Waves

1.1 Wave motion: - waves are oscillations that are propagated from a source. Waves carry energy but they do
not transfer matter. OR Distance produces in a medium propagate from one point to another point due to
repeated periodic motion of the particle of the medium about their mean position is called Wave e.g. stretched
string, violin string, drum etc produces waves.
The mechanism of propagation of mechanical (water) wave can be explained on the basis of properties of (a) Inertia
and (b) Elasticity.

to rest at A. At this point the restoring force is maximum and the work done against this force is converted into PE.
Due to PE the molecule starts returning back to its mean position and its velocity increases. When it reaches at O its
velocity becomes maximum now due to inertia of motion it over shoots up to point till its velocity reduces to zero
(At B). This results in the formation of elevation, which is again followed by a depression due to gravitation pull of
earth. Due to cohesive properties the disturbance is communicated to the neighboring particles of water, which also
being to execute periodic motion.
1.2 Types of waves: - There are various ways of classifying wave types.
One of these is based on the way the wave travels.
(a) Transverse Waves: - In a transverse wave, the displacement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction in
which the wave travels. An example of this type of wave is a mechanical wave projected along a tight string. The
string moves at right angles to the wave motion. Electromagnetic waves are another example of transverse waves.
The directions of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave motion.
(i) In transverse wave the
point of positive maximum
displacement from mean
position is called crest.
(ii) In transverse wave the
point of negative maximum
displacement from mean
position is called trough.
(b) Longitudinal Waves: - In
longitudinal waves the
disturbance takes place parallel to the wave
motion. A longitudinal wave consists of a
series of compressions and rarefactions (states
of maximum and minimum density and
pressure, respectively). Such waves are always
mechanical in nature and thus require a
medium through which to travel. Wave in a
spring and Sound waves are an example of
longitudinal waves.
(i) In longitudinal wave the region where the
particles comes close to a distance less than
their normal distance (crowded together) are
called compression. At this point pressure is
high and high density.
(ii) In longitudinal wave the region where the
particles move away to a distance greater than
their normal distance (Thinly distributed) are
called compression. At this point pressure is low and low density.
(1) Mechanical waves are those wave which require a medium to propagate e.g. sound wave
Longitudinal wave motion with which sound energy travels through a medium. It carries energy away from source
of the sound without carrying the material itself with it. Sound waves are mechanical; unlike e. m. waves, they
require vibration of their medium's molecules or particles, and this is why sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
(2) Electromagnetic waves are those which do not do not require material medium to propagate; they can travel
through a vacuum e.g. electromagnetic waves Oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling together through
space at a speed of nearly 300,000 km/186,000 mi per second. The (limitless) range of possible wavelengths and
frequencies of electromagnetic waves
1.3Properties of Mechanical Waves: - 1) In wave motion energy (disturbance) is propagated from one
point to another point to another point in the medium with transfer of the material medium. 2) There is no bodily
motion of the particles but the particle vibrates about their mean position. So in a wave energy and momentum
transferred. 3) The disturbance from one particle reaches to its next neighboring particle a little latter. 4) Velocity of
the vibrating particle (particle velocity) is different at different position and time but the wave velocity is constant
for a medium. 5) Displacement of a vibrating particle is zero over one complete vibration. 6) For propagation of a
wave motion the medium must posses properties of inertia & elasticity.
Wave Length: -The distance between two successive crests (or successive troughs) of the wave is called
wavelength. It is given the Greek symbol .
For longitudinal waves, the distance between two successive compression or rarefaction is called wave length
Frequency: - The frequency of the wave is the number of vibrations per second (v). Amplitude: - The maximum
displacement of the vibrating particle from mean position in wave is called the amplitude of the wave (A).
Time Period:-Time taken by a wave to complete one vibration(cycle) is called time period (T). Wave
Velocity: -The velocity with which the energy (disturbance) traveled through the medium is called wave velocity.
1.4 Wave Velocity Equation: -Consider a wave of frequency v & wave velocity v.

1.4Speed of Waves: -(a) Speed of wave in a string: -

(b) Speed of transverse Wave:-

(c) Speed of Longitudinal (sound) wave:-

[I] In solid: -

[II] In liquid & Gases: -

1.6Newton’s Formula for Velocity of Sound: -Since sound is longitudinal wave so velocity of
sound in air is ------------------------(1) Here B is bulk modulus &  density.
According to Newton propagation of sound in air is an isothermal process so temperature of air must remain
constant. Let initial pressure temperature & volume at a point in air is P, T & V. since T is constant, pressure
increases by p & volume decreases by v so applying Boyel`s law. P V = ( P + p )( V - v )
P V = P V -P v + p V - p v Since p< P & v < V so p v << hence neglecting p v

so 0 = - P v + p V  P v = p V so

But Bulk modulus of elasticity Comparing eq3 & eq2

B=P putting value in eq1 This is Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in air.
At N.T.P. for air  = 0.001293 gm/cm3 & P = 1.01  10 5 . Then Velocity
But the experimental value of velocity of sound in air at NTP is 33200 cm/sec. Newton was unable to explain the
error of 5200cm/sec.
Laplace correction: -A French scientist Laplace explained the reason for error. According to him
propagation of sound in air is an adiabatic process not isothermal as suggested by Newton. So from equation of state
of adiabatic. P V = (P + p )( V –v )

So Hence

Since p < P & v<V so hence neglecting small term.

Comparing eq3 &eq4 B = P --------------- (5)

Putting value in eq1 This is Laplase Formula for velocity of sound in air. For air  = 1.42

Velocity = which is quite correct.

Factor Affecting Velocity of Sound: -
{1} Effect of Temperature:-Since velocity of sound in air is directly proportional to P and according to Charles
law pressure P  T . So velocity of sound v 
Hence with increase in temperature the velocity increases & vice versa.

{2} Effect of Pressure:- From Boyel`s law P V = Constant.

Since m is a constant so
Therefore there is no effect (change) on velocity of sound due to change in pressure because as P increases density
also increases so that the P/ remain constant.
{3} Effect of Density:- Velocity v     so with increases in density of air velocity increases & vice versa.
{4} Effect of Humidity: -Water vapors (Humid air) have a density less than the density of dry air. Hence velocity
of sound in humid air is greater than the velocity in dry air &vice versa that is why we can hear distant sound in
rainy season.
{5} Effect of wind:-If wind is blowing along the direction of sound wave velocity of sound increases & vice versa.
1.7Wave Function: -The functions used to represent a moving wave pulse mathematically are called wave
function. It is a function of x & t. Let
by giving a jerk to one end of a
string. Wave pulse can be produce as
it passes through the string.
The disturb shape of the medium
(string) is called the Wave Profile.
The Wave Profile change with time,
hence the wave function is a function
of ‘x’ & ‘t’. Let at time t=0,
displacement of the particle Y = f (x). ------------(1)
If wave profile travels along positive x- axis, after time t, distance traveled by pulse = v ´ t.
Now distance of the particle at distance (x+vt) from the origin is also ‘y’. Hence it is function of x & t i.e.
y = f (x – v t) ---------(2)
For traveling along negative x axis y = f (x + v t) ---------(3)
In general y = y( x , t) = f (a x – b t)
If f signifies Sine or Cosine then the above wave function is called Harmonic Wave function.
Harmonic Wave: -When a wave travel through a medium the particle vibrates. If vibrations of the particle are
simple harmonic then the wave is called Harmonic Wave. Then the wave can be represented by sine or cosine
functions. If such a wave travels through the medium undamped & unobstructed &never comes back to the origin,
called a Plane Progressive Wave.
The general equation of a simple Harmonic Wave, traveling in the positive x direction is Y = f (x, y)

Displacement at time t is Where A is amplitude of the wave,  is

wave length, v is the velocity of the wave, and  is the initial phase angle i.e. phase difference at time t = 0
Equation for the Harmonic Wave: -From SHM displacement of a particle at any time ‘t’ is,
y = A sin (wt - )------------(1) Where x is path difference. But phase difference

& So ------------(2)
This is equation of a plane progressive simple Harmonic wave traveling along positive X-axis.

 => y = A sin k (v t – x) ------------(3)

Y= A Sin k (v t +x) (along -X axis)

From equation (1) Y = A Sin (wt –k x)---------(4)

Particle Velocity: -We know that velocity Putting the value of the equation 4

= A w Cos (t – k x) v = v0 Cos (t – k x) -------------(5)

Where velocity amplitude is defined as the maxi velocity of the particle. From equation (5),
we find that the particle velocity v varies with time. The velocity with
which the disturbance or energy is traveling in a medium is called wave velocity. It is constant in a medium.
Phase: - The argument of sine or cosine in the wave function is known as phase or phase angle‘ ’.
Phase is a physical quantity which gives us information of position , motion and direction of motion of the wave at
any instant of time.
The angle by which a wave is leading or lagging from another wave is called phase difference ().

or  = w t – k x &
Phase depends on x & t so phase change with distance phase difference ( x- path difference)
The distance by which a wave is leading or lagging from another wave is called path difference (x)
1.8 Super Position principle: - Two or more wave traveling in a medium such that each wave proceeds
independently, as if the other waves are absent. If these waves simultaneously overlap one another with out losing
their individual nature or shape it is called super position of the waves.
Statement:- “When two or more wave superpose on each other then the resultant displacement of the particle is
given by the algebraic sum of the displacement due to each wave “.
There will be no change in the shape and nature if the individual wave due to superposition.
If displacement of the waves are y1, y2, y3, y4, y5, -----------, y n
At any time ‘t ’ at any point then the resultant displacement y = y1 +y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 +---------------+ y n
If displacement in same direction for two waves then resultant displacement y = y1 + y2
If displacement are in the opposite direction to each other than y = y1 - y2
Superposition of the two waves gives rise to the interference, beats, stationary, waves etc. (Reflection also)
Interference: - When two waves of same length, same amplitude, and same frequency moving in the same
direction
superpose at a
point then
intensity of the
wave
(displacement of
the particle)
becomes maxi and
mini alternately.
This effect of
redistribution of
energy is known
as interference. If
displacement
becomes
maximum then it
is called
constructive
interference .If
displacement
becomes mini
then it is called destructive interference.
When two pulses traveling on a string meet each other, their amplitudes are added together to produce the shape of
the resulting pulse. If the pulses are identical, but travel on opposite sides of the string, then the sum of the
amplitudes is zero and the string will appear flat for an instant (A). This is called destructive interference. When the
two identical pulses travel on the same side of the string, the sum of the amplitudes is double the amplitude of a
single pulse when the pulses come together (B). This is called constructive interference .
Reflection of the waves- If a wave pulse traveling along the string along positive x direction whose one end is
fixed at
‘o’.
When
the
pulse
reaches
the rigid
support
at ‘o’, it
is

reflected back with inverted shape ’Q’. The reflected wave has the same speed as that of the incident wave
pulse but travels in the opposite direction. The change in the shape of the pulse at ‘o’ is not sudden but gradual.
The reflection of the wave from the rigid support can be explained on the basis of the principle of the super
position. Let the wave function of incident wave pulse Y = f (v t – x) -------------(1)
If o is origin and it is a rigid support so string does not move so the wave function is Y’ = f (v t) must be zero.
But the wave function given by the equation 1 never becomes zero at ‘o, so the given wave function cannot
represent the wave pulse correctly at all times i.e. Wave function is not complete.
 The correct wave function is y = f (v t – x) – f (v t + x) ------------(2)
If x = 0 then y = f(v t) - f(v t) = 0 Hence at o the displacement is zero
From the equation 2 and fig b we can assume that reflection of wave pulse is due to superposition of two waves
traveling in opposite direction with same velocity. When they meet at o, the resultant displacement becomes zero.
After reflection the wave will be inverted and travel in the opposite direction with same speed example: - Formation
of the echo by the sound
Reflection of Wave Pulses from a Boundary A wave pulse on a string is generated by a quick movement of a
hand and travels down the string towards the left (A). If the end of the string is free to move up and down at the
wall, the pulse will come back down the string on the same side (C1). If the string is tied to the wall, the pulse
will travel back along the string on the opposite side (C2). For the free end, the pulse will have twice the original
amplitude at the turnaround point (B1); for the fixed end, the pulse will have no amplitude at the turnaround point
(B2).
1.9 Stationary Waves: - the wave, which does not proceed in either direction through the medium, is called
stationary or standing wave. When two progressive waves of equal frequency and velocity
traveling in opposite direction along a straight line superimpose on each other, Stationary waves are produced .The
wave expands and shrinks but does not advance forward.
In the practice the standing wave are produced when a progressive wave and its reflected wave superpose
e.g. Stationary waves can be produced in a string, in an air column .The medium can vibrate in certain pattern with
one or more segments. These segments are called Normal modes.
In stationary wave some of the points of the medium of the medium always remain at their same position,
the points are called the nodes N. At this point displacement of the particles is minimum so the point is under
maximum strain hence change in pressure is maximum.(Density increases)
In stationary wave point vibrate with maximum amplitude are known as antinodes ‘A’. At this point
displacement is maximum so strain is minimum hence the change in then pressure is minimum (i.e. Zero)(Density
decreases). The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to /2.
Equations for the stationary waves(String and pipe close at one end) :- Consider a progressive
wave moving with the velocity ‘v’ along positive X-direction. At any time ‘t’ its displacement

---------(1) Where A= amplitude,  = wavelength.

After reflection from a rigid support the displacement of the reflected wave ------(2)
Stationary waves are produced due to superposition of the incident and the reflected wave.

the

equation for the stationary wave. Where R =- 2A Sin (2x/). is the amplitude of the
standing wave.
Graphical representation: -
t = 3T/4
 1.10 Stationary waves in a stretched string: - Consider a string of the length ‘l’ stretched between
the two rigid supports. If vibrations are produced in the string the harmonic waves set up in the string gets reflected
from the two rigid fixed ends. Due to superposition of the incident and reflected waves standing waves are produced
since both the ends are bound so they always remain at rest i.e. nodes are formed.

(1) Let one end is considered as x = 0, then displacement

Displacement Y = 0 i.e. nodes will be formed.

(2) At the other end x = L. System is bound so node will be formed when Y = 0.

It is possible when amplitude

It is only possible when Where n =1,2,3,4,- - - - - -

First mode of vibration: -Let n =1 then the vibration is called first mode of vibration . If 1 is the wavelength
& v1 is frequency of the stationary
wave in this case
1 = 2 L ----------(2)
Since L = 1 /2. Then the string will
vibrate in one segment. The end of
the string will always be node so there will be one antinode at the center & two nodes.
Frequency of the wave -------------(3)
This mode of vibration is called Fundamental mode. The minimum Frequency  1= v/2L with which the string can
vibrate is called Fundamental frequency. or Fundamental tone . Also known as First harmonic.
Since velocity of transverse wave in string So, .

Second mode of vibration: - Let n = 2 then the vibrations are called first mode of vibration. Corresponding
wavelength and frequency of the
stationary wave is 2 and 2.
From equation (1)
so 2 = L --------(4 )
So the string will vibrate in two
segments with 3 nodes and 2 antinodes,
it is called second mode of the vibration.
Frequency From eq3 ------- (5)
It is called first overtone since frequency is double to the fundamental frequency so also known as second harmonic.
In this mode 3 node & 2 antinodes formed.
Similarly for the third mode n =3 the vibrations are called third mode of vibration with 4 nodes & 3 antinodes.
Then frequency
It is called second overtone or third harmonic because the frequency is three times to the fundamental frequency. In
this mode the system vibrate in three segments with 4 nodes & 3 antinodes.
A general formula for n th mode of vibration. Frequency and wavelength .
It is called (n-1) th Overtone or n th Harmonics. Total (n+1) nodes & n antinodes
Distance of the nodes,

Distance of the antinodes

 1.11 Stationary waves in a pipe closed at one end: - Consider along pipe closed at end x = 0,
and open at x = L. when a progressive wave incident on closed end, due to superposition of incident and reflected
wave stationary waves are generated with displacement.

At the closed end x = o then

Since y = 0 i.e. node will form.
At the open end x = L the particles are free to vibrate so it will be antinodes.
It is only possible when amplitude 2A

It is only possible when So

First mode of the vibration: -If n =1 then it is called of the stationary waves of first mode. Wavelength &
frequency are  1 and  1
i.e. length of the pipe will be equal to one quarter of the wavelength of the waves.

1 = 4L -- -- -- -- --(3) Frequency of the sound -------------------(4)

This is the minimum frequency of the stationary waves produced in closed pipe. It is called Fundamental Frequency
or Fundamental Tone or First Harmonic.
Second mode of vibration: - If n =2 Wavelength of the second mode of the vibration 2
.This mode of the vibration L = 3 2/4

Length of the pipe will be equal to three quarter of the wavelength of the waves. 2 = 4L/3 --------(5)
Frequency of the waves
From eq4 ,  2 = 3( 1) ----------(6) It is called first Overtone.
This frequency is equal to thrice the fundamental frequency. So also called third Harmonic
Third mode of vibration: - Similarly for n = 3 3= 5 ( 1), It is called second
mode of vibration. Since frequency is five times to the fundamental frequency so it is also called fifth harmonic.
A general formula Frequency  n = (2n-1) It is called ( n-1 ) th

overtone or ( 2n-1 ) th Harmonic.  1:  2 :  3 :  4 :  5 -------------------- = 1:3:5:7:9-----------------------

Only odd harmonic are present. So closed pipe is not used in musical instruments.
1.12 Stationary waves in open pipe: -The progressive wave moving along the pipe suffers reflection at
the other end. The incident and reflected wave superimpose upon each other and give rise to Longitudinal
Stationary waves.
Consider a progressive wave moving with the velocity ‘v’ along positive X-direction. At any time ‘t’ its

displacement ---------(1) Where A= amplitude,  = wavelength.

After reflection from a rigid support the displacement of the reflected wave ---------(2)
Stationary waves are produced due to superposition of the incident and the reflected wave.
 is the equation for the stationary wave.
Where R =- 2A Cos (2x/) is the amplitude of stationary wave.

(1) Let one end is considered as x = 0, then displacement

Displacement Y = maximum i.e. antinodes will be formed.

(2) At the other end x = L. System is free to vibrate so antinodes will be formed
Y = maximum. It is possible when amplitude

It is only possible when

Where n =1,2,3,4,- - - - - -
Since both ends are open so antinodes will formed at the ends
(I) First mode of the vibration: - Only one node and two antinodes in this mode
So y
or 2 L = l1
So the frequency of the
vibration
-----(1)
It is called fundamental tone
or fundamental frequency or
first harmonic.
(II) Second mode of the
vibration: -In this mode 3
antinodes and 2 node. So

or L = l2
So the frequency

=> n 2 = 2 n 1 It is called the first over tone or the second Harmonic because frequency is twice as
compare to fundamental frequency.
(III) Third mode of vibration:-Similarly is for the third mode frequency n3= 5 (n 1), It is called the second over
tone or third Harmonic because frequency is thrice as compare to fundamental frequency.
\A general formula Frequency nn = nn 1 it is called (n-1) th overtone or n th harmonic
 1 :  2 :  3 :  4 :  5 -------------------- = 1:2:3:4:5-----------------------
1.13 Difference
Progressive Waves Stationary Waves
1. Velocity of wave depends on the properties of the 1. This wave remains stationary.
medium
2. Each particle of the medium executes periodic 2. All the particle except at node executes periodic
motion with same amplitude. motion with varying amplitude.
3. All the particles are in motion. 3.Particles at nodes are permanently at rest.
4.Phase is changed from particle to particle 4.Particle between two consecutive nodes are at same
 phase but differ by 180 from neighboring segment.
5.All particle of medium passes through their mean 5. All particle of the medium passes through their
position one after another with same maximum mean position at same time with different velocity
velocity. (maximum at antinodes & zero at nodes i.e.
minimum)
6.Particle of the medium undergo similar change in 6. Maximum change in pressure & density at nodes
pressure and density. but no change at antinodes.
7. Condensation and rarefaction traveled forward so as 7.Condensation & rarefaction do not traveled
to transfer the energy. forward; they appear & disappear at certain
equidistant points. There is no transferee of energy.
1.13 Beats: -When two harmonic wave of nearly same frequency and same amplitude moving along same
direction superimpose on each other due to redistribution alternate maxima & minimum sound heard this
phenomenon is known as beats.
The phenomenon of alternate waxing & waning of sound after regular interval due to superposition of two wave of
same amplitude & slightly different frequency moving in same direction is called beats.
The time interval between two successive maxima OR minima is called beat period T.
The number of beats (maxima or minima) heard per second is called beat frequency b =v1 – v2.
Where v1 & v2are frequency of the waves. b  because human ear can hear beats of frequency more then ten
due to persistence of hearing. So beats can not heard when beat frequency is greater than 10.
Mathematical Analysis:- let two progressive wave of same amplitude A having frequency moving v1 & v2 along
same direction. Their displacement at any instant of time t is
Y1 = A Sin 2 v1 t -----------------(1) and Y2 = A Sin 2 v2 t -----------------(2)
According to superposition of wave displacement of new wave Y = Y1 + Y 2
Y = A Sin 2 v1 t +A Sin2 v2 t so Y= A[ Sin 2 v1 t+Sin2 v2 t]

Y = [A Cos t ( v1 - v2) ] [Sin t( v1 + v2 )]

This eq represent harmonic wave of amplitude R = A [Cos t ( v1 - v2 )]
1) For Maxima: -For maxima the amplitude must be maximum & it is only possible when Cos t ( v1 - v2 ) =  1
t( v1 - v2 )] = n or second where n = 0,1,2,3,4 - - - - - - - -

a) n = 0 then at , the first maxima heard b) n = 1 then at

sec , the second maxima heard c) n = 2 then at sec, the third maxima heard

2) For Minima: - For minima the amplitude must be minimum & it is only possible when Cos t( v1 - v2 ) = 0
It is possible when  t ( v1 - v2 )] = (2n + 1 )/2 or second where n = 0,1,2,3,4 -

a) n = 1 then at sec, the first minima heard. b) n = 2 then at sec,

the second minima heard. c) n = 3 then at sec, the third minima heard.
Hence time between two maxima or minima is called beat period and it is same i.e. .

Since reciprocal of frequency is time period so v = 1 / T so beat frequency b= 1/t = ( v1 - v2 )

Application:- (1) Musician use the phenomenon for tuning (matching) the frequency of their instruments.
(2) Determination of the dangerous gases in mines.
(3)Determination of frequency v of unknown tuning fork. If this tuning fork sounded together with a tuning fork of
known frequency v1 beats of beat frequency b produces. Now there are two possibilities.
v - v1 = b => v= v1 + b OR v1 – v = b => v= v1 - b
Now one of the prongs of the tuning fork is loaded with wax so its frequency decreases. Now the tuning fork
sounded together & if beat frequency > b then correct frequency is v= v1 - b
If beat frequency < b then correct frequency is v= v1 + b
1.14Doppler`s Effect :- The apparent variation in frequency of any emitted wave, such as a wave of light
or sound, as the source of the wave approaches or moves away from an observer is called Doppler Effect. The
apparent change in frequency of sound due to relative motion source or observer is called Doppler effect.
The Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler, who first explains why, if a source of sound of a constant pitch
is moving towards an observer, the sound seems higher in pitch (i.e. frequency increases), whereas if the source is
moving away it seems lower (frequency decreases). An observer listening to the whistle of an express train from a
station platform or another train can hear this change in pitch.

Explanation:- When the source is approaching ,it is following by the waves already sent by it to the observer. This
result in crowding up of waves the waves reaches the ear in quicker succession than if the source is at rest hence
frequency appears to rise. The converse happens when the source is moving away from the observer.
Case-I Source is in motion but the observer at rest:-Consider a source of sound producing sound of wave length 
frequency v and velocity c. a) Source is Moving towards the stationary Observer with velocity a. Since waves
are crowded together so wavelength decreases. The operant wave length  = Relative velocity / frequency
 = (c – a)/v-------------- (1) So apparent frequency v = c /  = c /[(c – a)/ v]

b) Source is moving away from stationary observer with velocity a. Since waves move away from each other so
wavelength increases. The apperant wave length  = Relative velocity / frequency
 = [c –(- a)]/v = (c + a )/v ------ (2) So apparent frequency v = c /  = c /[(c + a)/ v]

Case-II Source is at rest & observer is in motion:-a) When observer is moving towards the stationary source
with velocity b. now the observer receive more number of wave in 1 sec. The wavelength remains same.
The apparent frequency v = v + dv = c / + b /  Because v = c / 
v =( c+ b) /  - - - -- - - - - - (3) But  = c / v

b) When observer is moving away from stationary source with velocity b. now the observer receive more
number of wave in 1 sec. The wavelength remains same.
The apparent frequency v = v - dv = c / - b /  Because c/  = v
But c / v =  v = (c – b) /  --- ----( 4 )
Case-III Both source & observer is moving along same direction:-(a) Source and observer are moving along
same direction along the sound. Due to motion of source toward observer wave length (decreases)
 = (c – a)/v (From eq1) (From eq4)
Since observer moving away so frequency (decreases) v = (c – b) / 

v = (c – b) / (c – a)/v
(b) Source and observer are moving along same direction opposite to the sound. Due to motion of source
moving away from observer wave length (increases)  = (c + a)/v (From eq2)
Since observer moving toward source so frequency (increases) v = (c + b) /  (From eq3)

v = (c + b) / (c + a)/v
Case-IV Both source & observer are moving opposite to each other:- (a) Source and observer are moving
towards each other. Due to motion of source toward observer wave length (decreases)  = (c – a)/v (From eq1)
Since observer moving towards observer so frequency (increases) v = (c + b) /  (From eq3)

v = (c + b) / (c – a)/v
(b) Source and observer are moving away from each other. Due to motion of source moving away from
observer wave length (increases)  = (c + a)/v (From eq2)
Since observer moving away from source so frequency (decreases) v = (c - b) /  (From eq4)

v = (c - b) / (c + a)/v
Case-V Effect of wind:-If wind is blowing with velocity w along direction of sound then c  c + w.
If wind is blowing with velocity w opposite to the direction of sound then c  c - w.
Application:-(1) TO DETERMINE SPEED OF STAR & GALAXY:- Let a star is moving away from earth with
velocity v , then from I- case frequency decreases or wavelength increases by  so electromagnetic spectrum
shifted towards higher side( i.e. toward red side) this is known as red shift.  = v  / c
(2) In radar & sonar to find speed of moving aero plane, wheacle & submarine
1.15 Acoustics:- The branch of the science in which we study the properties & phenomena of sound.
Sound is a physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. In human beings, hearing takes place
whenever vibrations of frequencies between about 20 and 20,000 hertz reach the inner ear. The hertz (Hz) is a unit
of frequency equaling one cycle per second. Sounds of frequencies higher than about 20,000 hertz are called
ultrasonic. Sounds of frequencies less than 20 hertz are called infrasonic. Music is the sound, which produces the
pleasant effect on the ears. Noise is a complex sound, a mixture of many different frequencies or notes not
harmonically related. The sound, which produces unpleasant effect on human ear, is called noise. Timbre:-
In music, the tone colour, or quality of tone, of a particular sound. Different instruments playing a note at the same
pitch have different sound qualities, and it is the timbre that enables the listener to distinguish the sound of, for
example, a trumpet from that of a violin. The tone quality of a sound depends on several things, including its
waveform, the strength of its harmonics, and its attack and its harmonics, and its attack and decay - the `shape´ of
the sound.