Semester IV

CC - VIII: MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS-III

Complex Analysis
Dr. Debabrata Adak
Department of Physics
Government General Degree College, Singur
Jalaghata, Hooghly-712409

Always read the books for your better understanding of the subject . . . . .

Acknowledgement : This note is prepared on the basis of the book [1] referrred below.

Books:

1. Schaum’s outlines Complex Variables by Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschutz, John J. Schiller, Dennis
Spellman

2. Any other book you like

1 Complex Number

A complex number z is defined as,

z = x + iy , (1)
√
where x and y are real numbers and i = −1. The modulus and argument of a complex number z = x + iy
are given by
p
|z| = x2 + y 2 ,
y
arg(z) = tan−1 . (2)
x

Polar Form of complex number

x = r cos θ ,
y = r sin θ ,

Hence z = x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Graphical representation

A complex number can be represented on (x, y) plane as shown in fig. (1). The point P represents the complex
numberpz = x + iy. The distance of the point P from origin O is called the modulus of complex number
given
by r = x2 + y 2 and the angle θ is konwn as the argument of complex number z given by θ = tan−1 xy .

1
 Figure 1: Argand Plane

2 Euler Formula

x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + + ....... ,
2! 3! 4!
(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4
eiθ = 1 + iθ + + + + . . . . . . . .,
2! 3! 4!
(θ)2 (θ)3 (θ)4
eiθ = 1 + iθ − −i + + . . . . . . . .,
2! 3! 4!
(θ)2 (θ)3 (iθ)4
   
eiθ = 1− + .... + i θ − + + ....
2! 3! 4!
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (3)

3 De Moivre’s theorem

This theorem states that,

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) , (4)

Proof:

(cos θ + i sin θ)1 = cos θ + i sin θ (5)

(cos θ + i sin θ)2 = cos2 θ + 2i cos θ sin θ + (i sin θ)2 ,

= cos2 θ − sin2 θ + i sin 2θ ,
= cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ,

(cos θ + i sin θ)3 = cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ + 3 cos θ(i sin θ)2 + (i sin θ)3 ,
= cos3 θ − i sin3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ ,
= cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ + i − sin3 θ + 3 cos2 θ sin θ ,

= cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ,

2
Hence the therem is true for n = 1, 2, 3. Let it be true for n = p, i.e., (cos θ + i sin θ)p = cos(pθ) + i sin(pθ).

(cos θ + i sin θ)p+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)p .(cos θ + i sin θ) ,

= (cos(pθ) + i sin(pθ)).(cos θ + i sin θ) ,
= cos(pθ) cos θ + i cos(pθ) sin θ + i sin(pθ) cos θ − sin(pθ) sin θ ,
= cos(pθ) cos θ − sin(pθ) sin θ + i [cos(pθ) sin θ + sin(pθ) cos θ] ,
= cos(p + 1)θ + i sin(p + 1)θ ,

Hence is the theorem satisfies for n = p, it satifies for n = p + 1 (The Principle of Mathematical Induction).
Therefore the theorem is valid for any n.

4 Roots of complex number

In this section the we will see how we can find the roots of complex number z.

z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) ,

 
1/n 1/n (θ + 2mπ) (θ + 2mπ)
z = r cos + i sin , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . . , n − 1 . (6)
n n

Eq. (6) gives us the n roots of z 1/n .

Solved Problems

1. Find all values of z for which z 2 = −1.

z 2 = −1 ,
√
z = ± −1 ,
z = ±i .

2. Find all values of z for which z 5 = −32. [Schaums outlines complex variables, Problem: 1.28. (a)]

z 5 = −32 = 32(cos π + i sin π) ,

= 32(cos(π + 2mπ) + i sin(π + 2mπ)) , m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . ,
 π π
z = 2 cos(2m + 1) + i sin(2m + 1) , m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . ,
5 5

m z
0 2(cos π/5 + i sin π/5)
1 2(cos 3π/5 + i sin 3π/5)
2 2(cos 5π/5 + i sin 5π/5) = −2
3 2(cos 7π/5 + i sin 7π/5)
4 2(cos 9π/5 + i sin 9π/5)

Evaluate z for m = 5, 6, . . . . and m = −1, −2, −3, −4 . . . . yourself. Those values of m produces the
repetitions of the above results in Tab. (2).
√
3. Find −15 − 8i. [Schaums outlines complex variables, Problem:1.30]

3
 √
z = −15 − 8i ,
s  
p
2 2
−15 8
= 15 + 8 √ − i√ ,
152 + 82 152 + 82
s  
−15 8
= 172 −i ,
17 17
√ √
   
−15 −8
= 17 cos θ + i sin θ , where θ = cos−1 = sin−1 , (π < θ < 3π/2)
17 15
√
= 17 (cos(θ + 2mπ)/2 + i sin(θ + 2mπ)/2) ,
√
= 17 (cos(mπ + θ/2) + i sin(mπ + θ/2)) ,
(7)

m √ z
0 √ 17(cos θ/2 + i sin θ/2)
1 17(cos(π + θ/2) + i sin(π + θ/2) = 2(− cos θ/2 − i sin θ/2)

15
cos θ = − ,
17
15
2 cos2 (θ/2) − 1 = − ,
17
15
2 cos2 (θ/2) = 1− ,
17
2
2 cos2 (θ/2) = ,
17
1
cos(θ/2) = − √ , (π/2 < θ < 3π/4)
17
√
and sin(θ/2) = 4/ 17. From Tab. (3) we obtain

m z
0 −1 + 4i
1 1 − 4i

15
cos θ = − ,
17
15
2 cos2 (θ/2) − 1 = − ,
17
15
2 cos2 (θ/2) = 1− ,
17
2
2 cos2 (θ/2) = ,
17
1
cos(θ/2) = √ ,
17

4. Find all the 5th roots of unity. [Schaums outlines complex variables, Problem: 1.37]

z = (1)1/5 ,
= (cos 2mπ + i sin 2mπ)1/5 , m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,
= cos 2mπ/5 + i sin 2mπ/5 ,

4
 m z
0 (cos 0 + i sin 0) = 1
1 (cos 2π/5 + i sin 2π/5)
2 (cos 4π/5 + i sin 4π/5) = (cos 2π/5 + i sin 2π/5)2
3 (cos 6π/5 + i sin 6π/5) = (cos 2π/5 + i sin 2π/5)3
4 (cos 8π/5 + i sin 8π/5) = (cos 2π/5 + i sin 2π/5)4

5. Solve z 2 (1 − z 2 ) = 16. [Schaums outlines complex variables, Problem: 1.50]

z 2 (1 − z 2 ) = 16 ,
z 2 − z 4 = 16 ,
z 4 − z 2 + 16 = 0 ,
z 4 + 2 × 4 × z 2 + 42 − 9z 2 = 0 ,
(z 2 + 4)2 − 9z 2 = 0 ,
(z 2 + 4 + 3z)(z 2 + 4 − 3z) = 0 . (8)

From Eq. (8) we obtain z 2 + 3z + 4 = 0 and z 2 − 3z + 4 = 0. These two equations can be solve like
quadratic equations of real variables by Sreedhar Acharya’s formula.

z 2 + 3z + 4 = 0 ,
 2  2
2 3 3 3
z +2× ×z+ = −4 ,
2 2 2
3 2 32 − 22 × 4
 
z+ = ,
2 22
√
3 32 − 4 × 4
z = − ± ,
2 √ 2
−3 ± 9 − 16
z = ,
2√
−3 ± i 7
z = ,
2

z 2 + 3z + 4 = 0 ,
√
3 ± i 32 − 4 × 4
z = ,
√ 2
3±i 7
= ,
2

5 Functions of complex variables

f (z) = f (x + iy) ,
= u(x, y) + iv(x, y) , (9)

where u(x, y) and v(x, y) are real functions of x and y. Functions of complex variable can be single valued or
multiple valued.

single valued function

f (z) is a single valued function of z if and only if for a value of z, there exists only one value of f (z). For
example, consider the function f (i) = z. When z = i, f (z) = i. Again for another function f (z) = z 2 , if z = i
we obtain f (i) = −1.

5
Multiple valued function

If for one value of z, there exists more than one value of f (z), then f (z) is called the multiple valued function.
For example, for [f (z)]2 = z, f (z) is a multiple valued functions of z.
A multiple valued function is a collection of single valued functions. Each single valued function of this
collection is called a branch of the multiple valued function and one particular single valued function the
collection is called a principal branch of multiple valued function. The value of the function corresponding to
the principal branch, is called the principal value.

6 Analyticity and Cauchy-Riemann Conditions

A single valued fuction of complex variable f (z) is said to be analytic in a region on argand plane, if it has
unique derivative at each point in that region. For eaxmple, f (z) is analytic at a point z = z0 implies that
f 0 (z) exists at each point inside and on a small circle about z = z0 .

Figure 2: f (z) is analytic if f 0 (z) exists at each point in the region |z − z0 | < .

The differentiation of function of complex variables at a point z is defined as

df (z) f (z + ∆z) − f (z)
= lim . (10)
dz ∆z→ 0 ∆z
In Eq. (10), ∆z → 0 can be achieved in infinitely many ways in argand plane. For Cauchy-Riemann conditions,
consider two different path in argand plane to achieve ∆z → 0. The two paths are the following,
1. ∆x → 0 and then ∆y → 0
2. ∆y → 0 and then ∆x → 0
For path ∆x → 0 and then ∆y → 0,
df (z) u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) + iv(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y) − iv(x, y)
= lim ,
dz ∆x→ 0 ∆x + i∆y
∆y→ 0
 
(u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y)) + i (v(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − v(x, y))
= lim ,
∆x→ 0 ∆x + i∆y
∆y→ 0
 
(u(x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y)) + i (v(x, y + ∆y) − v(x, y))
= lim ,
∆y→ 0 i∆y
 
u(x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y) v(x, y + ∆y) − v(x, y)
= lim + ,
∆y→ 0 i∆y ∆y
∂u ∂v
= −i + , (11)
∂y ∂y

6
 For path ∆y → 0 and then ∆x → 0,
df (z) u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) + iv(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y) − iv(x, y)
= lim ,
dz ∆y→ 0 ∆x + i∆y
∆x→ 0
 
(u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y)) + i (v(x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − v(x, y))
= lim ,
∆y→ 0 ∆x + i∆y
∆x→ 0
 
(u(x + ∆x, y) − u(x, y)) + i (v(x + ∆x, y) − v(x, y))
= lim ,
∆x→ 0 ∆x
 
u(x + ∆x, y) − u(x, y) v(x + ∆x, y) − v(x, y)
= lim + ,
∆x→ 0 ∆x ∆x
∂u ∂v
= +i . (12)
∂x ∂x
Hence from Eqs. (11) and (12), we have
∂u ∂v
= ,
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
− = . (13)
∂y ∂x
The Cauchy-Riemann conditions are the necessary conditions for f (z) to be analytic at a point z.

7 Examples of analytic functions

1. f (z) = z

f (z) = z ,
= x + iy ,
Hence, u(x, y) = x , v(x, y) = y ,
∂u ∂v
Therefore, = 1, = 1, (14)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= 0, = 0. (15)
∂y ∂x
From Eqs. (14) and (15), it is evident that Cauchy-Riemann conditions are satisfied. Hence f (z) = z is
an analytic function.

2. f (z) = z 2

f (z) = z 2 ,
= (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
Hence, u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 , v(x, y) = 2xy ,
∂u ∂v
Therefore, = 2x , = 2x , (16)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −2y , = 2y . (17)
∂y ∂x
From Eqs. (16) and (17), it is evident that
∂u ∂v
= 2x = ,
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
− = 2y = .
∂y ∂x

Cauchy-Riemann conditions are satisfied for f (z) = z 2 .

7
8 Singular functions

A single valued function of complex variable if is analytic at a point z = z0 , the point z = z0 is called the
regular point. However the point at which is function f (z) is not analytic is called the singular point of f (z).

• Isolated singularity
If f (z) has a singularity at z = z0 such that within a small circle about z = z0 , there is no other singularity
of the function f (z), then z = z0 is called the isolated singularity. In other words, one can find a circle
|z − z0 | =  around z = z0 with a radius  where there is no singularity other than z = z0 .
Isolated singularities are classified into following three categories.

1. Poles
For an isolated singularity of f (z) at z = z0 , if there exists a positive integer n such that limz→z0 (z −
z0 )n f (z) is finite, then z = z0 is called the pole of f (z) of order n. If n = 1, the pole is called the
simple pole.
Consider the function f (z) = 1/(z − 1). Here z = 1 is singularity and limz→1 (z − 1)f (z) = 1.
Therefore z = 1 is a simple pole.
Consider another function f (z) = 1/(z −1)2 . Here also z = 1 is singularity and limz→1 (z −1)2 f (z) =
1. Therefore z = 1 is a pole of order 2.
2. Removable singularity
Pole of order zero (n = 0) is called the removable singularity, i.e., z = z0 is a removable singularity
if limz→z0 f (z) is finite.
Consider the function f (z) = sin z/z. Here z = 0 is a singularity. However limz→0 sinz z = 1.
3. Non-removable or essential singularity
If an isolated singularity is not a pole or removable singularity, then that is called an essential
singularity.
z = 0 is an essential singularity for the function f (z) = e1/z .

• Non-isolated singularity
If there exists no , z = z0 is called a non-isolated singularity of the function of complex variable. Branch
points are the non-isolated singular points.
Consider the function f (z) = sec(1/z) [Problem No. 3.25 (b), Schaums outlines complex variables].
At z = 0 the function f (z) is not defined and hence z = 0 is a singularity of f (z). Call this singular
point z0 i.e., z0 = 0. Other singularities of f (z) are given by cos(1/z) = 0 or 1/z = (2n + 1)π/2 for
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .. z0 = 0 is obtained as a limiting value as n → ∞. Now let us consider a small circle
of radius  around this singularity z0 = 0 and check whether any other singularity exists in that circle.

|z − z0 | =  ,
|z| =  ,
2
= . (18)
(2n + 1)π

As z0 = 0 and the circle is a small circle, then limn→∞  = 0. Therefore, no circle of finite radius can be
drawn around z0 = 0 which contains no other singularities. In other words, however small circle around
z0 = 0 you choose, there will exist other singularities in that circle. z0 = 0 is a non-isolated singularity
for the function f (z) = sec(1/z).

• Branch point and branch line or branch cut

For multiple valued functions there exists a region in argand plane where the function is single valued.
This region is called a branch and the point around which the closed curve is considered for evaluation
of f (z), is called branch point. The separation between two brances is called the branch cut or branch
line.
To illustrate this, we first consider a single valued function f (z) = z 2 where z = reiθ . At θ = θ1 and
θ = θ1 + 2π, z takes the dsame values reiθ1 (as ei(θ1 +2π) = eiθ1 ). Hence value of f (z) does not change as z

8
 θ z f (z)
θ1 reiθ1 r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + π −reiθ1 ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 2π reiθ1 −r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 3π −reiθ1 −ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 4π reiθ1 r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 5π −reiθ1 ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 6π reiθ1 −r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 7π −reiθ1 −ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 8π reiθ1 r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 9π −reiθ1 ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 10π reiθ1 −r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 11π −reiθ1 −ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 12π reiθ1 r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 13π −reiθ1 ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 14π reiθ1 −r1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 15π −reiθ1 −ir1/2 eiθ1 /2
θ1 + 16π reiθ1 r1/2 eiθ1 /2

Table 1: Branch point and Branch line or cut.

does not change. However the situation is a bit different in case of multiple valued functions of complex
variable. Consider a multiple valued function f (z) = z 1/2 . From Tab. (1) we can find that the range
0 ≤ θ1 < 2π and 2π ≤ θ1 < 4π leads to two different branches of f (z) (here positive and negative values
of f (z)) and other ranges produces repitation of those two branches. θ1 = 2π is the branch cut or branch
line. z = 0 is the branch point. In this case, if we consider any point other than z = 0, say z = z 0 (Fig.
3) points on the closed curve arount z = z 0 does not lead to multiple values of f (z). This is because θ
returns to its initial value as z traces the closed curve around z = z 0 , i.e., if we choose the values of z
on the closed curve around z = z 0 , for evaluation of f (z), θ does not go to θ + 2π but returns to θ as z
returns to its initial value.

Figure 3: z = 0 is the branch point, but not z = z 0 .

Note

Note that f (z) = z 1/2 is not analytic inside any closed curved around z = 0 as f 0 (z) = 21 z −1/2 and hence
f 0 (0) blows up to ∞. In general, branch points are singular points where f (z) is not analytic. However
the situation is not same for z = z 0 unless the closed curve is very large to include z = 0. Hence around

9
 z = z 0 we can expand the function in Taylor series (defined in Sec. 13),

f (z) = z 1/2 ,
= (z + z 0 − z 0 )1/2
1
= (z 0 )1/2 + f 0 (z 0 )(z − z 0 ) + f 00 (z 0 )(z − z 0 )2 + . . . .
2
(19)

Hence f (z) becomes single valued around the point z = z 0 .

9 Integration of a function of a complex variable

f (z) is a function of complex variable z = x + iy. The integration of f (z) along line C is defined as,

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) ,

Z Z
f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy) ,
C ZC
= (u dx + iv dx + iu dy − v dy) ,
ZC Z
= (u dx − v dy) + i (v dx + u dy) .
C C

10 Geometrical Interpretation of Integration

Figure 4: Integration
Rb
Let f (x) be a function of real variable x. The integration of f (x)Hfrom x = a to x = b i.e., a f (x)dx gives
the area under the curve between x = a to x = b (Fig. 4). Hence C f (x)dx H gives the area enclosed by the
curve C. This rule is same for the integration of complex variable z. For C f (z)dz, the region enclosed by the
curve C can be categorized in two category namely simply connected region and multiply connected region.

Simply connected region

Geometrically if the region enclosed by C has no holes, the region is called simply connected region. A region
R is called simply connected if any closed curve within that region can shrink to a point without leaving that
region.

10
Figure 5: Simply connected region: The contour Γ while shrinking to a point does not leave the region enclosed
by the contour C1 .

Multiply connected region

Geometrically if the region enclosed by C has one or more than one holes, the region is called multiply connected
region. A region R is called simply connected if any closed curve within that region cannot shrink to a point
without leaving that region.

Figure 6: Multiply connected region: The contour Γ while shrinking to a point leaves the annular region
enclosed by the contours C1 and C2 .

Examples
H
1. Given that f (z) = z, find C f (z)dz where C is given by |z| < 2.

11
 Given f (z) is anlytic in the region givn by |z| < 2.
I I
f (z)dz = zdz ,
C C
I 2π
= 2eiθ (2ieiθ dθ) ,
0
I 2π
= 4i e2iθ dθ ,
0
2π
e2iθ

= 4i ,
2i 0
= 2 e4iπ − 1 ,
 

= 2(cos(4π) + i sin(4π) − 1) ,
= 2(1 + i.0 − 1) ,
= 0. (20)

11 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

If f (z) is analytic in a region R and on its boundary C in argand plane, then

I
f (z)dz = 0 , (21)
C

is valid for both the simply connected regions and multiply connected regions.

Proof

f (z) is a function analytic in the region R bounded by the contour C. Therefore R is a simply connected
region.
I I
f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy) ,
C IC I
= (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy) ,
C
ZZ  C ZZ  
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
= − − dxdy + i − dxdy , using Green0 s theorem1 ,
R ∂x ∂y R ∂x ∂y
= 0 , using Cauchy − Riemann conditions (22)

For multiply connected region in Fig. (7), the region ABCDEF GHION M LKJA is simply connected.
Hence,
I
f (z)dz = 0 ,
I I I ABCDEF GHION M LKJA
I
f (z)dz + f (z)dz + f (z)dz + f (z)dz = 0 ,
ABCDEF GH HI I ION M LKJ I JA

f (z)dz + f (z)dz = 0 ,
ABCDEF GH ION M LKJ
H H
where, HI f (z)dz = − JA f (z)dz in the limit  → 0.

hH RR   i
Green’s theorem in a plane: C (P dx + Qdy) = R ∂Q
1
∂x
− ∂P
∂y
dxdy . where P (x, y) and Q(x, y) are continuous functions
and their partial derivatives exist in a region R and on its boundary C.

12
Figure 7: The width of the dark blue region is . As  → 0 A → H and I → J and the region between two
curves ABCDEF GA IKLM N OI becomes multiply connnected.

12 Cauchy’s inequality

If f (z) is analytic inside and on a circle C of radius r and centre at z = a. Then

M n!
|f (n) (a)| ≤ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . .
rn
(23)

where M is a constant such that |f (z)| < M on C, i.e., M is an upper bound of |f (z)| on C.

13 Taylor expansion

Figure 8: R is the region between two circles, where lies a point a + h.

If f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C (consider Fig. (8)) and a, a + h are two points
inside C, then

h2 00 hn (n)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + f (a) + . . . . + f (a) + . . . . . (24)
2! n!

13
Eq. (24) can be written as

(z − a)2 00 (z − a)n (n)

f (z) = f (a) + (z − a)f 0 (a) + f (a) + . . . . + f (a) + . . . . , (25)
2! n!
with z = a + h or h = z − a.

14 Laurent expansion

Figure 9: C1 and C2 are two circles (in positive direction) with common centre at z = a. R is the region
between two circles, where lies a point a + h.

If f (z) is analytic and single valued on C1 , C2 and in the region inbetween these two curves (consider the
annular region in Fig. (9)), then
a−1 a−2 a−3
f (a + h) = a0 + a1 h + a2 h2 + a3 h3 + . . . . + + 2 + 3 + ...., (26)
h h h
n=∞
X
= an hn .
n=−∞

where a + h is a point in that aforesaid annular region and an are given by,
I
1 f (z)
an = dz , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . (27)
2πi C1 (z − a)n+1
I
1
a−n = (z − a)n−1 f (z)dz , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . (28)
2πi C1

C1 and C2 are traversed in positive direction i.e., counter clockwise direction.

15 Residues

From Eq. (26) with z = a + h, one obtains,

n=∞
X
f (z) = an (z − a)n .
n=−∞

14
 Now,
I I n=∞
X
f (z)dz = an (z − a)n dz ,
C C −∞
I X∞  
= an rn einθ ireiθ dθ , where z − a = reiθ , r = constant ,
C n=−∞
0
X Z 2π ∞ Z
X 2π
n+1 i(n+1)θ
= ian r e dθ + ian rn+1 ei(n+1)θ dθ , (29)
n=−∞ θ=0 n=0 θ=0
0
" #2π ∞
#2π "
X ei(n+1)θ e i(n+1)θ
X
= ian rn+1 + ian rn+1 , for n 6= −1 ,
n=−∞
i(n + 1) i(n + 1)
0 n=0 0
0 ∞
" # " #
i2(n+1)π −1 i2(n+1)π −1
n+1 e n+1 e
X X
= ian r + ian r ,
n=−∞
i(n + 1) i(n + 1)
n=0
= 0. (30)

For n = −1, From Eq. (29), we have,

I Z 2π
f (z)dz = ia−1 r0 e0 dθ ,
C θ=0
Z 2π
= ia−1 dθ ,
θ=0
= 2πia−1 .

Hence
I
f (z)dz = 2πia−1 (31)
C

In Eq. (31), a−1 is called the residue of f (z) at z = a.

Formula for residue calculation

If z = a is a pole of order m, the residue at z = a is given by,

1 dm−1
Residue(z = a) = lim [(z − a)m f (z)] , (32)
z→a (m − 1)! dz m−1

z
1. If f (z) = (z−1)(z+1)2 , then z = 1 and z = −1 are two poles of orders one and two respectively. Find

residue at those points. [EXAMPLE 7.1, Schaum’s outlines complex variables]

1
Residue(z = 1) = lim (z − 1)f (z) ,
z→1 0!
z
= lim (z − 1) ,
z→1 (z − 1)(z + 1)2
z
= lim ,
z→1 (z + 1)2
1
= ,
4
(33)

15
 At z = −1, m = 2, which leads to
1 d 
(z + 1)2 f (z) ,

Residue(z = −1) = lim
z→−1 (2 − 1)! dz
 
1 d 2 z
= lim (z + 1) ,
z→−1 1! dz (z − 1)(z + 1)2
 
d z
= lim ,
z→−1 dz z − 1
 
1 z
= lim − ,
z→−1 z − 1 (z − 1)2
1 −1
= − ,
−1 − 1 (−1 − 1)2
1 1
= − + ,
2 4
1
= − .
4

16 Residue theorem

If f (z) is a single valued and analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C except at the singularities z = a,
b, c, . . . . inside C, with the residues given by a−1 , b−1 , c−1 ,. . . ., then the residue theorem states that,
I
f (z)dz = 2πi (a−1 + b−1 + c−1 + . . . . .) . (34)
C
(35)

Figure 10: Dots are the poles of different order.

Note

Prove that Cauchys theorem and integral formulas can be obtained as special cases of the residue theorem.
[Problem No. 7.75, Schaums outlines complex variables]
Let
g(z)
f (z) = , (36)
(z − z0 )

16
where g(z) is the analytic everywhere inside and on a simple contour C and hence f (z) has a simple pole z = z0
inside the contour C. From Eq. (32), we obtain
1
Residue(z = z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z) ,
z→z0 0!
g(z)
= lim (z − z0 ) ,
z→z0 (z − z0 )
= g(z0 ) . (37)

Therefore from the residue theorem in Eq. (34) and residue at z = z0 (Eq. (37), we obtain
I
f (z)dz = 2πi × Residue(z = z0 ) ,
C
= 2πig(z0 ) ,
I
1 g(z)
g(z0 ) = dz . (38)
2πi C (z − z0 )

If there exists no residue for any function f (z) inside and on a simple contour C, from residue theorem in
Eq. (34), we obtain
I
f (z)dz = 0 . (39)
C

Proof of Cauchy’s inequality in Sec. 12

Differentiating both sides of Eq. (38) with respect to z0 , we obtain

I
0 1 g(z)
g (z0 ) = dz .
2πi C (z − z0 )2

After n times differentiation with respect to z0 ,

I
(n) n! g(z)
g (z0 ) = dz . (40)
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1

Let the region of integration be a circle of radius r and centred at z0 . Hence

|z − z0 | = r . (41)

From Eqs. (40) and (41), we obtain

I
(n) n! g(z)
g (z0 ) = dz ,
2πi C rn+1
I
n! g(z)
g (n) (z0 ) = dz ,
|2πi| C rn+1
n! M
≤ × n+1 × 2πr ,
2π r
M × n!
≤ , (42)
rn
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . ..

17