Section 5, Part 1 Well control: principles & practices Edition 2, December 2008CONTENTS Topic 1 Introduction. 15 Topic 2 Fluids, Pressures & Gradients. » 1 Objectives 9 2 Densities and Gradients 19 2 Liquids 19 22 Gas, 2 3 __ Hydrostatic Pressure 3.1 Liquids 32 Gases. 4 Pressures inthe Well 22 5 Capacities and Volumes “a Topic 3 Formation Pressures and Temperatures. 5 1 Introduction and Objectives 4s Porosity and Permeability 4s 2 Porosity 45 22° Permeability 46 3 Pressure Origins 46 3.1 Bulk Density a7 32 Formation Water Density 48 4 Depth Datums 48 5S __ Pore Pressure Profiles so 5.1 Normally Pressured formations 50 52. Sub-Normally Pressured Formations SI 53 Abnormally Pressured Formations. 33 6 Formation Temperature 58 6.1 The Bart's Temperature 58 62 Downhole Temperatures 39 63 Disturbed and Circulating Temperature Profiles. 61 Topic 4 Primary Well Control, 63 1 Inteoduction and Objectives 63 2 Fluid Gradient Selection. eB 3 Maintenance of Primary Control 64 3.1 Loss of Primary Control whilst Drilling A 65 32 Lost Circulation 1 3.3. Loss of Primaty Control whilst Tripping n Topic § Formation Strength 8s 1 Introduction 8s Formation Strength 85 2.1 Strength of Rock 85 22 Suess Regime 86 23. Permeability of the Rock 86 Page 5/1/71 Walls DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Page 5/1/2 ‘Walls DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2003 Formation Behaviour under Pressure 86 3.1 Linear Presure/ Volume relationship. 86 32 NoneLineat Pressure / Volume relationship a 33 Formation Breakdown, 87 34 Fracture propagation. a7 4 Formation Stength Tests a8 41 Objective a8 42° Procedure. : 88 4.3. Interpretation, 0 5) __ Application of Formation Strength 91 5.1 "Formation Leak-OFT Swength 2 5.2. Formation Breakdown Gradient °2 53. Maximum Fluid Gradient 2 5/4 Maximum Allowable Anaular Surfice Pressure 2 55. Dailing Fluid Parameters sam % © Limitations of Formation Strength Data ce 0 6.1 Offect Well Information. 33 62 Surength vs Depth % 63 Leak Off test vs Weil Conrol Operation 3 7 Other timits on Ditng Mud Density ro 94 Topic 6 Barriers. 95 1 Inroduetion 9s 2 Fluid Herirs 9s 3 Mechanical Barriers 96 4 Barer Test Integrity : 97 41 Inflow Testing ss. 97 42° Sub Hydrostatic Reservois. * Topie 7 Secondary Well Control. 101 1 troduction 101 2 The Well asa U-Tube 102 21 Pumpinga Slug 103 22 Modeling a Kick 10s 3 Pre-Rick Calculations. 101 UL MAASP Considerations 10 32 Slow Circulating Rates 12 33 Contingoney Stock Levels 116 4 Regaining Cont. M7 4.1 Diversion of Shallow Flows 7 42° Closing in the Wel 5 17 43. Situation Assessment 133 S__ Removal of Influx 129 51 Invoduction.. 129 52 State and Dynamie Pressres oI 6 Driller’ Method 133 6.1 Planning & Preparation 133 6.2. First circulation 13 63 _ Second Circulation 19s 7 Wait & Weight Method 8 TA PhaseS on 108 72 Cireulating pressures a4 13 Static and dynamic pressure pts. las 14 Operational Procedires M6 8 Weight &e Weight vs Drillers Method las 8. Advantages ofthe Driers Method is 8.2 Disadvantages of Daller's Method. 149 83 Advantages ofthe Wait & Weight Method ia 814 Disadvantages ofthe Wait & Weight Method 49 Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices a Page 5/1/3 v2.008.5. Which Method to Use? 149 8.6 Choke Pressures 130 9 Problems While Circulating Ovt an Influx 1st 9.41» Empty Drilstring 152 9.2 Pump failure, z 132 93 Losses 132 94 Well geometry 133 915 Plugged choke. 153 9.6 Washed Out Choke oo 153, 9.7 Leaking BOP. Sas 153 918 Plugged bit nozzle 158 9.9 Los bit nozzle or string washout ist 9.10 Contaminated retums 3 38 Topie 8 Alternative Killing Methods. 156 1 nirodueton.. 136 2 Migration 136 21 Volumetric method = 156 22 Combined volumetic stapping procedure asi 165 3. __ Injection (or Bultheading) : : 176 3.1. Operational Considerations - 7 Topic 9 Deviated Wells and Tapered Strings. 79 1 Introduetion 179 2 Deviated wells 179 2.1 Horizontal Wells 182 3 Tapered Strings 183 Topic 10 Advanced Gas Calculations 187 1 Introduction 187 2 Gas Pressures when Depth of Bottom of Influx is Known, 5 188 21 Principals 188 22° Caleulations| 188 3. Gas Pressures if location of Top of Influx is Known 192 3.1 Drillers Method or Phase Tof W&W Method. 192 3.2 Phase Il of Wait &Weight Method 9a Topic 11 Worked Examples. 197 1 Vertical Well 97 Lt Data 197 12 Basie Well Kill- SI Units Example 198 13 Basie Well Kill - Field Units Example 205, 1% Annular Pressure Calculations 212 2 Tapered Strings zi 2.41 Introduction 221 22 Daten aoe 221 23 Calculate Capacities and Volumes, 2a 24 Calculate Well Kill Data 22 3 ns 225 32 Well Date 225 33 Calculate Directional Data 2s 34 Casing Wear Calelation 230 4 —Deiller’s Method. 234 5 Wait & Weight Method 236 Page 5/174 Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200RELATED PARTS & INFORMATION Prior to studying this Part of the Wells Distance Learning Package you are strongly recommended to have completed the following subjects: Section 3 Drilling Rig (All parts) Section 5 Part 8 Geology This Parr should be studied in association with the Shell Group policy document on Well Control EP 2002-1500 Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and Workover Operations ‘Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices sf Page 5/1/5 EE v200Page 5/176 ‘Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices ¥200OBJECTIVES After scudying this Part, consuleing other relevant documents and, if necessary, discussions, with your mentor, you will be able co: 1. Define che terms kick, blow-out, primary, secondary and tertiary control 2. Sketch and explai static and overburden gradients, pressure vs. depth diagram showing the relationship between hydro- Describe how the overburden or bulk gradient can be calculated 4, Describe the procedure for performing and evaluating a Formation Strength Test including calculation of EMMG and MAASP. 5. State the conditions which lead to lost circulation, indicate the problems that can result and describe how to deal with losses. 6. Explain the origin and hazards of shallow gas accumulations 7. Explain the critical parameters that should be controlled co prevent a shallow gas influx 8. Describe the step-by-step procedures co deal with a shallow gas kick 9. Define the terms normally, sub-normally and abnormally pressured formations 10. Explain the origin and hazards of sub-normally and abnormally pressured formations 11, Identify the stresses acting on a borehole 2. Define the maximum and minimum drilling fluid gradients that may be used to maintain primary well control 13. Explain how a suitable drilling fluid gradienc is selected in an unknown area Understand che principles of abnormal pressure prediction and the warning signs that may be observed during drilling 14, Lise the relevant parameters and che consequences of surge and swab pressures during tripping 15. Identify the warning signs of a kick whilst drilling or tripping 16, Explain the techniques of, and differences between, hard and soft shut- in. 17. Lise the hazards associated with Annulus Pressure approaching MAASP and indicate possible actions to be caken 18. Explain the different methods of dealing with a kick with che bic on bottom and their respective advantages and/or disadvantages 19, Describe the procedure for dealing with secondary pressure build-up of shut-in pressures. 20, Perform all required calculations for removing an influx from a well using circulating ot migration methods 1. Explain the four phases during the circulation of an influx our of a well 22. Explain the “hidden” safery margins inherent in che circulatory method of removing an influx and how this effects the selection of kill fluid gradient, additional back pressure etc 23. Explain che characteristics and recommended response to the following problems chat might be encountered during well control operations Wells DIP — Well Control Principles & Practicesa. plugged or washed out bit nozzles - plugged or washed out choke - pump failure b. pressure gauge failure - string washout c. blockage downhole - lost circulation 24, Describe the precautions and principles of well abandonment from a well control viewpoine 25. Explain the various well control drills performed at the rig site Page 5/1/8 ‘Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00RESUME This Part is intended to incroduce both the Well Engineer and Well Services Engineer co the basic principals and practices of Well Control. While it addresses the concepts of well concrol there are further Parts in the Well Engineering knowledge and Well Services knowledge that address well control while drilling in open hole and during specialized well intervention work in greater detail ‘This Part introduces pore pressures and describes the mechanisms by which normal, over- and under-pressures can arise, A very brief summary of basic rock mechanics is given - sufficient to provide an understanding of the critical importance of the relacionship between for strength, drilling fluid density and surface pressure during well conceol operations, ‘The concepts of barriers as well as primary, secondary and tertiary well control are presented, with detailed explanations of che practices which allow primary control to be maintained and the secondary control procedures co be followed if a ki illustrated by worked examples x (an inflow) should occur. The lateer are The document addresses Well Control at both Round | and Round 2 Levels. The following topics should be studied (and Yellow Pages worked through) prior to che Round 1 Exam. Topic 1 Ineroduction Topic 2 Fluids, Pressure and Gradients ‘Topic 3. Formation Pressures and Temperatures Topic 4 Primary Well Control Topic 5 Formation Strength Topic 6 Barriers Topic 7 Secondary Well Control The Worked Examples in Topic 11 1.1-1.3 should also be examined. Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/9 v200Page 5/1/10 Wells DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices ¥200ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations are used by convention for Well control and Casing Desiga throughout the Wells Distance Learning Package Unies Item Definition st Field Pp drilling fluid gradient : kPaim _| psilfe Po formation pressure gradient | kPaim | psilfe PL inivial drilling fluid gradiene kPalm_| psilfe Po ‘gradient of weighted drilling fluid (final weight up in stages | kPalm | psi/fe method) Priais incermediace drilling fluid gradients in well killing by stages | kPaim | psilfe | with p> being the gradient of the final weight up Pr formation strength gradient, normally caken to be at the shoe | kPaim | psilfc unless specified otherwise Pint gradient of the influx kPaim | psilfe | sub-subscripis: b = on bottom, s = with top of influx at shoe, x = with top of influx at point "x" Bur effective gradient of influx at point of interest KkPa/m | psilfe Pm gradient of drilling fluid in the Strong-White equation for gas | kPalm | psilft cut drilling fluid Pw ‘gradient of weighting material a kPalm | psiffe A nozzle area mm | in BHP Bottom Hole Pressure kPa_| psi hea constant in the power-law equation for P, Gq linear capacity of drill collar/open hole annulus mim _| boli G Tineat capacity of drill pip/open hole annulus mim | bbl/fe C3 linear capacity of drill pipe/casing annulus [mim | bi Cap average linear capacity of annulus opposite an influx mim | bblift subscripts: b ~ on bottom, s ~ with cop of influx at shoe, x with cop of influx at poine "x" di outside diameter of pipe mm [in a diamecer of the hole PEE mm fin D depth from surface to bit — |m ft Dd, height of P; drilling fluid below the influx m fe D2 heigh« of P» drilling Mluid below the influx m fc Da depth of hole (or to point of entry of an influx) ™ ft Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices is Page 5/1/11 vz00Dy depth 0 casing shoe m fe DFE drill floor elevation f friction factor g acceleration due ¢o gravicy (9.80665 mis") G Geothermal gradient deg Deg Cm Fite GLE ground level elevation h height of drilling fluid column in Scrong-White equation for | m fe gas cut drilling fluid h height of influx ™m fe subscripts: b = on bottom, s = with top of influx at shoe, x with top of influx at point "x" hy! ‘equivalent height to height of influx at bottom, based only on | m fe change in capacity and inclination up hole ing ‘actual height of influx up hole m fe Zz height of part of P: drilling fluid in drill pipe - casing annulus | m ft Lint length of influx in annulus m ft sub-subscripes: b = on bottom, s = with top of influx at shoe, x = with cop of influx at poine "x" Tage Iength of choke line m fc Tae Tength of deill collars ™ fe Lap lengeh of deill pipe ™ fe Lupoh length of drill pipe in open hole m fe Lywdp | length of heavy wall drill pipe ™ fe MAASP | Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure kPa__| psi MSL mean sea level a index in the power-law equation for P, Ny amount of weighting material co weight up 1 mor 1 bbl kgim® | Ibs/bbl Ny amount of weighting material to weight up total volume of | kg Ibs drilling fluid PP. partial pressure of a gas in a mixcure of gases kPa psi P pressure at the cop of the influx kPa__| psi Pann closed-in annulus pressure kPa psi Phic pressure drop across bit nozzles kPa psi P. friction pressure while circulating [kPa ‘| psi subscripts : \ = with original drilling fluid, 2 with new drilling fluid Pohoke [pressure reduction in the Strong-White equation for gas cut | kPa psi drilling fluid Pehoke choke pressure kPa | psi Pip closed in drill pipe pressure kPa psi Pe pressure exerced by the mass of gas which entered the annulus _| kPa Psi Page 5/1712 ‘Wells DIP- Well Control: Principles & Praciices v2.00while seill on botcom{= hy id Pi pressure drop due to friction in che annulus kPa | psi Prch pressure drop due to friction in che choke line kPa_| psi Pra pressure drop due to friction in the drill pipe kPa | psi Pe Formation strengeh at che casing shoe (= D, ah kPa | psi B, hydrostatic head at depth h in Strong-White equation for gas_| kPa | psi cut drilling fluid P formation pressure KPa psi Po* pressure at the top of the gas influx when influx is at bottom | KPa | psi = Po- Pit P, Total friction pressure loss ('s" = system) or borehole pressure | kPa | psi opposite the casing shoe, according to context Pate formation strength at the casing shoe [- D, a] kPa_| psi Px standpipe pressure kPa | psi Preabisurge | Surge and swab pressures kPa__| psi Pim Trip margin kPa | psi Proat Closed. in annulus pressure at start kPa | psi Papi Closed in drill pipe pressure at stare kPa | psi Pipa Closed in drill pipe pressure at end of first circulation kPa | psi Pips closed in drill pipe pressure at end of second circulation KPa | psi Pret standpipe pressure at the beginning of the first circulation kPa | psi Bao standpipe pressure at end of phase 1 in first circulation kPa | psi P pressure in the well at a specified point of interest "x" kPa | psi Q flow rare (pump output) mimin | gpm Tj initial absoluce temperacure of gas K R ES absoluce cemperacure of gas at poine of incerest K R Vv increase in volume of drilling fluid due co weighting macerial | m __ | bl Ve drilling fluid velocity mis, ft/min | v1 volume of drilling fluid above kick at end of phase I ™ bbl vi original volume of yas im bbl Vo expanded volume of gas mm bbl vy average drilling fluid velocity when calculating surge and swab [mis | /min pressures Vint Volume of influx ey bbl notations b= on bottom, s = with cop of influx at shoe, x = wich cop of influx at point "x Vann total volume of annulus ™ bol Vas volume or capacity of the drill string = bol Vv. toral cank volume increase m | del x height of pi drilling fluid above influx m fc Xa volume fraction of gas at che well head (gas cue drilling Muid)_[m> | bbl Wells DIP - Well Conirak: Principles & Praclices Page 5/1/13 vz00Za inicial compressibility factor of gas 2, compressibility factor of gas at point of interest ¢ inclination of hole to vertical deg | deg. subscripts: b = on bottom, s = at the shoe, x = at poine "x" Page 5/1/14 Wells DLP - Well Contral: Principles & Practices v2.00a Ke)e) (om Introduction Drilling, workover and well intervention operations are often performed through permeable formations that contain fluids at pressures sufficient co let them flow to surface. These fluids — both liquids and gases — must be kept under control for HSE, economic and operational reasons ~ and also for the reputation of the Shell Group. Under some circumstances the fluids can be subject to extreme pressures and temperatures in-situ although these are not pre-requisites for the Aluids to cause well control problems. Failure to maincain control over these fluids during drilling and workover ‘operations can result in a flow into the well bore. Such a flow is called a Rick. ‘When such a flow is not controlled and stopped, the situation can deteriorate, ending in the uncontrolled release of reservoir fluids to the environment at surface called a blow-out ‘Well intervention operations are routinely performed on dee wells with See a. significant surface pressures. Figure 5.1.1: Blowout on Barge Operational problems, equipment failure or human error can result in a similar catastrophic loss of containment of the well fluids: Blow-outs can have a very visible environmental impact and, for that reason alone, can be very damaging co the repucacion of the Operator. ‘The pressures and material that can be unleashed demand the ucmost respect. Blow-ours can and do kill people and cause extensive damage to equipment. Entire rigs and platforms have been totally consumed by fire. Control and : a recovery costs can fun into tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars. > Sameer However, the greatest cost of a blow- our can be che damage it causes ¢o the value of the producing reservoir. The recoverable reserves of oil and gas can be dramatically reduced due to depletion of pressure and gas or water breakthrough A blow-out can also effect overlying formations which may become polluced ov abnoemally:pressarised ~ eHeccing Figure 5.1.2: Lond Rig Blowout field operations long after the surface (e.g. environmental) impact has been resolved. Wells DP — Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/15 v200Wichin Shell, the responsibility chat lies with the wellsice supervisor is almost unique. Rarely can che decisions and actions of a single person have the potential to have such a major impact. It is , therefore, critical that Well Engineering & Well Services staff are competent in the various elements of welll control. The underlying principle of well control is che application of barriers to contain reservoir fluids. Barriers can be the hydrostatic pressure exerted by columns of fluid or mechanical devices. Shell generally operates a double barrier policy, requiring that under normal conditions two independent barriers are available for each potential flow path from a subsurface reservoir co surface. The system or device known as the first or primary barrier is the one which is normally expected to maintain control of che well. The secondary barrier is the back-up system or device which comes into use if the primary barrier stops working. If any situation occurs in which only one independent barrier is in place the immediate priority must be given to restoring the double barrier situacion. This is «rue regardless of which barrier has failed. Figure 5.1.3: Well Intervention Blowout During drilling and workover operations, Primary Well Control is the prevention of flow of reservoir fluids into the wellbore by maintaining a bottom hole pressure greater or equal to pressures found in exposed permeable formations. Shell Well Control policy dictates that all routine drilling and workover operations are to be planned and executed such that Primary Control is maintained at all times. Primary Well Control in well intervention such as wireline and coiled tubing operations is achieved by a mechanical barrier that maintains a dynamic seal around the wire or coiled cubing to be run into and out of the well. When any of these primary mechanisms fail, secondary control is provided by mechanical blow-out prevention systems. ‘These contain ‘mechanical seals that can close in the well at surface and thus prevent further flow into the well. They also provide the mechanism for removing § an influx from che well under Figure 5.1.4: Shallow Gas Blowout Offshore controlled conditions “The procedures for regaining primary control aim to do so with minimum impact co the immediate and long term integricy and productivity of che well Page 5/1/16 Walls DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Should secondary concrol_ measures fail then more drastic tertiary well control measures may be applied. ‘This Pare gives a grounding in che subjects of primary and secondary well concrol as applied to “normal” wells. As the boundaries of drilling technology are extended, and wells are drilled close to the limits of what is possible, the question of pressure control becomes both more complicated and more critical. In “advanced” well control the principles do not change, but a much more detailed understanding of the discribucion of fluids and pressures within the well is required, which is beyond the scope of the Wells DLP. EP 2002-1500, the Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and Workover Operations is che definitive guide co well control, covering not only “normal” and “advanced” wells, bur also the special cechniques required for specific cypes of well and/or situations. Ic also contains a set of Policy statements (Section 1). You must be familiar with these, which should be taken to be an integral part of this Part of the Wells DLP. ‘The material presented in this training document is for guidance only and should never be used if it conflicts with policies and procedures found in either EP 2002-1500 or your Regional or Local Standards, ‘Well Engineers and Well Services Engineers must be familiar with the policies and practices as laid ouc in EP 2002-1500 Figure 5.1.5: Visible impoct of blowouts Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/17 vz00Page 5/1/18 Wells DIP = Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Topic 2 Fluids, Pressures & Gradients 1 OBJECTIVES ‘The basic principles of well control relate to hydrastatic pressure — the pressure generated by a column of one or more fluids. In this topic the key issues relating co fluid densities, pressures and pressure gradients will be explored using both mecric and field units where appropriate. By the end of it you should be able co: 1. Sketch and explain a pressure vs. depth diagram 2. Explain the differences in behaviour between a liquid and a gas, 3. Calculate pressures at any depth given a fluid pressure gradient 4, Calculate pressures in gas columns 5. Identify che critical pressures in a well 6. Correct brines for changes in temperacure 7. Perform gas pressure and volume change calculations 2 DENSITIES AND GRADIENTS Wells Engineers deal with fluids in all wells. The cwo different Muids; liquids and gases, behave very differently, © Liquids are characterised by being largely incompressible and thus maincain a relatively constant density with depth. © Gases, however, are compressible and thus the density changes with pressure and/or depth. 21 LIQUIDS 2.1.1 DENSITY Consider a container that has dimensions of lm x 1m x lm. (Figure 5.1.6). Assume the container is filled wich fresh LA water (H,0). The volume of the block is 1x 1x 1 = Im* The density of a liquid is a measure of the mass of a specific volume of that liquid. ‘The metric unic of density is ky per cubic metre (kg/m’), ‘Two common field units are pounds per gallon (ppg) and pounds per cubic foot (Ibi). seer ete) —— Fresh water at standard conditions has a density of Figure 5.1.6 Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices _ Page 5/1/19 v2001000kg / m or 62.4 Ib/fe? or 8.35 ppg. ‘The standard conditions are: Metric Field Units Temperature 15.56°C 60°F Pressure 101.29 kPa 14.691 psi 2.1.2 — SpeciFic GRAVITY Analternative way of quoting density is to express it relative to a standard fluid. As all fluid densities are effected by both temperature and pressure, these comparisons are made at standard conditions used to determine the density of the reference fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is fresh water. This relationship is called the Specific Gravity (SG). enSiCY jeanne (KB/3) Sd ‘As kg/m3 appears on top and bottom of Equation 5.1.1, the expression SG is dimensionless Given che density of freshwacer = L000kg/m* (equivalent of an SG of 1,00), che mass of che container = 1,000 x 1 = 1,000kg. Weight is given by the formula Weighe(w) yass(m) x gravity(g) ss dveaerceceretetavrdenoncmou DOLD ‘The acceleration due to gravity on earth = 9.8Lm/secisec. Thus the weight (or force) of the container is 1000 x 9.81 = 9,810 N ‘The most common field unit for weight is the pound (abbreviated ro Ib and sometimes #), 2.1.3 PRESSURE Pressure is expressed as force per unit area. ‘The metric unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) where 1 Pascal = IN/m2.. The field unit of pressure is psi (Ib/in”). In the case of Figure 5.1.6, the pressure exerted across the bottom of the container is 9,810 Pa which is often simplified to 9.81 kPa (1kPa = 1000 Pa). Similarly, if a container of Ife x Ift x Ife was taken, this has an area on the botcom of Ift? or 12 inches x 12 inches = 144 inches’. Given chat the weight of ft? of water is 62.4lbs, the pressure exerted on the bottom of the conrainer can be calculated as: Fo _ Alb A 144 ins’ = 0.433 Ib/ins* or psi ‘Now consider another container with the same height but different volumes; Im high x 0.5m long x 0.25m wide. What will be the pressure actoss the bottom of the container? Page 5/1/20 ____ Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00Volume =1x0.5%0.25=0.125m' Weight = 0.125x1000x9.81 =1226.25N Area =0.5X0.25 = 0.125m? W _ 1226.25 Pressure =—— = 0.125 =9,810Pa=9.81kPa Indeed it can be determined chat for any size of container, as long as the height is the same, the pressure on the bottom will be the same. aa Now consider another container of the same volume as before placed on top of the original container (Figure 5.1.7). Volume =1x1x2= 2m? Weight = 2x1000%9.81=19,620N Area on bottom =1x1=1m? Figure 5.1.7 W _ 19,620 Pressure =—— =19,620Pa =19.62kPa 2.1.4 PRESSURE GRADIENTS Figure 5.1.7 shows chac pressure is proportional to the height (or true vertical length | depth) of the column of fluid. Consequently, if we know the density of a fluid we can express this as an equivalent pressure gradient, P, where Pressure Pressure Gradient (p)= Depthyp, Common units for pressure gradient are kPalm and psift As fresh water, with an SG of | has a pressure gradient of 9.81 kPaim, the pressure gradient of any. liquid can be determined : Pressure Gradient(p) = SG, 9.81 (kPa/m) .... 14 A very common measurement of pressure is the bar. 1 bar = 100kPa. Furthermore, a unit of pressure gradient used in some companies is bar! 10m Consequently, equation 5.1.4 can be expressed as: Pressure Gradient(p)=SG guy X0.981. (bar/10M) .onenenenenn 5.15 Similarly, using field units; Pressure Gradient(p) =SG yj 0433. (psi/ fe) 5.1.6 AA fairly self-explanatory field unie pressure gradient used in some companies is psi per thousand feet (pptt). Fluid densities are often quoted in terms of pounds per gallon (ppg). This can be converted co psifft: Wells DIP — Well Control: P les & Practices Page 5/1/21 ¥200Pressure Gradient(p) = ppBigus *0.052_ (psi/ ft) sus seen ET 2.1.5 API GRAVITY For wells thae produce oil or condensate the API gravity of such liquids may be given rather chan the pressure gradient or the specific gravity. The API gravity of an oil or condensate can be related to ies specific gravity by the empirical equation: 1415 sG = = LS + CAPL 5.18 ‘The API gravity of an oil or condensate is measured using a hydrometer. API gravity is a term commonly used by production personnel. Figure 5.1.8 illuscrates the API gravity scale. Condensates Figure 5.1.8: API Gravity Range 2.2 GAS 2.2.1 Gas Laws Gas is a type of fluid but differs ftom a liquid due to the fact that it is compressible. The density of a gas is significantly effected by changes in both pressure (P) and temperature (T). The pressure of a gas is generated by the impact forces of molecules of gas hitting the confining surface (Figure 5.1.9). Much work has been performed on the behaviour of gases under changing temperature and pressure. Volume (V} oc _smipetannse (1) Pressure (P) ‘The volume (V) of a given quantity or mass of gas will increase as its temperacure increases. Similarly, the volume will decrease as the pressure increases Figure 5.1.9: Gas Pressure ‘The way in which this proportionalicy works is given the value of R such that for a given mass or quantity of gas, PxV 5.19 RxT This expression can be rearranged: Page 5/1/22 Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2005.1.10 Figure 5.1.10; Molecule Interaction Figure 5.1.11: Molecular Compression ‘The problem with che ideal gas law is chat it assumes chat the molecules of gas have no effect on each other. As temperatures increase, the velocity of gas molecules increase and so the chances of them hitting each other increases (Figure 5.1.10). Similarly, as pressure increases, the separation of the molecules of gas reduces and so, again, the chances of them hitting each other increases. Consequently, gases do not behave in an ideal manner (Figure 5.1.11) and do not maintain the constant of 1 shown in equation 5.1.9. Figure 5.1.12 shows the behaviours of different gases as che pressure increases. ‘The value of PVIRT is called 7. — che compressibility factor. As can be seen, for methane (CH), the compressibility drops below 1 up to about 370 bar and then rises above I — this assumes a constant temperature 0 200 +400 «600 +~=—«800-~—=«t000 P (atm) Figure 5.1.12: Real Gas Beha Wells DIP = Well Contra: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/23 vz05Figure 5.1.13 illustrates the behaviour of Nitrogen at differing temperatures as it is compressed. 3 200 K 500 K 1000 K Ideal gas 300 600 ‘900 Pratm) Figure 5.1.13: Nitrogen behaviour at different temperatures It can be seen that the higher the temperature, the closer Nitrogen comes in terms of behaviour to a real gas. Fora given mass of gas; Pv CRE eee eee S.AAL Iciis important co note thac when considering the behaviour of gases, absolute pressures rather than gauge pressures should be used. Considering atmospheric pressure, when measured on most pressure gauges, this will show a reading of 0 bar / psi. However, the actual pressure is around 15psi or 1 bar. Absolute temperatures should also be used when considering the behaviour of gases. Absoluce temperatures are measured in ° Kelvin (K) in metric units and ° Rankin (R) in imperial units K =°C+273 R =F +460 ‘An extension to Equation 5.1.11 is that the relationships are also valid for different masses of gas. “The mass of gas is generally taken to be a value of n where n is the number of moles of the gas. As this is a constant and the Real Gas Law applies a relacionship can be developed for a gas under different conditions (1 and 2): eotnmenenee Seb In practical use during well concrol procedures, a constant mass of gas is in place, the temperature is assumed to be constant and che compressibility is ignored. This then allows the equation to be simplified to: Page 5/1/24 Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.005.1.13 3.114 veces SALAS Both of these formula are used extensively in well control calculations. For example: i. 15bbls of gas at a pressure of 3,000psi expands co 1,000psi. ‘The new volume can be calculated: _ 3000%15 1000 = 45bbls ii, 4.5m! of gas at a pressure of 125 bar is compressed to 2m?. ‘The new pressure can be calculated: RY, _125x45 = 281.25bar iii, During a kick, gas with a choke pressure of 1,800psi is circulared through a choke manifold at a pump rate of 1.5bbl/min. Downstream of the choke the pressure is assumed co drop co ambient atmospheric pressure (+ 15 psi). The flow rate of gas through che poor-boy degasser can be calculated: PY, P, 1.9% 1,800 =180 bbls/min 2.2.2 Gas DENSITY Because of it’s compressibility and response to changes in temperatures, gas density is a tricky subject! It muse always be qualified by the temperature and pressure it refers co. Gas density can also be quoted relative co a standard fluid. ‘The standard fluid for gases is air, measured at standard conditions of 15.5 °C (60° F) and 1 bar (14.7psi). Air has a density of 1.2238kg/m’ (0.0764 Ibife?)at these standard conditions. The specific gravity and densities of some common gases are displayed in Table 1.5.1 Table 15.1 Gas Specific Gravity and Density at standard conditions Air 7 1.2238 kg/m3 Carbon dioxide 1.529 1.8712 kg/m3 Ethane 1.0493 1.2841 kg/m3 Methane 0.5544 0.6785 kg/m3 Hydrogen Sulphide 1.19 1.4563 kg/m3 Oxygen 1.10527 1.3526 kg/m3_ Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/25 vz00The specific gravity of a mixture of gases can be calculated from the fractions of each gas. For example, consider a gas comprising 50% methane, 30% ethane, 8% carbon dioxide and 2% hydrogen sulphide: SG =D (leo® Gora) = (0.5%0.5544) +(0.3%1.0493) + (0.081.529) + (0.02% 1.19) 277 2+0.31479+0,12232+0.0238 73811 Similarly, the density of che mixture at standard temperature and pressure can be determined in the same way. Alternatively, the density can be determined from the final SG: = 0.73811 1.2238 = 0.9033 kg/m? Pon In this situation the fractions of all of the gases are quoted as percentages — which can also be considered as parts per 100. It is also common to quote the fractions of gas in parts per million (ppm). In the case of hydrogen sulphide, the fraction of 2% could also be expressed as, 20,000ppm —a quice lethal dose!! ‘The challenge is to determine the density of a gas at 2 given temperature and pressure. ‘This can be determined by a variation of the Real Gas equation (Equation 5.1.11) If the Specific Gravity of a gas is known then the following formula can be used co determine the density and chus pressure gradient of the gas at chat point in the well 5.1.16 where Units Metric Field Pu ~ Density of Gas kPaim —_psiffe SGia = Specific Graviey of the Gas : 7 Pry = Pressure of gas at thae point kPa Psi as Gas compressibility factor 7 7 Tos ‘Temperacure of Gas °K oR C= Constane 29.24 53.34 Ic should be remembered that the value of Z. is not a constant, it also varies with the temperature and pressure of the gas in question. In practice, the value for natural gas at common well bore cemperature and pressures is somewhere between 0.8 and 0.95. It is often assumed just to be 1.0. As the gas law states that —* thus the equation for the density of the gas can also be stated as: SAAT Page 5/1/26 ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200‘This is significant as it indicates thar as the volumes of a given mass of gas éncreases, its density will decrease Ignoring the effects of temperature and compressibility, for a constant mass of gas (which an influx will normally be until ic escapes to atmosphere at surface: Pr =P, 5.118 2.2.3 PARTIAL PRESSURES ‘Where a gas consists of more than one component, the expression partial pressure is sometimes used to describe the amount of each component present. ‘The partial pressure of a gas is derived from the fraction of the component (commonly expressed as a percentage or in terms of parts per million) and the total pressure of the gas mixture. It can be calculated as follows: PPcomponent = (total pressure)» (fraction of component in gas mixture) For example: i. Gas at a pressure of 3,000psi contains 4% of CO:. ‘The partial pressure of the CO2 can be calculated: 4 PCO, = 3,000% 55 = 120psi ii, Gas at a pressure of 250 bar contains 15ppm of H.S. The partial pressure of the H.S can be calculated: 15 x? = 0,00375bar = 1,000,000 pers = 250 75millibar 3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Ic is critical that a Wells Engineer is skilled in the calculation and analysis of hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted at a given depth by the weight of the overlying column of liquid. Wells DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/27 va00Figure 5.1.14: Demonstration of hydrostatic pressure Hydroscarie pressure is best demonstrated by the example shown in Figure 5.1.14. ‘The shape of the scream of water is determined by the horizontal velocity as it leaves the container. This velocity is proportional to che hydrostatic pressure at the hole. ‘The greater che height of the liquid level above che hole (sometimes referred to as the hydrostatic head) the higher the hydrostatic pressure 3.1 uQuIDS ‘The bydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of liquid can be calculated by rearranging equation 5.13. Pressure = Gradient x TVD Se 5 5 5.1.19 ‘Thus, for a 3,000m (10,000 ft) well filled with fresh water (SG 1, gradient of 0.433psi/fo), the hydrostatic pressure at bottom will be its gradient multiplied by the vertical depth, i.e. Metric Field Units Pressure @ 3000m Pressure @ 10,000f¢ = 3000 x 1x 9.81 = 10,000 x 0.433 = 29,430kPa (294.3 bar) =4,300 psi “The relacionship between pressure and depth can be plotted on a pressure vs. depth graph. A constant density will generate a straight line on such a graph (see Figure 5.1.15) Page 5/1/28 ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00Pressure —* True Vertical Depth | Figure 5.1.15: Pressure vs. Depth graph of a liquid ‘The hydrostatic pressure generated by a column of fluid is sometimes called the bydrostatic bead of the fluid. In the case of a well with different fluids in the drillscring and annulus the hydroscatic head of the annulus contents will be different co the hydrostatic head of the drillstring contents. ‘The depths used co calculate pressures are always the True Vertical Depth (TVD) which is any depth transposed onto a vertical plane, (see Figure 5.1.16) The pressure at a given TVD is independent of the shape of the hole or che inclination of the hole. Figure 5.1.16: Pressure vs. Depth ‘Where more than one type of liquid is present (on cop of each other) in the well then the total hydrostatic head of the fluid column is equal to the sum of the hydrostatic heads of the individual fluids (illustrated in Figure 5.1.17): Wells DIP = Well Control: Principles & Pracices Page 5/1/29 vz00BHP =(TVD juin, * Pras) (TWD jut 2* Patz) + (TVD 5 Pras )-€0C errno 5A-20 Pretste i : Figure $.1.17: Multiple fluid gradients 1.1 BRINES Beines are solutions of water and various salts. Like most substances brines are subject co chermal expansion and this decreases the density as illustrated in Figure 5.1.18. The rate of expansion increases with brine density, for instance the thermal expansion of heavy Ziinc bromide brine is approximately 5 times as high as that of fresh water. Im? @ initial temp 1.1m? @ increased temp Im @ increased temp will have has same mass loss mass thus less density Figure 5.1.18: Effect of thermal expansion on density {As the temperature in a well increases wih depth, brine ac different deprhs in a well will experience thermal expansion and have a lower density chan measured when at surface temperature. Consequently the hydrostatic pressure in the well will be lower than expected from Page 5/1/30 Walls DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200the nominal brine density measured, When designing fluid properties for completing or working over a hot well a slightly higher brine density than cheoretically required must be used, Effect of Temperature on Brine Density Brine Density (kg/m3) (090) Figure 5.1.19: Brine Correction Graph Assuming a linear temperature gradient in the well the required density for a brine can be 1B calculated from graphs such as Figure 5.1.19 Wells DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/31 vz00‘The average temperature in the well must be determined using the surface and bottom hole temperatures. This is then entered on the X-axis. The required brine gradienc is identified on the Y Axis and a horizontal line plotted to intersect the temperature line. ‘The intersect point is then tracked back to the density axis parallel to the nearest brine gradient line. The intersect on the Y axis is the density chac is required ac surface co generate the planned average density and therefore hydrostatic head in the well. Example ‘You are preparing to workover a well with che following parameters. What brine should you order if itis supplied using a nominal density measured at 20 deg C (70 deg F)? Depth of top perforation 4,000m 13,000 fe Reservoir pressure @ cop 56,000 kPa 8,125 psi perforation: Reservoir temperature 95 degC 200 deg F Surface temperature 15 deg C 60 deg F Required overbalance at top perf 700 kPa 100 psi Assuming 700kPa overbalance at the formation: 6,000+700 4,000 =14.2 kPa/m Brine gradient= Brine densiey = 1,450kg/m? 95-15 Average temperature in well =15 + 2 59°C Encering che graph in Figure 5.1.19 ar 55 deg C and tracking up to a density of 1,450kg/m3, it can be seen that the brine required will be a CaBr2 brine, ‘To decermine the required density at 20 deg C it is necessary to track back parallel to the nearest CaBr2 brine line to where ic intersects the 20 deg C axis. This intersection occurs at 1,470kg/m3. This is the brine gradient that should be ordered co generate the required average density of the brine in the well. Assuming 100 psi overbalance at the formation: 8,125+100 13,000 = 0.633psi/fe Brine gradient 200-60 Average cemperacure in well=60+= =130°F Entering the graph in Figure 5.1. 20at 130 deg F and cracking up to a density of 0.633 psiffe, it can be seen thac the brine required will be a CaBr2 brine. To determine the required density at 70 deg F it is necessary to track back parallel to the nearest CaBr2 brine line to where it intersects the 70 deg F axis, ‘This intersection occurs at 0.640psi/fe This is the brine gradient that should be ordered to generate the required average density of the brine in che well. Page 5/1/32 ‘Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Etfect of Temperature on Brine Density a rine Dana oi) Figure 5.1. 20: Brine Temperature Effect (Field Units) For Sodium Chlotide and Calcium Chloride brines the change in density due to temperature changes can be approximated by the following equation: p, =p, +[0.647x(T, -1,)] z eee - 5.1.21 ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/33 vz00Where Pp, = final density (kg/m’) P, = initial density (kg/m*) q initial cemperatue CC) T, = final temperature (°C) Page 5/1734 v2.00 ‘Wells DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices3.2 GASES 3.2.1 SHORT COLUMNS: Gas can be assumed to have relatively constant density over short column lengehs. Due co its compressibility, che density is heavily influenced by the ambient temperature and pressure 2.26kPa/m ot 0.1 psiffe is commonly used for natural gas at reservoir temperature and pressure. This is much lower than the density of water and other liquids in the well. Consequently, the presence of gas in a hydrostatic column can have a significant effect on the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the column (see Figure 5.1.21) WD oP + Figure 5.1.21: Effect of gas on hydrostatic pressure 3.2.2 LONG COLUMNS The fact that gas is compressible means thac che density will vary along the lengch of a column of gas. To determine the hydrostatic head of a column of gas longer than about 300m (1000) ic is not particularly accurate to assume a constant density or pressure gradient. ‘The hydrostatic pressure is given by the following equation: P, 3.1.22 (Note: exp(e) =e") Where Py = Pressure at depth D kPa psi Po = Pressure ar Surface kPa psi e = Constant (2.71828) SGos Specific Gravity of the Gas ie . Zes = Gas compressibility factor z a Tn Average Temperature of Gas K oR Wells DIP - Well Control: Principles & Practices _ Page 5/1/35 vz00C = Constant 29.24 53.34 For any specific quantity of gas, the erm in the brackets is constant and is called the Correction Factor Cf. Thus, the above equation can be written as: R= BR x G 5.1.23 Where SG, xD G a 5.1.24 CxTKZ,. ‘To simplify calculations, a table of correction factors has been developed chat makes assumptions about the gas, surface temperature and geothermal gradient. Given these assumptions, Cf becomes dependant on the Specific Gravity of the gas and the length of the gas column. ‘Table 1.5.2 lists ratio factors that can be used co convert pressures in a column of gas between bottom hole, surface and intermediate depths. To use the table: a) locate the column for the given gas specific gravity (0.50 ~ 1.00) b) go down this column and read off the value of R for the required depth ©) Toobt: the surface pressure for given pressure at depch, multiply the BHP by R d) To obtain the BHP for a given surface pressure, divide che Surface Pressure by R. as Spec Gravity (reatve a) erent Hole 1 [os | om | om ] om | os | om | om | ow [om | im =] Rea Fear c Tome | tom] 1am [rom [ome | 1000 | tom] vam] 1mo | ooo | 1000 se ioon[ ase [cam [oa | oom | owe | oa | oars | oon | owe | vee | osee ea] 2000 [om | asco | osse | nese [os | oew | ose | co | asm | ose | om eu| acto [ose | oa | caw [ome | omn | ow | oso | cms | aon | oom | om taxa] acon] ase | cea | ow | ow | om | os | ova | cow | ows | owe | aoe sze| sooo] asi7_| com | oom | oa | ome | owe | oar | om | ows | ome | oon tema] —aeoo| asm | com [cam | osm | ou | oes | oer | caw | om | oan | asia zie] —1000| uess | cs | oan | vas | oom | oem | ozs | ose | om | ovw | ave zea] —a0o0| aero | cess | one | osx | oa | oc | can | orw | ore | ome | ave zral goo cess | cee | oem | oe | oam | orm | arm | ore | ors | ana | arm 30] woe] ase | oe | ona | are | arm | orm | orm | ores | orm | one | aver ‘am0| re00| cea | con | aves | ore | ave | ov | a7er | orm | ove | ome | os sew] rec aera | ores | arro| ore | ort | orm | on? | arm | oe | oma | oess as2| rem arm | oreo | ava | ane | are | ova | ocr | osm | owe | om | oar ‘ezar| reoco| are [ares | arer [orm | ora | oo | ome | asc | ose | oo | oor ‘wer| ream [ arm | ars ora | ova | oom | ow | oe | asa | ox | oso | ost ear] voom| ave | or | arr | oem | oer | oem | oom | osm | omr | om | oa sxe] ‘ram ave | ara | arco | om | ou | 06 | on | aso | ase | osm | oss vaaon | 07x | 0709 | ocor | aces | cess | oss | om | ose | osvo | osm | ose aon ana [ome | vere | oes | oem | oc | osm | oon | oss | oss | osi7 ‘maoa| eror [anes [oe [ ons | oo | osm | osre | osse | ose | 057 | oso Pace RP Pasgine Paste IR Pema haan ARS Regd Table 1.5.2: Ratio Factors for natural gas under average conditions Example: Page 571/36 ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00‘A well contains gas with a specific gravity of 0.55. The pressure at the top perforation at 15,0008 is 11,250psi. Whar is the surface pressure ? Portus = Psoon *R Riso = 0.751 Ryo =11,250%0.751 =8,450psi Figure 5.1.22 illuscrates how co determine the Ratio Factor for the 0.55 SG gas at 15,0008. on Sc =e se ee ees =o Tao q cae pe ae ae ee em ee ee se] tam] ean | af | oam[ oer | oom] tae | can | oar] cam | oe | aa ease] one | ofs | asa | vee [wis | asa | tow [can | om | oom | om eC 29] woo | osm [afr [ua | ase [ew | coo | ons] com | oor | ome | om rse{ soo |-osr7_[- of [osm | os | ovr [ com car [ cess | oom | ome | oon no] ao |_asor_[ of | vse] asm | eae | com | oor] com | nm | oan | om zis] ro | onm[-ofrs | vom | aw [cow | com | om | cow | ooo | ane | ome 203{ aaa aun_[ of | ooo | aes [cm | oon | om [ene [ore | ere [ome | ara aoe | ae [of [ova | ane [ewe | ow | ore | ore [ ons | ore | om in| amo oon [-ofss [van | arm [orm | orm | ore | ons | ona | ane | or Eat wa oe [ of [are | arm [one poe om] ea one] tae | Ome esr| ane] one [ ofa [arm | are [ee | ore | env |e | 6a wins | om Sia] vam are | orm [ara | oom | am | oon | om | aim | ome [ asn_[ ome sa6| waar | or [or | asa | am | oon | om | ase| osm | oso | ome sra[ vos ore | ow [ours [von | cen | oe | oxo | asi | om | ose [asi 00 | anf oror [am [ous [ex] ans [osm | ose | ase | ose [as | 0 Figure 5.1.22: R factor at 15,0008 for gas with SG of 0.55 Example: ‘A well is filled with gas with a specific gravity of 0.65. ‘The pressure at surface is measured at 250bar. What is the pressure at 3,000m? elitr? aal aon = Ry 4 =0.816 Ry, =0.798 R yg = 0.816 — (eae), (0.816-0.798) 3048-2743, -oare-[(2).(019)] = 0.816 0.0152 = 0.8008 Wells DIP — Well Conirol: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/37 200250 0.8008 312 bar Interpolating between two depths to get a Ratio Factor for an intermediate depth is illustrated in Figure 5.1.23, Sorc ory Gea ow om [epee eee ee . Ta ra a ae ra ra ra se amos as aon L a emer ons ast [ oe[ oa oa ed Se “aa aoe aaa fs eee oer ame one an [ oar ae A Oo vaea[ tom coor | tos [ om | ofr | ome [cue | ane | wae | ame | oon | an ‘| av | nea | eon A aun] oes | aoe | ove fone om | orm | om | ory | ors | oro [om Faom| aon [was [on | am J orm | arm] onm_| ore [ora | one | om ia | oem_| oan | a wes [emt_[ one | ore | are] oem | one zea] tm] oe | are | ame | om | om | ome | on | om | oer | oss | ane ‘aa | no] ore | ane | ome [ ore | orm | or | om | om | one | om | amr “car| sei are | are | ore [orm | omr | oem | omm [oar | owe | ome | ans raT| wean | ome [wer [on | oe om | cam | ee | ome | aa] oom_| sn Gom| amo) ar [aon | aver | wear | wos | oso] asre | oes | ose | on | os Figure 5.1.23: Interpolating between depihs fo oblain « Ratio factor To assist in interpolating for different densities of gas and the depth of the column the Ratio Factors are also published as graphs. ‘These graphs s Page 5/1/38 ‘Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00Ratio Factor 0500 0550 060008500700 «0750 «0800 08500900050 1.000 4,000 2,900 3,000 000 6000 7.900 WN i 8,000 9,000 10,000 Depth ir 11,000 12.00 13,000 14000 15,000 16,000 17,900 16000 a f nm LT i| Al TT Figure 5.1.24: Ratio Factors (Field Units) ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/39) V200Ratio Factor 0500 0850 08000800700 «0750 0g) ossD m0 oso 1000 +000 1500 2000 Depth im 2500 A. 7 7 | ‘000 J J | 7 7. | Lid / oss «500 ae 965 [/ [\ for 00 AT F038 7 oo Joss / 500 i 09s i 100 a | ‘6000 f we 4 Figure 5.1.25: Rotio Factors {metric) 3.2.3 Gas Bupee Pressures & VOLUMES As gases apply force and thus pressure by molecules of gas colliding with surfaces (see Figure 5.1.26) the pressure within a small bubble of gas will be roughly equal in all directions. Page 5/1740 Wells DLP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v2.00Figure 5.1.26: Gas Pressure As long as the volume and temperature remain unchanged, the pressure will also remain unchanged. This is a very important concept. Pressure ——> a ' = Figure 5.1.27: Uncontrolled Gos Migration BHP Ifa volume of gas at reservoir pressure and temperature enters the bottom of the well (see Figure 5.1.27 a) the gas will have a fixed mass (volume x density). If it then migrates upwards without being allowed to expand, the pressure in the gas bubble will remain constant. However, this pressure will be acting on top of a column of drilling fluid (see Figure 5.1.27 b). Consequently the BHP will increase, If the gas migrates further to the surface wichout expanding it will retain its original pressure (from bottom) but with the column of fluid below ir, the pressure on bottom will have risen by this amounc (see Figure 5.1.27 ¢) Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/41 v2004 PRESSURES IN THE WELL ‘The pressure vs. depth plo is a key tool in the interpretation of pressures in the well. The ‘combination of a schematic of the well with known pressures and fluid gradients can be used to determine the pressure at any point in the well Pressure > Ding Fd Dons aur Figure 5.1.28: Pressure driven by hydrostatic head Figure 5.1.28 shows a well that is open and stable. With no surface pressures, the Bottom Hole Pressure is determined by che hydrostatic head of the original drilling fluid in use (conventionally denoted as P11) that is in both che drillstring and che annulus. BHP = Dxp)... SeiSi25) Similarly, the pressure, Px at any depth, Dx will be: By = Dy XP erereneene ees rate SeL2G: Figure 5.1.29 illustrates a very different situation. Here the well has kicked and shuc in using the BOP. In chis situation, the pressures in the well are driven by the pore pressure (conventionally denoted by Po). The pressure at any point in the well Dx will be equal to the bottom hole pressure minus the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids between the bottom of the hole and Ds. Four significane pressures are picked out here: a) Drillpipe Pressure at surface (Ppp) equals the pore pressure less the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid in the drillsering, Ppp =Po -(Dxp1) 9.1.27 Page 5/1/42 Walls DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Figure 5.1.29: Pressures driven by Pore Pressure b)_ Pressure at the top of the influx (denoted Po*) equals the pore pressure less the hydrostatic head of the influx Pg = P= (Hind XPath) cneeeeereeeeseetenneeretevmeeremeern ss 5.1.28 ©) Pressure at the casing shoe (Pix) equals che pore pressure less the hydrostatic head of the influx less the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the annulus between the top of the influx and the casing shoe: Psice = Po ~ (Hina * Pint) [(D— shoe Hina )*Pr ] sirmetenmncpmed 9H 29) €) Casing annulus pressure at surface (Pam) equals the pore pressure less the hydrostatic head of the influx less the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the annulus above the influx: Pana = Po (Hina *Pinit)-[(D Hina )*P | ESE ae een 1130) 5 CAPACITIES AND VOLUMES Volumes and capaci es of the drillscring and annulus are required when performing well concrol calculations, Capacities can be obtained from capacity tables that are to be found in various data books. They can also be calculated directly from dimensions of the casing, open hole and drillstring, Some useful formulae when calculating capacities (see Figure 5.1.30) are: SI Units Mix Field Units ipe ID? Dye 1D, Ge 1m = Vm=—* bbl (f= aay. 1273 1.974 1029.4 nnulus ID, —OD,,. ID,’ ~ OD,, ID,,,’ -OD,, a as Hm =| fp = bt fe = Se capacity 1273 1974 1029.4 (dimensions in mm) (dimensions in inches) ‘Wells DIP — Well Control Principles & Practices Page 5/1/43 vz00Figure 5.1.30: Colculating pipe and annular capacities Examples: ii The volume of fluid required to fill 10,000 of pipe with an ID of 2.5 inches can be calculated: 297 1029.4 Volume -0.0061%10,000-61bbls Capac 0.0061bbI/ ‘The height of a 5m3 column of gas in an annulus between 12-1/4” hole and 5” drillpipe can be calculated: 2 12.25' Capacit ————- = 63. A lim ay 97h Column Height=2210_78 86m Page 5/1/44 Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices vz00Topic 3 Formation Pressures and Temperatures 1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES Values that are significant during the planning of drilling and workover operations are the pore pressure gradient and, particularly for drilling, che overburden pressure gradient. To understand these gradients and the pressures that they can generate it is necessary to appreciate the origins of the pressures. ‘The ambiente temperature in subsurface formations generally increases with depth. Temperature effects well operations in a number of ways and consequently it is important co be able co predict temperatures at depth. By the end of this topic you should be able to: 1, Explain the meaning of porosity and permeability 2. Explain the origins of formation pressure 3. Estimate the density of formation water 4. Understand the differenc depth datum used for wells 5. Explain the difference between normal, sub-normal and abnormal pressures 6. Explain the origins of sub-normal and abnormal pressures 7. Explain what is meant by geothermal gradient 2 POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY 2. POROSITY Porosity is the percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain fluids, Effective porosity is the incerconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. Tc excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the «otal void space in the rock whether or nor it contributes to fluid flow. Thus, effective porosity is typically less than coral porosity. Figure 5.1.31 shows a sandstone from the offshore Gulf of Mexico, The porosicy in the sample was filled with blue epoxy Figure 5.1.31 during sample preparation. ‘The field of view is approximately 2 mm wide Photomicrograph of clean sandstone Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices Page 5/1/45 V2062.2 PERMEABILITY Permeability is a measurement of a rock's ability co transmit fluids, typically measured in Darcy or milliDarcy. * Formations chat cransmic fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeable and tend to have many large, well-connected pores ‘* Impermeable formacions, such as shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained ot of a mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores. Absolute permeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. Effective permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other fluids are present in the reservoir (lor example, effective permeability of gas ina gas-water reservoir). ‘The relative quantities of the fluids as well as the nacure of the reservoir affect the effective permeabilicy. 3 PRESSURE ORIGINS The majority of che formations penetrated encountered during drilling operations is sedimentary. ‘The material has settled out either in air or waver and is subsequently covered by more material and buried. ‘The majority of this action occurs in water. ‘As material is buried deeper ic gets compressed by the weight of the material on cop of it. Fine clay particles have little inherene strengch and deform, compressing tightly together and squeezing out the water around it to form claystone and shale. ‘These have little or no porosity or pernteability. Sand particles are coarser and stronger. They tend ro retain some strength and support each other leaving, gaps between, called pores, These are inicially filled with water. Over time, minerals in the water that they are deposited in can precipitate and cause the grains to become cemented together. Limestone, originating from calcareous material in the water, tends to lose porosity under pressure and cemperature. However, itis brittle which causes it co crack or fracture over time. ‘These fractures then can become filled with water or other fluids. Figure 5.1.32: Sedimentary Act Consequently, under ideal circumstances, a stratigraphic column of rock formation consists of two phases, a solid and a fluid phase. phase is formed by che rock material, and che fluid phase by water, oil, or gas which fills any pore oor fracture space between the grains. The total weight of any volume of porous rock (Wt) equals the sum of the weight of the grains or matrix (W,) and the weight of the liquid in the pores becween the grains (W), IS WAG terete poser nereree 5.1.31 Page 5/1/46 ‘Wells DIP — Well Control: Principles & Practices v200Applied to a given cross-sectional area, this weight will apply a pressure. The pressure is often called a stress to differentiate it from hydrostatic pressure. Wi yields what is known as the overburden stress denoted by S; Wo yields the vertical matrix stress o, and W, yields the hydrostatic fluid pressure oF Pe S=o,+Po 5.1.32 ‘The rates at which these stresses increase with depth are called gradients and are expressed in terms of psiffe or kPa/m, which are just a different way of expressing the density of the material ‘Taking the depth as Z, which is conventional practice: 5.1.33 oo 5134 5.135 Due to compaction, the porosity of both clays and sands reduce with the depth of burial and the bulk density, p., increases. Both of these trends are illustrated in Figure 5.1.33. Porosity vs Depth (Onshore Well Offshore Wel Figure 5.1.33: Porosity and bulk density trends with depth en cm — dep eee Sang = Depth 3.1 BULK DENSITY The overburden gradient or bulk density of formations penecrated can be measured by the bulk density logging cool. When these densities, measured in a well, are plotted, a step-like function of the bulk densities versus depth is obtained. Each step represents a change in lithology. Integrating the bulk density measurements to a given depth gives the overburden scress at that depth, and averaging these in an area will give a general trend like the curved line in Figure 5.1.33. This behaviour depends on rock composition and porosity. AAs a rule of chumb the overburden gradient is usually raken co be 22-6 kPalm (1.0 psiffe although it can vary between ‘Wells DLP - Well Control: Principles & Practices = Page 5/1/47 fh v200