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Module 2: Paper Structure
Structure
At the Pro writing level, you should be able to craft impeccable paper
structure and paragraph design as opposed to using a linear way of
conveying your thoughts, as it often takes place among Middle and
sometimes Expert writers.
Let us look at some of the elements of paper structure in more detail.
Introduction
The introduction section not only sets the tone for your further argument
but also gives the reader a hint about your level of writing and critical
thinking skills. Although composing an engaging intro may seem easy,
there are some tricky moments that you should be aware of.
Here is the checklist of 5 things to avoid when writing an introduction:
1. Starting your introductory paragraph with a quotation. Remember:
you are the primary author of your paper, so it is important to start the
paper with your own voice.
2. Turning your introduction into a “history-of-the-world” opening or
a place for using all the possible cliches. Example of a
“history-of-the-world” opening: “Ever since the dawn of civilized life,
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societies have struggled to reconcile the need for change with the need
for order” (What are we talking about here? A revolution or fashion?).
Example of a cliche: “In the 21st century society social networks play a
crucial role”. Another example: “In the recent past, the conversation
about global warming and climate change has been quite active”
(sounds quite good until we find out that the paper is about the problem
of the quality of office air).
3. Including too much evidence in your introductory paragraph.
The main purpose of an introductory paragraph is to present your
arguments, not support them with evidence. It is better to include only
general background information in the intro paragraph, while your
evidence should appear in the body part.
4. Making your introductory paragraph too long.
Often, there is no set number of sentences, but the intro should not be
longer than the body part. It is dictated by the length of the paper. If it is
a one-page and one-paragraph essay, a strong introductory sentence
perfectly substitutes the introductory paragraph.
5. Writing an introduction and never coming back to it again.
The process of writing should never be linear. You should go back to the
introduction after the whole paper is finished (and at different stages of
your writing process) and check if it fits the general sense of your work.
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Thesis Statement
The key for the thesis statement is to give away the ending of a paper
right from the beginning. It might sound unnatural for us as, for example,
in fiction, the reader wants to reach the last section of the work to find out
how it is going to end. However, in academic writing you should not
“intrigue” your reader or make them “guess” what your main point is: you
should state it very clearly at the beginning. The reason why your reader
would want to continue reading the paper is to see how you support your
claim and to understand if it is valid.
The common problems related to thesis statement:
1. Thesis statement is completely missing.
2. Thesis is misplaced.
3. Not argumentative enough (too vague).
While the first two points are pretty simple to notice, the last is not always
so evident. The main thought which you should bear in mind while
composing a strong thesis statement is that it should be something that a
reasonable human being can disagree with.
Here’s an example of a weak thesis statement:
“In this paper, I discuss the relationship between vending machines in
schools and childhood obesity.”
It is impossible to disagree with this thesis because it presents a fact: “I
discuss…” Instead of simply stating that you are going to discuss this
relationship, you should already specify what is actually the relationship.
Additionally, you are talking about vending machines here - but what kind
of vending machines (soda machines, candy machines)? You are also
talking about childhood obesity, but in what country or state? Remember
that you should be very specific.
Here is the revised version of this thesis statement, which is much more
strong:
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“Junk food vending machines in schools contribute to childhood obesity in
the United States as they increase cases of unsupervised eating of
high-calorie food and instill binge eating behaviors” (we make a claim
and support it).
Another example of a weak thesis statement.
“This paper will present factors that investors should consider before
buying a property in Italy and demonstrate whether it is advantageous or
not."
Again, we should not “intrigue the reader”, we want to give the answer
right away. Consider a revised version:
"Buying a property in Italy, as opposed to renting, is less advantageous as
it involves huge tax commitments, bureaucracy, and dealing with an
unstable legal framework in the country.”
P.S. Remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times
while working on your thesis statement. Sometimes your thesis needs
to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a
different approach to your topic.
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Body paragraph
Creating a successful body paragraph may also be tricky. Let’s begin with
the paragraphs that are problematic: here is the list of the 6 most
common types of them.
1. “The chain-link fence paragraph”
A paragraph that links many quotations or paraphrases together, but
lacks the analysis in the writer’s own voice. While it is crucial to have
outside evidence to support your thoughts, it is also really important to
speak in your voice. Otherwise, your readers can simply read the sources
which you are citing without needing to read your paper.
2. “Tabloid paragraph”
The opposite problem: a paragraph which contains too little evidence.
Avoid linking your readers to your own experience (unless you are
writing a paper which requires you to do this - for instance, to refer to
your work as a nurse), use only strong outside evidence instead.
3. “The bad fruit salad paragraph”
This is a type of paragraph in which you include too many different
ideas which hardly correlate with each other. It is important not to pull
too much random information in one paragraph. It can be useful to look
at the paragraphs as containers for ideas: each paragraph should contain
the ideas that match with one another.
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4. “A wanna-be paragraph”
One of the paragraphs which falls short as compared to other
paragraphs. It is better to absorb such short paragraphs into larger ones.
5. “The whole paper paragraph”
A paragraph that contains more than one main idea. Similar to the “The
bad fruit salad paragraph”, but it may be a little bit better organized.
Still, too large to comprehend at once.
6. “The derailed train paragraph”
A paragraph that starts really strong and then just runs out of steam.
Such a paragraph usually has a clear point where you begin to fall out of
context: like you were talking about the health benefits of drinking
coffee, and then suddenly you start talking about the dangers of not
looking when you cross the street.
How to compose a proper body paragraph
Now, as we have looked at the most common problems which arise when
you are writing body paragraphs, we can move to the solution on how to
avoid them - the so-called MEAL plan (acronym invented by the Duke
University). This acronym actually stands for the main four elements of a
successful body paragraph:
M - MAIN IDEA
Expressed in a topic sentence. Remember that a topic sentence should be
very precise: if the readers skip the rest of the paragraph and read only
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its topic sentence, they should understand what your paragraph is about
and how it supports your main argument (expressed in a thesis
statement). The main idea directly supports your thesis statement and
should be formulated in your own words only as it is your own idea.
E - EVIDENCE
This is the place where you are going to back up your main idea which
you have just expressed in a topic sentence. Here, quotes and
paraphrases should be used.
A - ANALYSIS
People not only read the papers to find out what, where, and when
something has happened - they also want to know what others think
about it. So, you should mention not only what scholars say, but also
what you think about it.
L - LEAD OUT
This is a kind of a wrap-up sentence - a place where you bring your
readers to rest. The readers need to understand what they should take
away from the whole paragraph. It is a place where you're going to make
that final link to the main idea of a paragraph and to your thesis
statement.
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Other important points on the body paragraphs
Each body paragraph should support the thesis statement. The number of
paragraphs then depends on the expansiveness of the subject and the
amount of evidence that the writer has. If the paper has multiple body
paragraphs, they should be ordered in a logical way: from general to
specific, from more important points to less important ones, etc. If a
paragraph is not relevant to the thesis, one can either remove it or correct
the thesis.
The Example of the thesis statement that predicts the number of
paragraphs:
Andrew Carnegie’s (1) contributions to U.S. manufacturing, personal
financial success, and philanthropy often overshadow (2) the tense
working conditions, (3) poor wages, and (4) strained labor relations
between the steel magnate and the people whose hard work enabled him to
spend lavishly.
Hence, there would be 4 body paragraphs in the essay.
A topic sentence should not only present the main thought of a paragraph,
but also correlate with a thesis statement.
Thesis Statement:
Andrew Carnegie’s (1) contributions to U.S. manufacturing, personal
financial success, and philanthropy often overshadow (2) the tense
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working conditions, (3) poor wages, and (4) strained labor relations
between the steel magnate and the people whose hard work enabled him to
spend lavishly.
Topic Sentence 1:
Andrew Carnegie’s innovative approach to steel production helped
him amass an unprecedented personal fortune from which he could pursue
many philanthropic endeavours.
Topic Sentence 2:
Those things for which Andrew Carnegie is best known, however,
often overshadow the tense working conditions that his workers had to
endure.
Topic Sentence 3:
In addition to tense working conditions, Carnegie has been criticized
for paying his workers' inadequate wages.
Topic Sentence 4:
Low wages and harsh working conditions strained labor relations
between Carnegie and the people whose hard work enabled him to spend
lavishly on philanthropy.
Each paragraph should end with a concluding observation - a sentence that
analyzes the paragraph, thus showing its importance within the context of
the paper. A good concluding observation should go beyond merely
repeating the topic sentence or summarizing the paragraph. Your paragraph
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should not finish abruptly, but make sure your concluding sentence is
meaningful and offers an afterthought.
Example of poor concluding observation:
“There are various reasons why Jerusalem is Central to the religious
imagination of Muslims. [...] Besides, early followers of Mohammad faced
the city while praying. However, the direction later shifted towards the
sacred Kaaba in Mecca.”
This concluding sentence does not correlate with the topic sentence and
does not summarize/wrap up the ideas voiced in the paragraph in any way.
Paper structure can turn the strongest information into a weak argument.
As a Pro writer, you need to demonstrate skills of identifying what
structure works best for conveying content in each particular order. Also,
you need to be flexible in cases when the structure required goes outside
the usual patterns.
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Conclusion
Your conclusion serves to make a sense of closure for the readers by
stepping back from the specific details to the bigger picture. It pulls
everything together and reminds the reader of the main argument.
An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion
1. Is the thesis of the paper accurately restated (but not repeated word
by word)?
It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper, in this way
reminding of the argument and solutions you proposed.
2. Are the main points of the paper addressed and pulled together?
Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where
they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk
away with the bigger picture in mind.
3. Do you remind the reader of the importance of the topic?
Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social
change and offers an afterthought.
4. Is there a sense of closure or you simply restate what was said
before without extending the argument?
Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an
end and you will no longer offer new ideas. It is important to not leave
the reader “hanging”.
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5. Do you avoid presenting new information but draw meaningful
conclusions instead?
It is critcial to keep in mind that no new ideas should be introduced in
the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already
present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a
direction for future research in the form of an afterthought that is based
on the conclusions drawn from the argument made in the body of the
paper.
Remember that starting your conclusion with phrases like “In
conclusion”, “In summation”, “In summary” etc is redundant. The reader
already knows that the last paragraph is a conclusion, there is no need to
“announce” about it, especially in high-level papers.
Your conclusion should “mirror” your introduction, be perfectly
consistent with it, but never be an almost word-by-word repetition of it, as
it will create a sense of awkwardness rather than a closure.
Finally, your conclusion should be drafted to look like a “cheat
sheet” for the reader - if the reader skips the rest of the text and reads only
your conclusion, they should have a decent idea of the main points. That
said, ensure to mention all the primary points made in the body of your
paper accompanied by a meaningful conclusion so that the correlation
between the presented evidence and your reasoning is easy to follow.
