Linear Equation
A linear equation is an equation in which the highest power of the variable
is always 1. It is also known as a one-degree equation.
The standard form of a linear equation in one variable is of the form Ax +
B = 0. Here, x is a variable, A is a coefficient and B is constant. The
standard form of a linear equation in two variables is of the form Ax + By =
C. Here, x and y are variables, A and B are coefficients and C is a constant.
A linear equation value when plotted on the graph forms a straight line.
The general form of a linear equation is ax + b = c, where a, b, c are
constants x and y are variables.
Non-Linear Equation
An equation in which the maximum degree of a term is 2 or more than two
is called a nonlinear equation.
The nonlinear equation values when plotted on the graph forms a curve.
The general form of a nonlinear equation is ax 2+by2=c, where a, b, c are
constants x and y are variables.
Example:
Roots of Function
Roots of Function
Bracketing Methods Open Methods System of Non-
linear equation
Simple Fixed-point
Bisection Method False Position Method
iteration
Secant Method
The Newton-Raphson
Method
System of Linear Simultaneous Equations
Direct Methods Indirect Method
(Exact Method) (Iterative Method)
Gauss Jacobian Method
Gauss’s Elimination Gauss’s Jordan Method
Method
Gauss-Seidel Method
[N.B. When calculating a trigonometric function use your calculator in radian
mode.]
Bracketing Method
The Bisection Method
Bisection Method is also known as Binary chopping, Interval halving,
Bolzano’s method.
Algorithm:
1. Write the given function
F(x) = 0
[N.B. x is the unknown property we have to determine.]
2. Choose xl, xu such that
f(xl) * f(xu) < 0
[N.B. xl and xu can be given or can be obtained by using graphical
method]
3. Define Root (xr),
xr = (xl + xu)/2
4. If f(xl)*f(xr) < 0
xu = xr
(Lower Sub Interval)
If f(xl)*f(xr) > 0
xl = xr
(Upper Sub Interval)
If f(xl)*f(xr) = 0
The root equals xr
5. For Approximate Percent Relative Error
6. For True Error
True Error = |True value – Approx. value| / True value
iteration xl xu F(xl) F(xu) xr F(xr) F(xl)*F(xr) Approx. True
Error Error
1
2
.
.
n
Calculator Equation:
A:B:C=(A+B)/2:D=(B-A)/(B+A):E= f (A) * f (B)
A = xl
B = xu
C = xr = (A+B)/2
D = Approx. Error = (B-A)/(B+A)
E = f (xl) * f (xr) = f (A) * f (B)
The False-Position Method
It is also called as Regular Falsi method.
1. Write the given function
F(x) = 0
[N.B. x is the unknown property we have to determine.]
2. Choose xl, xu such that
f(xl) * f(xu) < 0
[N.B. xl and xu can be given or can be obtained by using graphical
method]
3. Define Root (xr),
4. If f(xl)*f(xr) < 0
xu = xr
(Lower Sub Interval)
If f(xl)*f(xr) > 0
xl = xr
(Upper Sub Interval)
If f(xl)*f(xr) = 0
The root equals xr
5. For Approximate Percent Relative Error
6. For True Error
True Error = |True value – Approx. value| / True value
iteration xl xu F(xl) F(xu) xr F(xr) F(xl)*F(xr) Approx. True
Error Error
1
2
.
.
n
Calculator Equation:
A:B:C:D=(B-A)/(B+A):E= f (A) * f (B)
A = xl
B = xu
C = xr
D = Approx. Error = (B-A)/(B+A)
E = f (xl) * f (xr) = f (A) * f (B)
Difference between bisection method and false positioning method
Bisection Method False Position Method
slow quick
easy Relatively hard
C= (a+b)/2 c = (af(b) – bf(a))/(f(b) – f(a))
Open Method
Simple fixed-point iteration
It is also called as single point iteration or one point iteration method.
Algorithm:
1. Write the given function
f(x) = 0
2. Get the equation of x and name it g(x)
g(x) = x
3. In g(x) put the value of x
For normal equation x = 0.5
For trigonometric/exponential/logarithmic equation x = 3.2
4. You get the value x 0
x0 = g(x)
5. Put the value x 0 in g(x) and you get the value of x 1
x1 = g(x0)
6. Put the value x 1 in g(x) and you get the value of x 2
x2 = g(x1)
7. Put the value x 2 in g(x) and you get the value of x 3
x3 = g(x2)
8. Put the value x i in g(x) and you get the value of x i+1
xi+1 = g(xi)
9. Stop when two values of Xi are close or equal or the given error is got
xi g(xi)
Calculator Equation:
A:A=f(A)
A = equation with x
The Newton-Raphson method
Algorithm:
1. Write the function
f(xn)
2. Find f ′(xn)
3. Find xl, xu so that f(xl)*f(xu) < 0 (0,1)
4. Continue with x0 = xl or x0 = xu
5. Suppose f(x l) is closer to zero. Let’s continue with x0 = xl
6. Find f(x0) and f ′(x0)
7. xn+1 = xn – f(xn)/f ′(xn)
8. Use the value of xn+1 for the next xn
9. Stop when two values of xn+1 are close or equal or the given error is got
Xn f(xn) f ′(xn) xn+1
Calculator Equation:
A:B=f (A):C= f ′(A):D=A – (B/C)
A = xn
B = f (xn) = f (A)
C = f ′(xn) = f ′(A)
D = xn+1 = xn – f(xn)/f ′(xn) = A – (B/C)
Secant Method
Algorithm:
1. Write the given function
f(x)
2. Choose X0, X1 such that
f(x0) * f(x1) < 0
3. Find x2, x3, x4, ….. , xn+1
4. Stop when two values of x n+1 are close or equal or the given error is got
System of Linear Simultaneous Equations
Direct Method
Gauss Elimination Method
Algorithm:
1. Write the given linear equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3
2. Matrix form
AX = B
3. Write the augmented matrix
C = A: B
4. Reduce the augmented matrix to echelon form using elementary row
transformations
5. Form the corresponding equations and by solving the equations get the
values of x, y and z
Gauss Jordan Method
Gauss Jordan Method is the modified form of Gauss Elimination Method.
Algorithm:
1. Write the given linear equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3
2. Matrix form
AX = B
3. Write the augmented matrix
C = A: B
4. Applying elementary row transformations to augmented matrix to
reduce coefficient matrix to unit matrix
5. Form the corresponding equations
x = d1
y = d2
z = d3
Indirect Method
Gauss Jacobian Method
This method is applicable to the system of equation in which leading
diagonal elements of coefficient matrix are dominant (large in magnitude) in
their respective rows.
Algorithm:
1. Write the equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3
2. Check if the diagonal dominance property is satisfied
| a11 | > | a12 | + | a13 |
| a22 | > | a21 | + | a23 |
| a33 | > | a31 | + | a32 |
3. Get x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y – a13z)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
4. Write x = x0, y = y0, z = z0
x = (b1 – a12y0 – a13z0)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x0 – a23z0)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x0 – a32y0)/a33
1. Put initial values of x 0, y0, z0 and if the initial value is not given then
put x0 = 0, y0 = 0, z0 = 0
5. Again, substituting these values of x, y, z, the next approximation is
obtained. The above iteration process is continued until two successive
approximations are equals.
iteration x y z
1 0 0 0
2 x1 y1 z1
3 x2 y2 z3
.
n
Calculator Equation:
X = equation with B, C
Y = equation with C, A
Z = equation with A, B
A:B:C:D=X:E=Y:F=Z
A=X
B=Y
C=Z
Gauss-Seidel method
This method is applicable to the system of equation in which leading
diagonal elements of coefficient matrix are dominant (large in magnitude) in
their respective rows.
Algorithm:
2. Write the equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3
3. Check if the diagonal dominance property is satisfied
| a11 | > | a12 | + | a13 |
| a22 | > | a21 | + | a23 |
| a33 | > | a31 | + | a32 |
4. Get x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y – a13z)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
5. Determine x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y0 – a13z0)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z0)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
6. Again, substituting these values of x, y, z, the next approximation is
obtained. The above iteration process is continued until two successive
approximations are equals.
iteration x y z
1 x 0 0
2 x1 y z
3 x2 y1 z3
.
n
Calculator Equation:
X = equation with B, C
Y = equation with C, A
Z = equation with A, B
A:B:C:A=X:B=Y:C=Z
A = X1
B = X2
C = X3
