Network Interface Cards

Network interface cards (NICs) connect a device to the network. Ethernet NICs are used for a wired
connection, as shown in the figure, whereas wireless local area network (WLAN) NICs are used for
wireless. An end-user device may include one or both types of NICs. A network printer, for example, may
only have an Ethernet NIC, and therefore, must connect to the network using an Ethernet cable. Other
devices, such as tablets and smartphones, might only contain a WLAN NIC and must use a wireless
connection.

Wired Connection Using an Ethernet NIC

someone plugging an Ethernet cable into a laptop RJ45 port

Not all physical connections are equal, in terms of the performance level, when connecting to a
network.Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined
"code”. Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by both
the sender and the receiver. In other words, encoding is the method or pattern used to represent digital
information. This is similar to how Morse code encodes a message using a series of dots and dashes.

The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that represent the "1" and "0"
on the media. The way that bits are represented is called the signaling method. The physical layer
standards must define what type of signal represents a "1" and what type of signal represents a "0". This
can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical signal or optical pulse. For example, a long pulse
might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse might represent a 0.Which media uses patterns of microwaves
to represent bits?

Which media uses patterns of light to represent bits?

Which media uses electrical pulses to represent bits?

Which of these is the name for the capacity of a medium to carry data?

Which of these is a measure of the transfer of bits across the media?

Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. In fact, copper cabling is not
just one type of cable. There are three different types of copper cabling that are each used in specific
situations.
Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical
current. However, copper media is limited by distance and signal interference.

Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses. A detector in the network interface of a
destination device must receive a signal that can be successfully decoded to match the signal sent.
However, the farther the signal travels, the more it deteriorates. This is referred to as signal attenuation.
For this reason, all copper media must follow strict distance limitations as specified by the guiding
standards.

The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses are also susceptible to interference from two
sources:

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) - EMI and RFI signals can distort
and corrupt the data signals being carried by copper media. Potential sources of EMI and RFI include
radio waves and electromagnetic devices, such as fluorescent lights or electric motors.

Crosstalk - Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of a signal on one wire to
the signal in an adjacent wire. In telephone circuits, crosstalk can result in hearing part of another voice
conversation from an adjacent circuit. Specifically, when an electrical current flows through a wire, it
creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire, which can be picked up by an adjacent wire.

The figure shows how data transmission can be affected by interference.

The diagram is four graphs, each with voltage over time. The first graph shows square waves of a pure
digital signal and its binary equivalent, 1011001001101. The second graph is of an interference signal
with varying degrees of voltage. The third graph shows the digital signal with the interference. The
fourth graph shows how the computer reads the changed signal as the binary equivalent of
1011001011101 with the 5th bit from the right changed from a 0 to a 1.

1
1

0
1

Pure Digital SignalVoltageTimeInterference SignalVoltageTimeDigital Signal with

InterferenceVoltageTimeWhat the Computer ReadsChanged Signal

A pure digital signal is transmitted.

On the medium, there is an interference signal.

The digital signal is corrupted by the interference signal.

The receiving computer reads a changed signal. Notice that a 0 bit is now interpreted as a 1 bit.

To counter the negative effects of EMI and RFI, some types of copper cables are wrapped in metallic
shielding and require proper grounding connections.

To counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some types of copper cables have opposing circuit wire pairs
twisted together, which effectively cancels the crosstalk.
The susceptibility of copper cables to electronic noise can also be limited using these recommendations:

Selecting the cable type or category most suited to a given networking environment

Designing a cable infrastructure to avoid known and potential sources of interference in the building
structure

Using cabling techniques that include the proper handling and termination of the cables

4.3.2

Types of Copper Cabling

There are three main types of copper media used in networking.

The figure is composed of pictures showing the three types of copper cabling, each with a portion of the
outer cable jacket stripped to expose the cable construction. The first picture shows unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP) cable with four color pairs of twisted wires - blue, orange, green, and brown. The second
picture is shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable showing four pairs of twisted wires - blue, green, brown, and
orange - with a foil shield surrounding all four pairs. The last picture shows a center copper conductor
surrounded by plastic insulation surrounded by a braided shield.

this is the image’s alt textthis is the image’s alt textThe image shows a copper cable with the protective
jacket cut away, thus exposing a copper core surrounded by insulation that is surrounded by the braided
metal shielding.Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) CableShielded Twisted-Pair (STP) CableCoaxial Cable

4.3.3

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking media. UTP cabling, terminated
with RJ-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting network hosts with intermediary networking devices,
such as switches and routers.

In LANs, UTP cable consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then
encased in a flexible plastic sheath that protects from minor physical damage. The twisting of wires helps
protect against signal interference from other wires.

As seen in the figure, the color codes identify the individual pairs and wires and aid in cable termination.

UTP cable showing the outer cable jacket (labeled 1), the twisted wire pairs (labeled 2), and the orange,
green, blue, and brown insulation (labeled 3)

The numbers in the figure identify some key characteristics of unshielded twisted-pair cable:

The outer jacket protects the copper wires from physical damage.

Twisted-pairs protect the signal from interference.

Color-coded plastic insulation electrically isolates wires from each other and identifies each pair.

4.3.4

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection than UTP cabling. However, compared to
UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install. Like UTP cable, STP uses an RJ-
45 connector.

STP cables combine the techniques of shielding to counter EMI and RFI, and wire twisting to counter
crosstalk. To gain the full benefit of the shielding, STP cables are terminated with special shielded STP
data connectors. If the cable is improperly grounded, the shield may act as an antenna and pick up
unwanted signals.
The STP cable shown uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in
an overall metallic braid or foil.

STP cable showing the outer cable jacket (labeled 1), a braided shield around all the wire pairs (labeled
2), foil shields around the individual wire pairs (labeled 3), and the twisted colored wire pairs (labeled 4)

The numbers in the figure identify some key features of shielded twisted-pair cable:

Outer jacket

Braided or foil shield

Foil shields

Twisted pairs

4.3.5

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two conductors that share the
same axis. As shown in the figure, coaxial cable consists of the following:

A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals.

A layer of flexible plastic insulation surrounds a copper conductor.

The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the second
wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, also reduces the
amount of outside electromagnetic interference.

The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage.

There are different types of connectors used with coax cable. The Bayonet Neill–Concelman (BNC), N
type, and F type connectors are shown in the figure.

Although UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial cable in modern Ethernet installations, the coaxial
cable design is used in the following situations:

Wireless installations - Coaxial cables attach antennas to wireless devices. The coaxial cable carries radio
frequency (RF) energy between the antennas and the radio equipment.

Cable internet installations - Cable service providers provide internet connectivity to their customers by
replacing portions of the coaxial cable and supporting amplification elements with fiber-optic cable.
However, the wiring inside the customer's premises is still coax cable.

three figures showing the construction of a coaxial cable, a cross-section of a coaxial cable, and three
types of coaxial cable connectors

this is the image’s alt textCoaxial ConnectorsF typeN typeBNC

The numbers in the figure identify some key features of coaxial cable:

Outer jacket

Braided copper shielding

Plastic insulation

Copper conductor
4.3.6

Check Your Understanding - Copper Cabling

Check your understanding of copper cabling by choosing the correct answer to the following questions.

Which of the following attaches antennas to wireless devices? It can also be bundled with fiber-optic
cabling for two-way data transmission.

Which of the following counters EMI and RFI by using shielding techniques and special connectors?

Which of the following is the most common network media?

Which of the following terminates with BNC, N type and F type connectors?

Properties of UTP Cabling

In the previous topic, you learned a bit about unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper cabling. Because UTP
cabling is the standard for use in LANs, this topic goes into detail about its advantages and limitations,
and what can be done to avoid problems.

When used as a networking medium, UTP cabling consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that
have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. Its small size can be
advantageous during installation.

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers have
discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk:

Cancellation - Designers now pair wires in a circuit. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed
close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Therefore, the two magnetic
fields cancel each other and also cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.

Varying the number of twists per wire pair - To further enhance the cancellation effect of paired circuit
wires, designers vary the number of twists of each wire pair in a cable. UTP cable must follow precise
specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable. Notice
in the figure that the orange/orange white pair is twisted less than the blue/blue white pair. Each colored
pair is twisted a different number of times.

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal
degradation and effectively provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

The figure shows a UTP cable with the jacket partially removed and four twisted pairs which each has a
different twist ratio
4.4.2

UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors

UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA. Specifically, TIA/EIA-568
stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most commonly
used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are as follows:

Cable types

Cable lengths

Connectors

Cable termination

Methods of testing cable

The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). IEEE rates UTP cabling according to its performance. Cables are placed into categories
based on their ability to carry higher bandwidth rates. For example, Category 5 cable is used commonly
in 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet installations. Other categories include Enhanced Category 5 cable, Category
6, and Category 6a.

Cables in higher categories are designed and constructed to support higher data rates. As new gigabit
speed Ethernet technologies are being developed and adopted, Category 5e is now the minimally
acceptable cable type, with Category 6 being the recommended type for new building installations.

The figure shows three categories of UTP cable:

Category 3 was originally used for voice communication over voice lines, but later used for data
transmission.

Category 5 and 5e is used for data transmission. Category 5 supports 100Mbps and Category 5e supports
1000 Mbps

Category 6 has an added separator between each wire pair to support higher speeds. Category 6
supports up to 10 Gbps.

Category 7 also supports 10 Gbps.

Category 8 supports 40 Gbps.

Some manufacturers are making cables exceeding the TIA/EIA Category 6a specifications and refer to
these as Category 7.

The figure shows the difference in construction between categories of UTP cable. At the top is category 3
with four wires. In the middle is category 5 and 5e with four twisted wire pairs. At the bottom is category
6 with four twisted wire pairs, each with a plastic separator.

Category 3 Cable (UTP)Category 5 and 5e Cable (UTP)Category 6 Cable (STP)

UTP cable is usually terminated with an RJ-45 connector. The TIA/EIA-568 standard describes the wire
color codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for Ethernet cables.

As shown in the figure, the RJ-45 connector is the male component, crimped at the end of the cable.

an RJ45 connector and a cable terminated with an RJ45 connector

RJ-45 UTP Plugs

this is the image’s alt textthis is the image’s alt text

The socket, shown in the figure, is the female component of a network device, wall, cubicle partition
outlet, or patch panel. When terminated improperly, each cable is a potential source of physical layer
performance degradation.

front and side view of an RJ45 UTP socket, including the color code for wire termination

RJ-45 UTP Sockets

this is the image’s alt textthis is the image’s alt text

This figure shows an example of a badly terminated UTP cable. This bad connector has wires that are
exposed, untwisted, and not entirely covered by the sheath.
poorly terminated UTP cable showing untwisted wires extending outside of the RJ45 connector

Poorly Terminated UTP Cable

this is the image's alt text

The next figure shows a properly terminated UTP cable. It is a good connector with wires that are
untwisted only to the extent necessary to attach the connector.

properly termination UTP cable showing the cable jacket extending into the RJ45 connector enough to
be crimped securely with all eight wires reaching the end of the connector

Properly Terminated UTP Cable

this is image's alt text

Note: Improper cable termination can impact transmission performance.

4.4.3

Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions. This
means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of
pins in the RJ-45 connectors.

The following are the main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions:

Ethernet Straight-through - The most common type of networking cable. It is commonly used to
interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a router.

Ethernet Crossover - A cable used to interconnect similar devices. For example, to connect a switch to a
switch, a host to a host, or a router to a router. However, crossover cables are now considered legacy as
NICs use medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) to automatically detect the cable type and
make the internal connection.

Note: Another type of cable is a rollover cable, which is Cisco proprietary. It is used to connect a
workstation to a router or switch console port.

Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the devices,
but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a common error
and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first troubleshooting action if
connectivity is not achieved.

The figure identifies the individual wire pairs for the T568A and T568B standards.

The figure shows diagrams of the T568A and T568B wiring standards. Each shows the correct pinout for
the individual wire pairs. Each color wire pair is numbered and consists of a solid color wire and a white
striped wire. Pair 1 is blue, pair 2 is orange, pair 3 is green, and pair 4 is brown. Each standard alternates
between white striped and solid wires. For the T568A standard, the blue pair are terminated at pins 4
and 5, the orange pair are terminated at pins 3 and 6, the green pair is terminated at pins 1 and 2, and
the brown pair is terminated at pins 7 and 8. For the T568B standard, the blue pair is terminated at pins
4 and 5, the orange pair is terminated at pins 1 and 2, the green pair is termination at pins 3 and 6, and
the brown pair is terminated at pins 7 and 8.

T568A and T568B Standards

8
1

Pair 2Pair 2Pair 4Pair 1Pair 3T568AT568BPair 3Pair 4Pair 1

The table shows the UTP cable type, related standards, and typical application of these cables.

Cable Types and Standards

Cable TypeStandardApplicationEthernet Straight-throughBoth ends T568A or both ends T568BConnects

a network host to a network device such as a switch or hubEthernet CrossoverOne end T568A, other end
T568BConnects two network hostsConnects two network intermediary devices (switch to switch or
router to router)RolloverCisco proprietaryConnects a workstation serial port to a router console port,
using an adapter

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or both ends T568B Connects a network host to a
network device such as a switch or hub

Ethernet Crossover One end T568A, other end T568B Connects two network hosts Connects
two network intermediary devices (switch to switch or router to router)

Rollover Cisco proprietary Connects a workstation serial port to a router console port,
using an adapter

4.4.4

Activity - Cable Pinouts

For this activity, correctly order the wire colors to a TIA/EIA cable pinout. Select a wire case color by
clicking it. Then click a wire to apply that casing to it.
Select the pin case, then the cable pin to apply the casing.

T568A Pinout

Check

Show Me

Reset

Select the pin case, then the cable pin to apply the casing.

T568B Pinout

Check

Show Me

Reset

Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling

As you have learned, fiber-optic cabling is the other type of cabling used in networks. Because it is
expensive, it is not as commonly used at the various types of copper cabling. But fiber-optic cabling has
certain properties that make it the best option in certain situations, which you will discover in this topic.

Optical fiber cable transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than any other
networking media. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and is
completely immune to EMI and RFI. Optical fiber is commonly used to interconnect network devices.

Optical fiber is a flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of very pure glass, not much bigger than
a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable acts as a waveguide,
or “light pipe,” to transmit light between the two ends with minimal loss of signal.

As an analogy, consider an empty paper towel roll with the inside coated like a mirror. It is a thousand
meters in length, and a small laser pointer is used to send Morse code signals at the speed of light.
Essentially that is how a fiber-optic cable operates, except that it is smaller in diameter and uses
sophisticated light technologies.

4.5.2

Types of Fiber Media

Fiber-optic cables are broadly classified into two types:

Single-mode fiber (SMF)

Multimode fiber (MMF)

Click each button for an illustration and explanation of each type.

Single-Mode Fiber

Multimode Fiber

Single-Mode Fiber

SMF consists of a very small core and uses expensive laser technology to send a single ray of light, as
shown in the figure. SMF is popular in long-distance situations spanning hundreds of kilometers, such as
those required in long haul telephony and cable TV applications.

A cross-section of a single-mode fiber optic cable consisting of a center glass core of 9 microns in
diameter, surrounded by a glass cladding of 125 microns in diameter, surrounded by a polymeric coating.
An x-ray vision sideview shows that this type of cable construction produces a single straight path for the
light.
Glass Core diameter = 9 micrometer (µm)Glass Cladding 125 microns diameterPolymeric
CoatingProduces single straight path for light

One of the highlighted differences between MMF and SMF is the amount of dispersion. Dispersion refers
to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means increased loss of signal
strength. MMF has a greater dispersion than SMF. That is why MMF can only travel up to 500 meters
before signal loss.

4.5.3

Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage

Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting infrastructure devices

Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes and small
businesses

Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities

Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions capable of
surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic distances. Search the internet for
“submarine cables telegeography map” to view various maps online.

Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.

4.5.4

Fiber-Optic Connectors

An optical-fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber. A variety of optical-fiber connectors are
available. The main differences among the types of connectors are dimensions and methods of coupling.
Businesses decide on the types of connectors that will be used, based on their equipment.

Note: Some switches and routers have ports that support fiber-optic connectors through a small form-
factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver. Search the internet for various types of SFPs.

Click each fiber-optic connector type for an image and more information.

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors

Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

ST connectors were one of the first connector types used. The connector locks securely with a
'twist-on/twist-off' bayonet-style mechanism.

The image shows two fiber optic cables with a b n c connector and an approximate one inch white core
sticking outward.

Until recently, light could only travel in one direction over optical fiber. Two fibers were required to
support the full duplex operation. Therefore, fiber-optic patch cables bundle together two optical fiber
cables and terminate them with a pair of standard, single-fiber connectors. Some fiber connectors
accept both the transmitting and receiving fibers in a single connector known as a duplex connector, as
shown in the Duplex Multimode LC Connector in the figure. BX standards such as 100BASE-BX use
different wavelengths for sending and receiving over a single fiber.

4.5.5

Fiber Patch Cords

Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting infrastructure devices. The use of color distinguishes
between single-mode and multimode patch cords. A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and
orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.

Click each fiber patch cord for an image.

SC-SC Multimode Patch Cord

LC-LC Single-Mode Patch Cord

ST-LC Multimode Patch Cord

SC-ST Single-Mode Patch Cord

Note: Fiber cables should be protected with a small plastic cap when not in use.

4.5.6

Fiber versus Copper

There are many advantages to using fiber-optic cable compared to copper cables. The table highlights
some of these differences.

At present, in most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-
traffic, point-to-point connections between data distribution facilities. It is also used for the
interconnection of buildings in multi-building campuses. Because fiber-optic cables do not conduct
electricity and have a low signal loss, they are well suited for these uses.

UTP and Fiber-Optic Cabling Comparison

Table caption

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s

Distance Relatively short (1 - 100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

4.5.7

Check Your Understanding - Fiber-Optic Cabling

Check your understanding of fiber-optic cabling by choosing the correct answer to the following
questions.

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types can help data travel approximately 500 meters?

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as a data light source
transmitter?
Which of the following fiber-optic cable types use lasers in a single stream as a data light source
transmitter?

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types is used to connect long-distance telephony and cable TV
applications?

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types can travel approximately 100 km?

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types is used within a campus network?

Purpose of the Physical Layer

Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must be
established. A physical connection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection
using radio waves. Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to the network. Ethernet NICs are
used for a wired connection, whereas WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) NICs are used for wireless.
The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame
across the network media. This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as
a series of signals that are transmitted onto the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame are
received by either an end device or an intermediary device.

Physical Layer Characteristics

The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors developed by engineers. The
physical layer standards address three functional areas: physical components, encoding, and signaling.
Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of
data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Throughput is the measure of
the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time and is usually lower than bandwidth.
Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.
Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. The physical layer
produces the representation and groupings of bits for each type of media as follows:

Copper cable - The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.

Fiber-optic cable - The signals are patterns of light.

Wireless - The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.

Copper Cabling

Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical
current. However, copper media is limited by distance and signal interference. The timing and voltage
values of the electrical pulses are also susceptible to interference from two sources: EMI and crosstalk.
Three types of copper cabling are: UTP, STP, and coaxial cable (coax). UTP has an outer jacket to protect
the copper wires from physical damage, twisted pairs to protect the signal from interference, and color-
coded plastic insulation that electrically isolates wires from each other and identifies each pair. The STP
cable uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in an overall
metallic braid or foil. Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two
conductors that share the same axis. Coax is used to attach antennas to wireless devices. Cable internet
providers use coax inside their customers’ premises.

UTP Cabling

UTP cabling consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that have been twisted together and then
encased in a flexible plastic sheath. UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and
RFI. Instead, cable designers have discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of
crosstalk: cancellation and varying the number of twists per wire pair. UTP cabling conforms to the
standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA. The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). UTP cable is usually terminated with an RJ-
45 connector. The main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions are Ethernet
Straight-through and Ethernet Crossover. Cisco has a proprietary UTP cable called a rollover that
connects a workstation to a router console port.

Fiber-Optic Cabling

Optical fiber cable transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than any other
networking media. Fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation than copper wire and is
completely immune to EMI and RFI. Optical fiber is a flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of
very pure glass, not much bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses.
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry: enterprise networks, FTTH, long-haul
networks, and submarine cable networks. There are four types of fiber-optic connectors: ST, SC, LC, and
duplex multimode LC. Fiber-optic patch cords include SC-SC multimode, LC-LC single-mode, ST-LC
multimode, and SC-ST single-mode. In most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily used as
backbone cabling for high-traffic point-to-point connections between data distribution facilities and for
the interconnection of buildings in multi-building campuses.

Wireless Media

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data communications
using radio or microwave frequencies. Wireless does have some limitations, including: coverage area,
interference, security, and the problems that occur with any shared medium. Wireless standards include
the following: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), and Zigbee (IEEE
802.15.4). Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires a wireless AP and wireless NIC adapters.

4.7.4

Module Quiz - Physical Layer

A network administrator is troubleshooting connectivity issues on a server. Using a tester, the

administrator notices that the signals generated by the server NIC are distorted and not usable. In which
layer of the OSI model is the error categorized?

What type of cable is used to connect a workstation serial port to a Cisco router console port?
Why are two strands of fiber used for a single fiber optic connection?

Which procedure is used to reduce the effect of crosstalk in copper cables?

What is one advantage of using fiber optic cabling rather than copper cabling?
A network administrator is designing a new network infrastructure that includes both wired and wireless
connectivity. Under which situation would a wireless connection be recommended?

Which type of UTP cable is used to connect a PC to a switch port?

What is the definition of bandwidth?

Which statement correctly describes frame encoding?

What is a characteristic of UTP cabling?

A wireless LAN is being deployed inside the new one room office that is occupied by the park ranger. The
office is located at the highest part of the national park. After network testing is complete, the
technicians report that the wireless LAN signal is occasionally affected by some type of interference.
What is a possible cause of the signal distortion?

What is the purpose of the OSI physical layer?

Which characteristic describes crosstalk?

What is indicated by the term throughput?

Which standards organization oversees development of wireless LAN standards?

4.1.2

The Physical Layer

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame
across the network media. This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as
a series of signals that are transmitted to the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame are
received by either an end device or an intermediate device.
Click Play in the figure to see an example of the encapsulation process. The last part of this process
shows the bits being sent over the physical medium. The physical layer encodes the frames and creates
the electrical, optical, or radio wave signals that represent the bits in each frame. These signals are then
sent over the media, one at a time.

The destination node physical layer retrieves these individual signals from the media, restores them to
their bit representations, and passes the bits up to the data link layer as a complete frame.

The animation shows a small network with a Web Server and a Web Client. Theres is a graphic that
shows the components that make up a message. An Ethernet Frame, and IP Packet, a TCP segment, and
the user data. The animation begins with the web server preparing the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) page as data to be sent. The application protocol HTTP header is added (prepended) to the front
of the HTML data. The header contains various information, including the HTTP version the server is
using and a status code indicating it has information for the web client. The HTTP application layer
protocol delivers the HTML-formatted web page data to the TCP transport layer. The transport layer
protocol prepends additional information to the HTTP data to manage the exchange of information
between the web server and web client. The IP information is prepended to the TCP information. IP
assigns the appropriate source and destination IP addresses. This information is known as an IP packet.
The Ethernet protocol prepends and adds to the end (appends) information to the IP packet to create a
data link frame. The frame is then converted into a string of binary bits that are sent along the network
path to the web client.

Web ServerWeb ClientDataTCPIPEthernetUser DataTCP SegmentIP PacketEthernet

FrameDataTCPIPProtocol Encapsulation TermsEthernet

4.1.3

Check Your Understanding - Purpose of the Physical Layer

Check your understanding of the physical layer by choosing the correct answer to the following
questions.

True or false? The physical layer is only concerned with wired network connections.
True or false? When a frame is encoded by the physical layer, all bits are sent over the media at the same
time.

The physical layer of the receiving device passes bits up to which higher level layer?

What PDU is received by the physical layer for encoding and transmission?