2 0
3 3 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 6 6 8 8 5 5 6 6 0 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 2 2
6 7 7 6 6 8 6 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 -2 2 2 -2
7 8 2 7 2 6 7 2 7 0 0 -1 0 1 0 2 1 0
8 5 8 2 5 2 2 5 5 0 0 -2 -1 0 1 1 0 0
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 6 6 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 3 3 8 8 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 9 9 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 2 2 10 10 3 3 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 -1
8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
9 12 12 7 7 9 9 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 9 7 10 9 11 11 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 10 10 11 11 12 10 11 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
12 11 11 12 12 7 7 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

34
 Table 6: DFD−1 F−1 D−1 R−1 DR
−1 −1
σ D F D F D−1 R−1 D R x D F D−1 F−1 D−1 R−1 D R
1 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 1 1 7 7 3 3 2 0 0 2 2 -1 -1 -2 -2 0
3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 8 8 6 6 5 5 8 8 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 -2 -2
6 5 6 2 5 2 2 5 5 0 0 2 1 0 -1 -1 0 0
7 6 2 7 2 8 7 2 7 0 0 1 0 -1 0 -2 -1 0
8 7 7 8 8 6 8 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 2 -2 -2 2
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 8 8 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 3 3 11 11 2 2 10 0 0 1 1 -1 -1 0 0 0
8 8 12 12 8 8 8 8 8 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
9 10 10 9 9 7 7 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 -1 -1
10 11 11 10 10 9 11 10 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0
11 12 7 11 12 10 10 12 12 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 9 9 7 7 12 12 7 7 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

35
 Table 7: RDFD−1 F−1 R−1
σ R D F D−1 F−1 R−1 x R D F D−1 F−1 R−1
1 1 1 5 5 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
2 7 7 1 1 8 2 0 1 1 2 2 1 0
3 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2 2 2 2 2 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 3 3 6 6 6 0 0 1 1 2 2 2
6 6 5 6 7 5 5 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
7 8 6 7 8 7 8 0 2 0 2 2 0 0
8 3 8 8 3 3 7 0 1 2 2 1 1 -2
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 7 7 7 7 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 8 8 3 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 2 2 2 2 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 10 10 3 3 11 7 0 0 0 1 1 -1 0
8 8 8 12 12 8 8 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
9 9 6 6 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 6 11 11 6 6 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1
11 11 12 10 11 12 12 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
12 12 9 9 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

36
 Table 8: F−1 D−1 FD−1 F−1 (D−1 )2 FD−1 D−1
σ F−1 D−1 F D−1 F−1 D−1 D−1 F D−1 x F−1 D−1 F D−1 F−1 D−1 D−1 F D−1
1 2 2 6 6 2 2 2 1 1 0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 0 0
2 7 7 2 2 5 5 5 2 2 0 -1 -1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 0 0
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 1 1 8 8 6 7 7 8 0 0 -1 -1 2 2 -2 -2 -2 4
6 1 6 8 7 6 7 1 8 5 0 -1 -2 2 0 -2 -2 -1 4 0
7 6 8 7 5 7 1 8 5 6 0 -2 0 0 0 -2 -1 2 0 -2
8 8 5 5 1 1 8 6 6 7 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 2 -2 -2 -2
τ y

37
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 7 7 3 3 7 7 7 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 11 11 7 7 9 9 9 7 7 0 -1 -1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 0 0
8 3 3 10 10 3 3 3 8 8 0 -1 -1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 0 0
9 9 12 12 8 8 11 10 10 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 10 9 9 12 12 8 11 11 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 8 10 11 9 10 12 8 9 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 12 8 8 11 11 10 12 12 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Table 9: D−1 R−1 D−1 RD−1 R−1 (D−1 )2 R
σ D-̂1 R-̂1 D-̂1 R D-̂1 R-̂1 D-̂1 D-̂1 R x D-̂1 R-̂1 D-̂1 R D-̂1 R-̂1 D-̂1 D-̂1 R
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 3 3 8 8 3 3 3 2 0 0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 0
3 3 5 5 3 3 7 7 7 3 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 6 6 7 7 2 2 6 8 8 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 2 -2 -2
6 7 7 2 2 6 6 8 5 5 0 0 0 -1 -1 2 2 -2 -2 -2
7 8 2 8 6 5 8 5 2 6 0 0 -1 -2 2 0 -2 -2 -1 4
8 5 8 6 5 7 5 2 6 7 0 0 -2 0 0 0 -2 -1 2 0
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 9 9 6 6 11 11 11 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 2 2 12 12 2 2 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 12 12 11 11 10 10 7 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 9 7 12 9 11 12 10 7 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 10 10 7 7 9 9 12 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 11 11 10 10 7 7 9 12 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

38
 Table 10: R−1 DLD−1 RDL−1 D−1
−1 −1
σ R D L D R D L−1 D−1 x R−1 D L D−1 R D L−1 D−1
1 1 1 4 4 4 4 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0
2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 0 0
3 8 8 8 8 3 3 3 3 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 7 7 7 7 4 4 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0
5 5 7 5 1 1 8 7 8 0 0 -2 2 1 1 0 -2 -2
6 6 5 1 6 6 1 8 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 -2 0
7 2 6 6 2 5 6 6 5 0 -1 0 0 -1 4 0 0 4
8 7 2 2 5 8 5 5 7 0 -2 -1 -1 2 0 4 4 -2
τ y
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 9 9 9 9 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 10 10 10 10 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 2 2 2 2 7 7 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 8 8 4 4 4 4 8 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 9 7 7 8 8 10 10 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 7 11 11 7 10 11 11 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 12 9 8 12 12 8 9 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

39
 Table 11: URU−1 L−1 UR−1 U−1 L
−1 −1
σ U R U L U R−1 U−1 L x U R U−1 L−1 U R−1 U−1 L
1 2 2 1 6 2 2 6 4 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 -1 2
2 3 7 2 2 7 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 -4 0 0
3 4 3 7 7 1 4 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 -2 0 -4 -4
4 1 1 3 1 6 6 4 3 0 0 0 2 -2 -1 -1 0 2
5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 5 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 0
7 7 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0
8 8 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
τ y
1 4 4 7 7 8 8 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 7 2 2 7 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 3 3 4 8 3 3 8 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 1 1 1 1 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 10 10 10 10 7 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 8 8 8 12 12 12 12 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 10 6 6 6 6 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 12 12 12 5 5 5 5 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

40
Table 12: R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU−1 R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU
σ R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U−1 R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2
3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4
5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 7
8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 8
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4
0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 -4 -4 -3 -3 -4 -4 -2 -2 -4 -4 -5 -5 -4 -4 -4 -4 -2
0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 0 0 -2 1 1 -2 -2 3 3 -2 -2 3 3 -2 -2 5 5 -2 -2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 6 6
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -4 -4 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
0 -1 -2 2 -1 -2 -3 2 -2 -2 -1 -4 4 -1 -4 -3 4 -4 -3 -6 6 -3 -6 -5 6 -6 -6
0 -2 0 0 2 -3 0 2 2 2 -4 2 2 4 -3 2 4 4 -6 4 4 6 -5 4 6 6 6
τ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 6
7 2 2 9 9 2 2 10 10 10 3 3 7 7 3 3 9 9 3 3 10 10 3 3 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 10
11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

41
Table 13: R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU−1 R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU
σ R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U−1 R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2
3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4
5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 7
8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 8
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2
0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -2 -2 -4 -4 0 -6 -6 -5 -5 -6 -6 -2 -2 -4
0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 3 0 0 -4 3 3 -4 -4 5 5 -4 -4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 6 6
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 -4 -4 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
0 -1 -2 2 -1 -2 -3 2 -2 -3 -4 4 -3 -4 -5 4 -4 -4 -1 -6 6 -1 -6 -3 6 -6 -6
0 -2 0 0 2 -3 0 2 2 -4 2 2 4 -5 2 4 4 4 -6 4 4 6 -3 4 6 6 6
τ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 6
7 2 2 9 9 2 2 10 10 2 2 7 7 2 2 9 9 9 3 3 10 10 3 3 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 10
11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

42
Table 14: R−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU
σ R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 7 7 4 4 3 3 4 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2
3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 4 8 8 4 4 5 5 4 4 1 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4
5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 3 3 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 7 3 7 5 3 7 3 8 7 7 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 7
8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 8 7 5 8 5 3 8 5 8 8 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 8
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2
0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 -2 -2 -3 -3 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 -4 -4 -5 -5 -4 -4 -2 -2 -2
0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 -2 3 3 -2 -2 5 5 -2 -2 -2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 6 6
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -4 -4 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
0 -1 -2 2 -1 -2 -3 2 -2 -2 -1 -4 4 -1 -4 -3 4 -4 -4 -4 -1 -6 6 -1 -6 -3 6 -6 -6
0 -2 0 0 2 -3 0 2 2 2 -4 2 2 4 -3 2 4 4 4 4 -6 4 4 6 -3 4 6 6 6
τ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 1 6 6 1 1 6 6 1 1 4 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 6
7 2 2 9 9 2 2 10 10 10 1 1 7 7 1 1 9 9 9 9 3 3 10 10 3 3 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 7 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 10
11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

43
 Table 15: (R−1 D−1 RD)4 U(R−1 D−1 RD)4 UU(R−1 D−1 RD)4 U
−1 −1
σ R D R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 3 3 7 7 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 7 7 4 4 3 3 4
3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 8 8 3 3 5 5 3 3 4 8 8 4 4 5 5 4 4 8
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 2 2 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 3 3 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 2 7 5 2 7 2 8 7 7 3 7 5 3 7 3 8 7 3
8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 7 5 8 5 2 8 5 8 8 7 5 8 5 3 8 5 8 7
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -2 -2 -4 -4 0 -2 -2 -5 -5 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 5 5 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 6 6
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 -4 -4 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
0 -1 -2 2 -1 -2 -3 2 -2 -3 -4 4 -3 -4 -5 4 -4 -4 -1 -6 6 -1 -6 -3 6 -6 -3
0 -2 0 0 2 -3 0 2 2 -4 2 2 4 -5 2 4 4 4 -6 4 4 6 -3 4 6 6 -8
τ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2 1 6 6 1 1 6 6 1 1 6
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 10
7 2 2 9 9 2 2 10 10 2 2 7 7 2 2 9 9 9 1 1 10 10 1 1 7 7 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7
11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

44
 Table 16: (R−1 D−1 RD)4 U(R−1 D−1 RD)4 UU(R−1 D−1 RD)4 U Continued
−1
σ D R D R−1 D−1 R D U U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
4 7 7 4 4 3 3 4 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2
8 4 4 5 5 4 4 1 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4
6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
3 3 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 5 3 7 3 8 7 7 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 7
5 8 5 3 8 5 8 8 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 8
x
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4
-2 -7 -7 -2 -2 -4 -4 0 0 -6 -6 -9 -9 -6 -6 -2 -2 -6 -6 -11 -11 -6 -6 -4 -4 -4
5 0 0 7 7 0 0 0 -4 7 7 -4 -4 9 9 -4 -4 9 9 -4 -4 11 11 -4 -4 -4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 0
0 0 6 6 0 0 8 8 8 8 0 0 8 8 0 0 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 0 12 12
-3 -3 0 0 -8 -8 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -10 -10 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 -12 -12 0 0
-8 8 -3 -8 -5 8 -8 -8 -8 -1 -10 10 -1 -10 -3 10 -10 -3 -12 12 -3 -12 -5 12 -12 -12
6 6 8 -5 6 8 8 8 8 -10 8 8 10 -3 8 10 10 -12 10 10 12 -5 10 12 12 12
τ
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
6 1 1 6 6 1 1 4 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
10 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 6
1 9 9 1 1 10 10 10 10 3 3 7 7 3 3 9 9 3 3 10 10 3 3 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
9 10 7 9 10 7 9 9 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 10
7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

45
Table 17: UR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDUUR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDR−1 D−1 RDU
σ U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U U R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D R−1 D−1 R D U
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
2 3 4 4 7 7 4 4 3 3 4 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2 2 7 7 2 2 1 1 2
3 4 8 8 4 4 5 5 4 4 1 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 8 8 2 2 5 5 2 2 3
4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4
5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 8 8 6 6 5 5
6 6 6 3 3 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6 1 1 6 6 7 7 6 6
7 7 3 7 5 3 7 3 8 7 7 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 1 7 5 1 7 1 8 7 7
8 8 7 5 8 5 3 8 5 8 8 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 7 5 8 5 1 8 5 8 8
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4
0 0 -2 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 -2 -2 -3 -3 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -5 -5 -2 -2 -4 -4 0
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 3 0 0 3 3 0 0 5 5 0 0 -2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 6 6
0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 -4 -4 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
0 0 -1 -2 2 -1 -2 -3 2 -2 -2 -2 -1 -4 4 -1 -4 -3 4 -4 -3 -6 6 -3 -6 -5 6 -6 -6
0 0 -2 0 0 2 -3 0 2 2 2 2 -4 2 2 4 -3 2 4 4 -6 4 4 6 -5 4 6 6 6
τ
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
2 1 6 6 1 1 6 6 1 1 4 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 6 6 3 3 2
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 9 9 6 6 10 10 6 6 7 7 6 6 9 9 6 6 6
7 7 1 1 9 9 1 1 10 10 10 10 3 3 7 7 3 3 9 9 3 3 10 10 3 3 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 7 7 12 12 9 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 7 7 12 12 9 9
10 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 9 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 7 9 10 10
11 11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 7 7 11 11 9 9 11 11 10 10 11 11
12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

46