Freediver

Student Manual

English-Metric
© SSI International GmbH, 12.06.2023

SC-FRD
Table of Contents
Preface 8
Terminology 8
The Ultimate Underwater Experience 9
The SSI Philosophy
The SSI Training Process 10
The SSI Diver Diamond 10
Your MySSI Account 11
Go Freediving | Become An Icon 12
Digital Learning
Accessing the Digital Learning Materials 13
Navigating the Digital Learning Materials 14
Introduction
Welcome 17
Purchasing The Right Equipment 17
Freediving Opportunities 17
Diving Insurance 17

Section 1 | Physiology 19
Introduction 19
Lesson 1.1 | Human Anatomy
Lesson Objectives 20
The Importance of Oxygen 21
The Respiratory System 22
The Circulatory System 23
Lesson 1.1 | Review 25
Lesson 1.2 | The Urge to Breathe
Lesson Objectives 27
Freediving Breath-Holds 28

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 The Urge to Breathe 29
Lesson 1.2 | Review 31
Lesson 1.3 | Hyperventilation
Lesson Objectives 32
Hyperventilation 33
The Disadvantages of Hyperventilation 34
Compounding Effects 35
Lesson 1.3 | Review 36
Lesson 1.4 | Freediving Breathing Techniques
Lesson Objectives 37
Relaxation 38
Freediving Breathing Techniques 40
The Breathe-Up Sequence 41
Recovery Breathing 42
Lesson 1.4 | Review 44
Lesson 1.5 | The Mammalian Dive Reflex
Lesson Objectives 45
The Mammalian Dive Reflex 46
Physical Changes 46
Triggering the Mammalian Dive Reflex 47
Strengthening the Mammalian Dive Reflex 48
Lesson 1.5 | Review 49

Section 2 | Pressure 50
Introduction 50
Lesson 2.1 | Effects of Pressure on Divers
Lesson Objectives 51
Understanding Pressure 52
Pressure and Volume 53
Lesson 2.1 | Review 55

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 Lesson 2.2 | Equalizing Air Spaces
Lesson Objectives 56
Air Spaces Affected by Pressure 57
Equalization Techniques 61
Lesson 2.2 | Review 63
Lesson 2.3 | Pressure-Related Issues 64
Lesson Objectives
Equipment Squeezes 65
Sinus Squeeze 66
Ear Squeeze 67
Reverse Blocks 68
Lesson 2.3 | Review 70

Section 3 | Freediving Disciplines 71

Introduction 71
Lesson 3.1 | The Buddy System
Lesson Objectives 72
The Buddy System 73
Benefits of the Buddy System 73
Diving with the Buddy System 74
Buddy System Guidelines 74
Lesson 3.1 | Review 76
Lesson 3.2 | Static Apnea
Lesson Objectives 77
The Static Apnea Discipline 78
Benefits of Static Apnea Training 79
Lesson 3.2 | Review 81
Lesson 3.3 | Dynamic Apnea
Lesson Objectives 82
Dynamic Apnea Disciplines 83

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 Benefits of Dynamic Apnea Training 85
Lesson 3.3 | Review 87
Lesson 3.4 | Constant Weight Freediving
Lesson Objectives 88
Constant Weight Disciplines 89
Benefits of Constant Weight Training 91
Lesson 3.4 | Review 92

Section 4 | Freediving Equipment 93

Introduction 93
Lesson 4.1 | Seeing and Moving
Lesson Objectives 95
The Mask 96
The Snorkel 98
The Fins 99
The Equipment Bag 101
Lesson 4.1 | Review 103
Lesson 4.2 | Exposure Protection and Buoyancy
Lesson Objectives 105
Exposure Protection 106
Wetsuit Selection 107
Wetsuit Accessories 110
The Weight System 111
Choosing the Right Weight 113
Lesson 4.2 | Review 117
Lesson 4.3 | Safety and Progression
Lesson Objectives 119
Lanyards 120
Dive Computers 121
Logbooks 123

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 Lesson 4.3 | Review 125

Section 5 | The Freediving Experience 126

Introduction 126
Lesson 5.1 | Diving Environments
Lesson Objectives 127
Artificial Environments 128
Natural Environments 129
Environmental Conditions 132
Lesson 5.1 | Review 139
Lesson 5.2 | Preparing for a Session
Lesson Objectives 140
Selecting a Dive Site 141
Creating a Dive Plan 142
Deciding to Dive 145
Lesson 5.2 | Review 146
Lesson 5.3 | Conducting a Session
Lesson Objectives 147
The Pre-Session Check 148
Reaching the Dive Site 149
Conducting a Static Apnea Session 149
Conducting a Dynamic Apnea Session 151
Conducting a Constant Weight Session 154
Finishing the Session 156
Lesson 5.3 | Review 158
Lesson 5.4 | Your Freediving Career
Lesson Objectives 160
Gaining Experience 161
Developing a Community 162
Equipment Ownership 163

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 Training Opportunities 165
Lesson 5.4 | Review 168

Section 6 | Safe and Responsible Freediving 169

Introduction 169
Lesson 6.1 | The Effects of Hypoxia
Lesson Objectives 170
Hypoxia 171
Loss of Motor Control 171
Blackout 172
Lesson 6.1 | Review 174
Lesson 6.2 | Rescue Techniques
Lesson Objectives 175
Loss of Motor Control Rescues 176
Blackout Rescues 178
Lesson 6.2 | Review 181
Lesson 6.3 | Freediving and Scuba
Lesson Objectives 182
Freediving and Scuba Diving 183
Nitrogen Accumulation 184
Best Practices | Freediving and Scuba Diving 185
Lesson 6.3 | Review 186
Lesson 6.4 | Duties of a Freediver
Lesson Objectives 187
Interacting with Underwater Life 188
Potentially Harmful Species 190
Environmental Stewardship 192
Safety Guidelines 193
Lesson 6.4 | Review 194
What Comes Next 195

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Preface
Terminology
To keep terminology simple and clear, this manual often uses generic terms in place of detailed lists or
titles. If necessary, the specific title will be used to further clarify a concept or subject.
• “Instructor” refers to the SSI Professional conducting this training program.

• “SSI Professional” refers to any professional in active status with SSI.

• “Student” refers to the individual participating in this training program.

• “SSI Training Center” refers to any active status SSI Training Center.
Freediver versus Diver
You may notice that these materials use the term “diver” to refer to both freedivers and scuba divers. SSI
believes that everyone with the motivation to explore below the water’s surface is a diver, regardless of
which sport they use to begin their journey.
When you join any SSI program, from Pool Freediver to Scuba Diver, you become part of an all-inclusive
community that shares a passion for adventure, conservation, and the underwater world. You are more
than just a freediver or scuba diver, you are part of the SSI Family of divers, industry professionals, and
training centers.
At SSI, we encourage all our divers to continue learning beyond their initial training. The knowledge,
skills, and techniques found in other programs are tools that give you access to new underwater
experiences and environments. Why limit yourself to one challenge, sport, or experience when you
could explore them all!

The materials use terms like “freedive” and “freediver” when it is necessary to
describe content that specifically applies to freedivers.

Units and Measurements

• Time is calculated in minutes : seconds. For example, 1 minute and forty-five seconds = 1:45.
• Length and depth are measured in meters.
• Volume is measured in liters.

• Depth is measured in bar or meters: 10 meters of seawater (msw) = 1 bar.

• Pressure is measured in bar.

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The Ultimate Underwater
Experience
You are about to embark on one of the greatest adventures of your life.
Freediving is a journey that will change the way you experience the world forever, and gives you the
ability to explore our last true frontier—the ocean. As a freediver, you will explore the wonders of a
weightless underwater world, interact with incredible marine life, and discover wrecks and ecosystems
hidden beneath the surface.

71% of our planet is covered in water—and with SSI, you can explore this final
frontier.

Your SSI Certification

What does earning an SSI certification mean?
The certification you earn by completing your training meets and exceeds globally recognized
standards for safety and quality.
These standards are established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the
Recreational Scuba Training Council (RSTC), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Your SSI Training Center is part of an international SSI Family dedicated to the highest standards of
safety and education. This family includes SSI Professionals, SSI Training Centers, and divers like yourself.
SSI has been an industry leader since its founding in 1970, and is constantly improving training
materials and techniques to improve your personal safety and experience.
You can visit any SSI Training Center around the world and be confident that you will receive a high-
quality diving education experience, focused on building and enhancing your comfort and confidence.

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The SSI Philosophy
The SSI Training Process
Your path to certification:

• Complete the digital learning materials found in this manual. These materials are self-paced, and
you can complete them anywhere, anytime, once you download them to your SSI MySSI app.

• Complete the academic sessions and in-water training with your SSI Professional.
Expectations for You
Digital Learning
These materials are the foundation of your training experience. They include the theory and knowledge
required to be a safe and comfortable diver, and directly connect this information to the skills and
experience you need to complete this program.
Review questions are provided throughout the text to test your understanding of the content and to
highlight key information that you will need later in the training.

You should complete as much of the digital learning as possible before the
academic sessions begin.

Make a note of any questions you have about the materials, and ask your instructor about them once
the program begins. This allows your instructor to focus on increasing your knowledge, rather than
simply reviewing the program content.
Expectations for Your Instructor and Training Center
SSI training programs are an efficient, entertaining, and safe way to learn about diving and the
underwater environment. This is due to SSI’s dedicated and passionate instructors and training centers,
as well as the SSI training philosophy, which prioritizes your comfort, safety, and experience.
As part of this training philosophy, SSI believes that there are four distinct components for creating
capable divers. These four components form the SSI Diver Diamond, and ensure that every SSI
Professional provides you with an exceptional experience.
The SSI Diver Diamond
Knowledge
The ocean is a vast and mysterious place, filled with creatures that look entirely alien to our land-based
brains.
Proper knowledge, which you gain by completing your digital learning materials and the academic
sessions with your instructor, replaces any fears or misunderstandings with enthusiasm and excitement
for adventure.
For example, you may think that the ocean is a dark and scary place. Your instructor will teach you that
the ocean can be a warm, clear, inviting place to practice your freediving skills once you are properly
trained.
Skills

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 Skilled freedivers are instantly recognizable as they effortlessly move through the water, or dive
beneath the surface on a single breath of air. Your goal during training is to become so comfortable that
you can repeat each skill without conscious thought or effort.
Your instructor will use SSI’s “Comfort through Repetition” philosophy to introduce the fundamentals of
each skill. You will then repeat the skill, gradually increasing your comfort and ability under the
supervision of your instructor, until it becomes second nature.
Equipment
Your instructor and SSI Training Center want you to be comfortable at every stage of your training. They
firmly believe that the best divers are those who understand that personally-owned, well-fitted
equipment is more comfortable and safer than unfamiliar rental equipment. You will also be more
comfortable in equipment customized to your needs and freediving styles.
Your instructor and the staff of your SSI Training Center will explain the benefits and features of each
type of equipment in the Total Freediving System, and will answer any questions you have about
equipment ownership.
If you choose to rent instead, they will provide you with suggestions for properly selecting and
inspecting rental equipment, and recommend the minimum level of personal equipment needed to
become an experienced freediver.
Experience
The only way to gain experience is to actually spend time in the water!
Every session is an opportunity to refresh and refine your skills, see a new animal or underwater feature,
or meet new friends who share your passion.
So get out there, explore new worlds, meet new people, and learn with an SSI Training Center and SSI
Professionals is the “ultimate underwater experience!" “
Your MySSI Account
If you are reading these materials digitally, then you already have a MySSI account! If not, or to review
the features of MySSI, visit www.divessi.com and register or login.
You can also download the free MySSI app to your smartphone or tablet. Check your email for your
login credentials. These are valid for both the online and app versions of MySSI.
Visit your SSI Training Center to schedule your training and receive access to more SSI digital learning.
The MySSI App
SSI designed the MySSI app to be an “all-in-one” tool for all your SSI adventures.
There are a variety of free features, as well as industry and training center news updates, immersive 360°
video experiences, and a complete set of hand signals for you to review before your next session.
Digital Learning

• All your digital materials are available for offline access once you download them to the app.
• Your progress through the materials will automatically synchronize with your MySSI account once
you connect to the internet and reopen the app.
Certification and Recognition Cards

• After your instructor verifies that you completed an SSI training program, your digital certification
or recognition cards are viewable in the app.
• You can still purchase a physical card from your SSI Training Center.

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 MySSI Logbook

• Choose a dive site from SSI’s database, or use GPS to create a new site.

• Choose from dive activities like Extended Range, CCR, and Freediving.

• Earn awards and recognition levels for reaching experience milestones and logging sessions.

• Digitally share sessions and sign logs with your personal QR code, or have your buddy, dive
professional or SSI Training Center verify your dive experiences with theirs.

• Download your sessions directly from your dive computer (only available on selected computers).
• Share your experiences with family and friends with Facebook.
SSI Network

• Stay connected with your diving community and find new and interesting dive sites.

• View relevant industry news and find nearby SSI Training Centers.

• Learn about upcoming events in your area with the SSI Event Calendar.
Digital Insurance
• Show proof of accident and travel insurance plans (available from select insurers).
Go Freediving | Become An Icon
As a freediver, you are already involved in one of the most exhilarating adventures of your life: a breath-
hold journey into a weightless world full of incredible marine life. You are part of an exclusive group of
underwater explorers that most people only dream about joining.
Continue Freediving
Freediving is an endless journey of personal growth and achievement. As you explore the underwater
world, you will reach new goals, earn the respect of your fellow divers, and become an ambassador for
the sport of freediving. SSI offers a range of specialty programs that will improve your current skills and
introduce you to all types of freediving—preparing you for adventures both above and below the
surface.
Lead Freediving
71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, and this could be your “office!”There are thousands of job
opportunities worldwide for the next generation of highly qualified SSI professionals who are
passionate about the amazing world of freediving. Stop waiting to turn your passion into a career, and
start living your dream!
If you want to help others explore, assist instructors, or even make a career out of freediving, the SSI
Freediver program is the first step to achieving your goals. If your interest goes beyond recreational
freediving, SSI offers a variety of other professional training options such as Extended Range or Scuba
Diving.
Your only limit is your ambition.
Use the Center Locator in the MySSI app or online at www.divessi.com to schedule an appointment with
your local SSI Training Center today!

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Digital Learning
Accessing the Digital Learning Materials
Your materials give you access to first-rate videos, illustrations, animations and photos to make your
learning process easy and enjoyable. They are available online through any web browser, or can be
completed offline once you have downloaded them onto the MySSI app, which is available for iOS and
Android smart devices.
Both the web version and the app version offer the following services:

• Add personal notes to remind you of key information or for further discussion with your instructor.

• Bookmark subjects for further review.

• New information is automatically updated at no additional cost.

• Free access to trial programs like Try Scuba, Try Freediving, and Scuba Diver.
The MySSI app allows you to:

• View your digital certification and recognition cards.

• Quickly log sessions and add new dive buddies in your digital logbook.

• Share your experiences on social media sites.

• Watch 360-degree immersive videos of amazing dive sites around the world.

• And much more!

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Navigating the Digital Learning Materials
Table of Contents Menu

Overview Menu
Click this icon to open the program’s table of contents.

Search Bar
Use this bar to search for specific words or phrases within the program.

Filter
Click this icon to filter the content to view only unseen pages, all review questions, or
unanswered review questions.

Previously Viewed Pages

This icon identifies pages that you have already viewed.

Unseen Pages
This icon identifies any pages that you have not already viewed.

Completed Reviews
This icon identifies any pages with reviews that you have successfully completed.

Incomplete Reviews
This icon identifies any pages with reviews that you have not completed.

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Open Book
This icon takes you back to the program Table of Contents.
The icon is highlighted when viewing the program menu.

Show Bookmarks
Clicking this icon shows you any pages that you have bookmarked.
The icon is highlighted when viewing the bookmarks.
The number over the icon shows how many pages have bookmarks.

Show Notes
Click this icon to view any pages where you have added a personal note.
The icon is highlighted when viewing the notes.
The number over the icon shows how many pages have user-generated notes.

Adding Notes
Right click on any block of text to add a personal note.

Bookmark
Click this icon to mark specific pages for future reference.

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Page Navigation Icons
Forward/Backward Arrows
Click these icons to navigate forward and backward through the materials.

Back to MySSI
Click this icon to return to the MySSI Programs dashboard.

Program Settings
Click on this icon to change the language, show/hide instructor manual content, viewing mode,
closed captions, and font size.

Pro/Student View
The instructor materials are integrated into the workbook materials.
SSI Professionals click this icon to switch between the workbook and instructor manual content.

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Introduction
Welcome
You are starting a fun and exciting program, where you will learn to move safely and effortlessly through
the water while wearing freediving equipment. Joining this program is a major step on a journey that
will change the way you experience the underwater world, and gives you the ability to explore our last
true frontier—the ocean.
Freediving is an exciting activity that everyone, regardless of age, can enjoy with the proper equipment
and the appropriate training. No matter where you live, freediving can be an exhilarating, year-round
activity.
Purchasing The Right Equipment
SSI recommends purchasing your equipment from your local SSI Training Center. Why? Unlike other
sporting goods equipment, freediving equipment is life-support equipment. In order for it to function
at its best—allowing you the most enjoyable diving experience every time—it needs to be personally
fitted and properly chosen for the type of diving you will be doing. Not all equipment is the same, and
one size does not fit all.
Most equipment brands sell and service their products through a network of authorized dealers. These
dealers not only teach you about the products features and benefits, they are also authorized to
assemble, service and warranty your equipment.
Investing in your own equipment is the best way to begin the ultimate underwater experience. The
confidence you build by training in your own equipment helps to achieve the goal of not just learning
new skills, but becoming competent, confident, and able to enjoy the underwater world to the fullest.
Freediving Opportunities
Your opportunities are only limited by your imagination and your physical capabilities. Mermaiding,
freediving, and scuba diving are the exciting experiences to enjoy with family and friends. Your
adventures can take you to the most spectacular places in the world. You can swim past reefs and hover
over walls, explore some wrecks and observe marine life. With an underwater camera or video, you can
bring back exciting images to remember for a lifetime.
SSI helps children and adults fulfill their dreams of becoming a freediver. It is a truly incredible
experience that can enhance the body, mind, and spirit. It encourages everyone to feel good about
themselves, exercising in a fun, exciting environment on a single breath of air.
Freediving experiences can offer an escape from normal life. They create an environment of good health
and can enhance confidence and self-esteem.
Confident freedivers can take their experience further by taking advanced freediving programs and
continuing their specialty education. If you are really interested in becoming more proficient, then SSI
can help you unlock your true potential.
Diving Insurance
Purpose
Most people have at least one form of insurance policy that covers a specific aspect of their life. Vehicle
insurance policies cover their cars and trucks if they are in an accident. Home or renter’s insurance
reimburse the policy owner if something is stolen or if their property is damaged in a flood, fire, or other
disaster.
Insurance policies must be purchased before the loss occurs, and they only reimburse the policy holder

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 for items covered by the policy’s terms. For example, a basic car insurance policy may reimburse the
car’s owner if they are in an accident but may not protect the owner from theft, and it will not cover
anything related to the owner’s home.
Diving Insurance Polices
Diving insurance policies cover scenarios that are specific to the sport of diving. There are two types of
diving insurance policies:
Diving accident insurance
These policies primarily cover a diver’s medical expenses if they have an accident while diving. These
expenses may include hospital stays, evacuation from a dive site, and treatment in a hyperbaric
chamber. These costs are rarely covered by other forms of insurance, and are often very expensive, since
many dive sites are in remote destinations with minimal medical services.
Dive travel insurance
These policies are designed specifically for divers and diving activities. They combine a diving accident
insurance policy with a travel insurance policy. Travel insurance covers travel-related scenarios like a
canceled dive trip, a missed flight or dive boat, having to end a dive vacation before the scheduled date,
and some non-diving accident or medical situations. Travel insurance policies have different levels of
coverage, so the policy buyer should carefully consider their needs, the size and length of their trip, and
the policy provider before making their purchase.
Insurance Providers
Diving insurance is a unique subset of the global insurance industry. Not all insurance providers offer
diving insurance, since it requires a detailed understanding of the industry, the risks, and the customer’s
needs.
Some providers include:

• Divers Alert Network (DAN)

• DiveAssure

• Dive Master
• Scuba Medic
SSI recommends DiveAssure and DAN, since they are well-known in the industry and have long
histories of providing quality care for their customers. You can learn more about DiveAssure in your
MySSI account under “Teams and Partners”.

SSI Professionals are required to have dive insurance in most countries. Ask your
instructor or your SSI Training Center for advice about evaluating and purchasing a
policy.

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Section 1 | Physiology

Image © Mares

Introduction

Understanding the human body and the mechanisms it uses to create energy is the first step toward
becoming a safe and capable diver.

Freediving is a unique sport that uses your entire body to adapt to your surrounding conditions. No
other sport requires such an in-depth knowledge of how the body functions during a breath-hold.
As a new freediver, you must have a basic understanding of how your body works, how it reacts during
a breath-hold, and how it is affected by internal and external factors while under water. This knowledge
will improve your performance and enhance your skills throughout your diving career. It all begins with
physiology.

• Physiology | The study of how living organisms and their organs, systems, and cells function.

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Lesson 1.1 | Human Anatomy

Image © Mares/Predrag Vuckovic

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the importance of oxygen to the human body.

• List the five parts of the respiratory system.

• Explain where and how gas exchange takes place in the body.

• Describe how oxygen reaches the body’s tissues and how carbon dioxide is transported to the
lungs.

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The Importance of Oxygen
Oxygen is one of the most fundamental building
blocks of life on Earth. Humans use oxygen—
combined with carbohydrates, fat, and proteins
from food—to create energy through a process
called aerobic metabolism.
Humans obtain the oxygen they need for this
process by breathing. A standard sample of Earth’s
atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and trace amounts of other inert
gases.
Humans breathe in this air, consume some of the
oxygen in the breath, then exhale approximately
16% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide. Since the
nitrogen and inert gases are not metabolized—
used—by the body, they are also exhaled. The
carbon dioxide in each exhaled breath is a
byproduct of the aerobic metabolic process.
As they grow older, humans begin to naturally
breathe through their noses during a normal
breathing cycle. As adults, they tend to only use
their mouth to breathe when larger quantities of air
are needed. Freedivers primarily use their mouth to
breathe through a snorkel, since their nose is often
blocked by a mask or nose clip.

Image © iStock

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The Respiratory System

1: Gas moves from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure (Alveolar sacs into the bloodstream)
Image © iStock

The respiratory system is how the human body brings oxygen into the body, and removes inert and
waste gases, like nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
The five parts of the respiratory system include:

• Mouth and nose

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Bronchioles

• Alveoli
The Act of Breathing
The act of breathing happens automatically, based on the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood. The body uses the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to expand the lungs. During an inhalation,
the diaphragm contracts and the intercostal muscles—located between the ribs— contract, pulling the
ribcage up and outward.
During an exhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, allowing the ribcage to return to a
resting position and causing the lungs to contract.
During an inhalation, the inhaled air enters the mouth and nose, traveling into the trachea and on to
two smaller passages called bronchi, which lead into the lungs. These bronchi divide further into tiny
tubes called bronchioles—each lung may have as many as 30,000 bronchioles. At the end of the

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 bronchioles are alveoli, which are small air sacs where the gas exchange process takes place.
Where Gas Exchange Occurs
At this point, gases can pass through the membranes (walls) of the alveoli into the surrounding blood
vessels (capillaries), or from the capillaries into the alveoli. These membranes are thin enough to allow
for gas transfer, but are thick enough to prevent blood from entering the alveoli.
How Gas Exchange Occurs

• Diffusion | The tendency of a gas to move from an area with a higher gas concentration to an
area with a lower gas concentration.
Diffusion is the process that causes gas exchange between the air in the lungs (alveolar air) and the
bloodstream. Since there is a higher concentration of oxygen in the alveolar air, diffusion causes some
of the oxygen molecules to cross the alveolar membrane into the bloodstream.
The bloodstream contains a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of
metabolism. Diffusion also causes carbon dioxide to move from the bloodstream into the alveolar air.
Nitrogen is an inert gas, so it will diffuse both ways, depending on the concentration levels.
The Circulatory System

Once oxygen has entered the bloodstream, it must be distributed to the body’s tissues. This process is
managed by the circulatory system, which is responsible for transporting nutrients, oxygen, waste and
inert gases, and other essential compounds throughout the body. The circulatory system includes the
heart, blood, and the blood vessels that circulate the blood.

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Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Red blood cells make up almost
half of our blood’s total volume—about 45%. These cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, which
carry oxygen throughout the body.
Plasma is the liquid that carries the blood cells and platelets, and makes up the remaining volume—
about 55%. Dissolved carbon dioxide is transported by the plasma to the alveoli where it diffuses out of
the bloodstream.

98% of oxygen in the blood is carried by red blood cells. The rest is dissolved in the
plasma.

Transporting Oxygen
The heart is one of the body’s strongest muscles, and pumps blood through the body in a two-part
cycle. The pulmonary circulation system pumps blood from the heart to the lungs through blood
vessels called arteries. Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide and
inert gases diffuse from the bloodstream into the lungs. This blood is then pumped back to the heart
through blood vessels called veins.
The second half of the cycle uses the systemic circulatory system to pump oxygen-rich blood from the
other side of the heart through arteries into capillaries. The oxygen diffuses into the body’s tissues and
organs, and carbon dioxide diffuses back into the blood. This carbon dioxide-rich blood returns through
veins to the heart, where the cycle continues.

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Lesson 1.1 | Review
1. Oxygen is combined with carbohydrates, fat, and proteins from food to create:
A. Energy
B. Protein
C. Nitrogen
D. Carbohydrates
2. Inhaled air consists of about:
A. 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen
B. 31% oxygen and 69% nitrogen
C. 71% oxygen and 29 % nitrogen
D. 16% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide, and 78% nitrogen

3. About _____ remains in an exhaled breath.

A. 4% oxygen and 21% carbon dioxide
B. 21% oxygen and 79% carbon dioxide
C. 5% oxygen and16% carbon dioxide
D. 16% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide

4. The _____ in each exhaled breath is a byproduct of the aerobic metabolic process.
A. Carbohydrates
B. Oxygen
C. Nitrogen
D. Carbon dioxide

5. Which muscle(s) expand the lungs?

A. Intercostal muscles
B. Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
C. Diaphragm
D. Diaphragm and pectoral muscles

6. The five parts of the respiratory system are the:

A. Mouth and nose, liver, spleen, trachea, alveoli
B. Skin, trachea, kidneys, bronchi, alveoli
C. Heart, aorta, bronchi, bronchioles, rib cage
D. Mouth and nose, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
7. Gas exchange between the lungs and blood occurs in the:
A. Upper lungs
B. Bronchioles
C. Alveoli
D. Bronchi
8. The membranes (walls) of the alveoli are _____ enough to allow for gas transfer.
A. Thick
B. Non-penetrable
C. Ridged
D. Thin
9. Diffusion is the tendency of a gas to move from an area with a:
A. Lower gas concentration to an area with a higher gas concentration
B. Lower liquid concentration to an area with a higher liquid concentration
C. Higher liquid concentration to an area with a lower liquid concentration
D. Higher gas concentration to an area with a lower gas concentration

10. Diffusion causes carbon dioxide to:

A. Dissolve into the bloodstream
B. Move from the bloodstream into the alveolar air
C. Move from the alveoli into the bloodstream
D. Bond with oxygen

11. The circulatory system includes:

A. The lungs, the heart, and the blood vessels
B. The blood and the blood vessels
C. The lungs, the heart, and the brain
D. The heart, the blood, and the blood vessels

25 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

12. Oxygen bonds with _____ in the red blood cells.
A. White blood cells
B. Platelets
C. Plasma
D. Hemoglobin
13. The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood into capillaries through:
A. Plasma
B. Arteries
C. Veins
D. Bronchi
14. Carbon dioxide travels from the organs and tissues to the heart through the:
A. Capillaries
B. Arteries
C. Bronchi
D. Veins

26 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.2 | The Urge to Breathe

Image © Shutterstock-Wonderful Nature

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the urge to breathe and describe its primary trigger.

• Explain how oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide change based on the body’s activity level.

• Describe the three main symptoms of the urge to breathe.

• Describe the primary benefit of the urge to breathe.

The urge to breathe is the body’s way of preventing a freediver from overextending their breath-hold.

27 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Freediving Breath-Holds
People often think freediving only consists of descending into the ocean’s depths using fins. In reality,
there’s a variety of freediving activities, which are called freediving disciplines.
Three of the more popular disciplines are:

• Static apnea, where the freediver typically floats in a face-down, stationary position on the surface.

• Dynamic apnea, where the freediver swims horizontally under the surface.

• Constant weight, where the freediver wears a specific amount of weight and descends from the
surface to a target depth, and then returns to the surface.

Section 2 discusses these disciplines in more detail.

Regardless of the discipline, the most fundamental aspect of freediving is the breath-hold, which
enables the freediver to safely accomplish their objective before the end of their freediving session.

It’s important to understand what happens to your body when you hold your breath. You must be
able to interpret the physical sensations that occur, the risks of improper breath-hold techniques,
and the benefits of properly preparing for—and recovering from—your breath-holds.

28 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Urge to Breathe
• Urge to breathe (UTB) | A sensation where
the body feels an increased need to breathe
during a breath-hold. The urge to breathe
becomes stronger as the length of the
breath-hold increases.
Contrary to what many believe, the urge to breathe
is caused by high carbon dioxide levels in the body,
not decreased oxygen levels.
As discussed previously, humans produce carbon
dioxide when their body tissues use oxygen. The
human body evolved to have a certain amount of
carbon dioxide to function correctly. The higher the
body’s carbon dioxide level, the stronger the urge to
breathe becomes so the body can expel the excess
carbon dioxide.
Oxygen Consumption
In high-intensity activities like running, oxygen
consumption increases. This increases the
respiration rate and produces more carbon dioxide.
The brain’s respiratory center detects the high
carbon dioxide levels, telling the body to breathe
faster and deeper.
The opposite occurs while resting—the body uses
less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. As a
result, the natural breathing cycle slows and
shallower breathing may be sufficient.
Image © Subgear

Breath-holds break this natural cycle. Carbon dioxide levels rise above normal levels when you
stop breathing. Fortunately your body continues to function properly, even with a certain level of
carbon dioxide build-up. The increased carbon dioxide levels trigger the urge to breathe. The
more relaxed you are before and during a breath-hold, the less oxygen you will use. This reduces
carbon dioxide production and safely extends the time before you feel the urge to breathe.

Symptoms
Freedivers feel three common sensations as the urge to breathe increases:

• Swallowing—the freediver feels an urge to swallow or starts to swallow uncontrollably.

• A warm sensation in the chest—contracting breathing muscles can create a warm feeling. This is
less noticeable during an in-water breath-hold.

• Diaphragm contractions—the diaphragm contracts uncontrollably, or the urge to move the

diaphragm gets so strong that the freediver cannot manually control it.
These sensations increase and become more intense as the breath-hold continues.

29 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Benefits
The brain consumes more oxygen than any other part of the body. When the brain’s respiratory center
detects high levels of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, it triggers the urge to breathe. Initially, there
is still a significant reserve of oxygen left in the body.
The urge to breathe is an alert that indicates that it is time to start ascending or to end the breath-hold.
This occurs before the amount of oxygen left in the body reaches a dangerous level, which makes the
urge to breathe an important safety tool for freedivers.

The urge to breathe also increases the effects of the mammalian dive reflex, which
is discussed in more detail in Lesson 1.5.

30 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.2 | Review
1. The urge to breath is triggered by _____ levels in the body.
A. High nitrogen
B. Low carbohydrate
C. Low oxygen
D. High carbon dioxide
2. The brain’s respiratory center directs the body to breathe faster and deeper based on:
A. Nitrogen levels
B. Oxygen levels
C. Carbohydrate levels
D. Carbon dioxide levels

3. Relaxing allows the body to use less oxygen and:

A. Causes lactic acid build-up
B. Reduces nitrogen production
C. Increases nitrogen production
D. Reduces carbon dioxide production

4. How do you extend the amount of time before you feel the urge to breathe during a breath-hold?
A. Only take a partial breath before the dive
B. Moving faster during the dive
C. Being more relaxed before and during the dive
D. Breathing faster before the dive

5. The three common symptoms of the urge to breathe are:

A. Swallowing, warm sensation in the chest, diaphragm contractions
B. Swallowing, metallic taste in the mouth, warm sensation in the belly
C. Diaphragm contractions, itchy feeling in the palms, euphoria
D. Spleen contractions, diaphragm contractions, sweating

6. When you first feel the urge to breathe, your oxygen levels are:
A. Starting to increase
B. Not important, only carbon dioxide is a concern
C. Almost depleted
D. Currently high enough to ascend and complete the breath-hold
7. The urge to breathe is an alert that indicates that it is time to:
A. Panic
B. Swim faster to get further
C. Exhale excess carbon dioxide
D. Ascend or end the breath-hold
8. For freedivers, the urge to breath is:
A. A distraction
B. Not important
C. A significant safety concern
D. A safety tool

31 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.3 | Hyperventilation

Image © Mares/Predrag Vuckovic

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term “hyperventilation”.

• List at least three common symptoms of hyperventilation.

• Describe four disadvantages of hyperventilating for freedivers.

• Explain why freedivers do not use hyperventilation to increase breath-hold times.

Hyperventilation may seem like the best way to increase breath-hold times, but safe divers know to
avoid it due to the risks it creates.

32 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Hyperventilation

Image © iStock

• Hyperventilation | Excessively rapid and/or deep breathing that reduces carbon dioxide
levels in the body.
When someone hyperventilates—also known as “over-breathing” to freedivers—they begin to breathe
more rapidly, more deeply, or both. This can be an intentional action, like when a misinformed individual
tries to increase their breath-hold time, or an involuntary action caused by stress, fear, or excitement.
By hyperventilating, the individual circulates more air through their lungs than they need for their
current activity level. Contrary to some beliefs, hyperventilating does not raise the amount of oxygen in
the bloodstream. Instead, it lowers the amount of carbon dioxide below the level the body normally
needs.
In the early days of freediving, this was considered a good thing. By lowering the level of carbon dioxide
in the body, the freediver delayed the time before they felt the urge-to-breathe, which only made the
first part of the breath-hold more comfortable.
They thought that this was due to increased oxygen levels—not lowered carbon dioxide levels—and
essentially turned off their body’s warning system that it was time to start breathing again.
Now that science has taught us that our body needs a certain level of carbon dioxide to function
correctly, hyperventilation is no longer a part of modern freediving techniques.

33 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Symptoms of Hyperventilation
Every human’s physiology is different, so their tolerance to the effects of hyperventilation will also be
different. A freediver might react differently than their buddy or instructor, even if they practice the
same breathing pattern.
The symptoms of hyperventilation are similar for everyone.
Initial symptoms

• Light-headedness

• Dizziness
• Impaired vision

• Numbness around the mouth and mask area

• Tingling sensation in the fingers

• Impaired hearing
If the hyperventilation continues, the symptoms will increase, leading to feelings of:

• Euphoria
• Vertigo

• Ringing in the ears

• Stiffness in the fingers

• A metallic taste in the mouth

Once the breath-hold begins, symptoms usually continue to increase for a couple more seconds. This
can lead to extreme light-headedness or dizziness, and may cause a blackout at the start of the breath-
hold in more severe cases.
The Disadvantages of Hyperventilation
Starting a breath-hold with hyperventilation can create serious safety-related issues for freedivers.
There are four main disadvantages of hyperventilation.
Increased Heart Rate
The respiratory muscles involved in breathing include the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. The
faster a diver breathes, the more the respiratory muscles have to work.
The heart is a large, muscular organ, so an elevated heart rate—the result of the increased oxygen
demand from the respiratory muscles—causes a considerable increase in oxygen consumption.
Changes in Blood Acidity
The pH of blood is normally slightly alkaline, or basic. This means its pH is greater than neutral. During
normal physical activity, the pH of the surrounding tissues become slightly acidic from increased
amounts of carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin does not function properly in acidic environments, so as
carbon dioxide levels increase, more oxygen is released into the tissues.
Hyperventilation creates a higher alkaline state in the blood. When this occurs, hemoglobin develops a
stronger bond to oxygen that makes oxygenating tissues more difficult. This is called the Bohr Effect. As
a result, the blood less efficiently distributes oxygen to the tissues.

34 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Blood Vessel Constriction in the Brain
The brain continuously demands a certain amount of oxygen to function correctly. The body regulates
the size of the blood vessels that feed the brain to ensure a constant and healthy supply of oxygen. The
size of the blood vessels depends on the level of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream.
When carbon dioxide levels increase, blood vessels feeding the brain enlarge and improve oxygen flow.
When carbon dioxide levels decrease, the blood vessels constrict and reduce blood flow. This is an
automatic process that the brain regulates using the breathing cycle during normal day-to-day
activities.
Hyperventilation makes the body think it has more oxygen than it does by decreasing carbon dioxide
levels. As a result, the brain constricts its blood vessels—even if there is not enough oxygen. This
process is called “cerebral vasoconstriction”.

• Cerebral vasoconstriction | The constriction of blood vessels in the brain.

Delaying the Urge To Breathe
As discussed in Lesson 1.2, increased carbon dioxide levels trigger the urge to breathe. A freediver’s
carbon dioxide levels drop significantly if they hyperventilate before starting their breath-hold.
There is an excessively low level of carbon dioxide in the body when the breath-hold starts. This
increases the time required to reach the level that triggers the urge to breathe.
Without the urge to breathe, the body thinks it has an appropriate supply of oxygen and continues to
consume oxygen past a safe point. If a freediver hyperventilates and then starts a breath-hold, the urge
to breathe will not alert them that it is time to end the breath-hold. This makes the breath-hold less
efficient. It also prevents the mammalian dive reflex—discussed later in this section—which also helps
conserve oxygen.
Compounding Effects
These disadvantages can simultaneously and negatively affect the freediver if they hyperventilate.
Their heart rate increases to support the higher demand on their respiratory system, increasing the
consumption of oxygen.
The lower level of carbon dioxide means the blood is not yet acidic enough, so it is harder for oxygen
transfer to occur, and the blood vessels in their brain have not dilated to increase blood flow.
The lowered carbon dioxide level also delays the urge to breathe, preventing the body from conserving
oxygen and removing the warning that it is time to start breathing again.
Hyperventilation Guidelines
One or more of these effects is enough to potentially cause a blackout when the freediver surfaces, even
if they felt normal during the session. This safety risk is why SSI training prohibits using hyperventilation
as a breathing technique. If a freediver does feel any of the symptoms of hyperventilation before
starting the breath-hold, they should stop and wait until the symptoms disappear before continuing.

It’s important to remember that a “safe” amount of hyperventilation does not exist. You can feel the
symptoms of hyperventilation at any point, depending on your physical condition. You are
responsible for identifying the symptoms of hyperventilation in yourself, and for warning your
buddies if you see signs of hyperventilation in them.

35 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.3 | Review
1. Hyperventilation is excessively rapid or _____ breathing.
A. Shallow
B. Short
C. Deep
D. Slow
2. Hyperventilation lowers _____ levels in the blood.
A. Nitrogen
B. Carbon monoxide
C. Oxygen
D. Carbon dioxide

3. Hyperventilation occurs when _____ is circulated through the lungs than is required for the current activity level.
A. More oxygen
B. Less air
C. More air
D. Less oxygen

4. What are the initial symptoms of hyperventilation?

A. Tingling fingers, numbness around the mouth and mask area, urge to swallow, ringing in the ears
B. Dizziness, metallic taste, euphoria, hot flashes
C. Vertigo, impaired hearing, diaphragm contractions, light-headedness
D. Light-headedness, tingling fingers, numbness around the mouth and mask area

5. Hyperventilating before a breath-hold:

A. Will help reach safe and long breath-holds
B. Is required
C. Increases the risk of blackout
D. Has no negative effects

6. Breathing more quickly increases the body’s:

A. Carbon dioxide levels
B. Heart rate
C. Relaxation level
D. Oxygen levels
7. The Bohr Effect means that the bond between hemoglobin and oxygen in the blood is:
A. At equilibrium
B. Increasing the amount of available oxygen
C. Too weak
D. Too strong
8. The size of the blood vessels in the brain constrict or dilate based on the amount of _____ in the blood.
A. Oxygen
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Hemoglobin
D. Nitrogen
9. When hyperventilation delays the urge to breathe, the body thinks it has enough _____ and will _____ oxygen past a safe point.
A. Carbon dioxide / continue consuming
B. Oxygen / continue consuming
C. Carbon dioxide / stop consuming
D. Oxygen / stop consuming

10. The disadvantages of hyperventilation can _____ and _____ affect the freediver.
A. Physically / emotionally
B. Consecutively / positively
C. Simultaneously / negatively
D. Individually / positively

11. If a freediver feels any of the symptoms of hyperventilation, they should:

A. Take a deep breath and continue
B. Quit diving for the day
C. Stop and wait until the symptoms disappear before continuing
D. Stop and wait until the symptoms start to decrease

36 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.4 | Freediving Breathing Techniques

Image © iStock/Topalov

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• State the relationship between breathing rate and relaxation.

• Explain how belly breathing conserves oxygen.

• List the three senses that affect relaxation, and give one example for each.
• List at least three benefits of a proper breathe-up.

• State the purpose of recovery breathing, and describe how to properly perform the recovery
breathing sequence.

Relaxation is an important part of a safe and fun freediving experience. Proper breathing techniques
help freediver relax properly.

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Relaxation

Image © Mares-Axel Weiss

Relaxation is the absence of tension and anxiety. The body and brain consume less oxygen when the
body is relaxed and there are fewer demands on the lungs and circulatory system. Focusing on the
breathing cycle is one of the most effective ways to establish and maintain a relaxed state.
Breathing Improves Relaxation
The first step to reaching a relaxed state is to focus on the pattern of the breaths during the breath cycle.
The heart rate follows the breathing pattern, increasing during each inhalation and decreasing during
each exhalation.
A controlled breathing pattern that focuses on exhalations that are longer than the inhalations will
cause the heart rate to slow, increasing relaxation.
Along with prolonged exhalations, freedivers also practice belly breathing.

• Belly breathing | A controlled breathing pattern that uses the diaphragm to control the
inhale/exhale cycle.
Sleeping is usually the body’s most relaxed state and the only time humans unconsciously practice belly
breathing. Freedivers belly breathe because it is the easiest and most comfortable way to breathe and it
requires less energy to perform.
Proper belly breathing technique
Finding a comfortable rhythm is the key to developing the belly breathing skill. Freedivers start this
exercise by focusing solely on their diaphragm while breathing regularly. The belly rises as the

38 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 diaphragm moves down during each inhalation. The belly flattens toward the spine as the diaphragm
moves up during each exhalation.
The best way to control an exhalation is to restrict its flow with the lips or the tongue. The breathing
pattern should not start to feel forced or challenging to maintain. Do not force the breathing pattern
into a predetermined pattern. A natural rhythm is the key to achieving the proper level of relaxation.

The human body has evolved to be as energy-efficient as possible. Developing your belly
breathing ability will help your freediving abilities improve more quickly. It can also help in your
daily life by increasing relaxation and making your normal breathing cycle more efficient.

Relaxation and the Senses

The body’s senses are constantly receiving external input, which can be useful but is also distracting at
times.
Freedivers must be physically and mentally comfortable to achieve a relaxed state. Reducing
distractions from unnecessary sensory input can improve relaxation. The most active senses are the
visual and auditory senses. The tactile sense—or sense of touch—can also affect relaxation.
Reduce visual distractions
The human eye receives information about the outside world and sends this information to the brain.
Closing the eyes during the preparation and early phases of the breath-hold minimizes visual
distractions. Opening the eyes toward the end of the breath-hold may help the freediver feel more in
control, which can reduce stress and increase relaxation. This is especially helpful if the freediver starts
to worry about completing the breath-hold.
Minimize distracting sounds
A quiet and peaceful environment increases focus and improves relaxation. Even a simple act like
turning off all phone notifications can make a big difference. Relaxing background music or focusing on
nature’s sounds can also improve relaxation.
A freediver in the water can breathe through a snorkel with their face and ears below the surface to help
minimize any surrounding noise. Another useful method is to focus solely on the sound of each breath
during the breathe-up.
Improve physical sensations
Comfortable body and environmental temperatures help divers physically and mentally relax. Properly
fitted equipment that does not restrict breathing or create discomfort is also crucial to achieving proper
relaxation.
The body should be in a comfortable position for the breath-hold. For example, laying down on a mat
will feel more relaxing than sitting up in a chair. Floating face down in the water while breathing
through a snorkel is the most comfortable in-water position. It has the added benefit of using the
fewest muscles, which reduces stress and effort. Some freedivers find that the feel of their buddy’s hand
on their back or arm helps to reassure them during the preparation phase of the breath-hold.

39 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Freediving Breathing Techniques
Proper breathing technique is the most
fundamental part of any freediving session, and can
mean the difference between a fun and successful
session and one that ends prematurely.
You have already learned about why freedivers
never hyperventilate, and how proper relaxation
prepares freedivers for their session. Now let’s look
at the specific breathing techniques freedivers use
to prepare for the breath-hold and to recover from
the breath-hold.
Breathe-Up
The preparation phase, or “breathe-up”, is an
essential part of every freediving session. By
properly preparing their body, freedivers increase
their performance and maintain their safety during
the breath-hold.
The breathe-up consists of two parts: relaxation
breathing and the final breath, which is the last
breath before starting the breath-hold. It should
take a maximum of two minutes to complete, which
allows the freediver to focus on relaxing without
hyperventilating. It is usually completed while
breathing through the mouth, since the mask
prevents inhaling through the nose.
A proper breathe-up increases the amount of
oxygen in the body’s tissues and helps slow the
freediver’s heart rate. It also increases physical and
Image © iStock-Nerthuz
mental relaxation and increases the freediver’s
concentration during the session.
Benefits of a proper breathe-up
A proper breathe-up:

• Oxygenates body tissues.

• Increases physical and mental relaxation.

• Slows the heart rate.

• Improves concentration and relaxation for the rest of the session.

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The Breathe-Up Sequence

Relaxation Breathing
Relaxation breathing is the most important part of the breathe-up, and uses the diaphragm to belly
breathe. The inhalations should draw in enough air to fill the belly without moving the chest cavity. The
exhalations should last about twice as long as the inhalation—for example a 3–4 second inhalation
should be followed by a 6–8 second exhalation.
To make the exhalation last longer, use the lips or tongue to control the speed of the exhalation, and
focus on increasing the relaxation level during each exhale. The breath should flow smoothly and with a
steady breathing rhythm between the inhalation and exhalation cycles.
To increase breathing awareness, place one hand on the chest and the other on the navel. Counting the
seconds during each inhalation and exhalation will help maintain a steady rhythm and increase
relaxation as well.

Inexperienced freedivers often overextend the exhalation while attempting to reach deeper
levels of relaxation. This can cause under-breathing, which may cause an undesirable amount of
carbon dioxide to accumulate. Establish a relaxed and normal breathing pattern first before
attempting the belly breathing technique when you practice this skill.

The Final Breath

Once the relaxation breathing is complete, the freediver takes one final breath before starting the
breath-hold. The goal of the final breath is to completely fill the lungs, ideally with a single inhalation to
avoid hyperventilating. The final breath expands and fills the belly first and then the chest. This should
be done smoothly and in one continuous movement to avoid creating stress and elevating the heart
rate. Relax the neck and shoulders after taking the final breath.
Repeated attempts to complete the final breath increases the risk of hyperventilation. If the first

41 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 attempt is not sufficient, no more than one additional final breath should be attempted. Instead, restart
the relaxation breathing before trying another final breath.
Key points | Breathe-up

• Relaxed belly breathing for about 1:45 minutes.

• Ideally one final full breath—two at most—to avoid hyperventilating.

• Fill the belly and then the chest in one continuous movement.

• Relax the neck and shoulders after taking the final breath.
Recovery Breathing

Image © Shutterstock-Benoit Daoust

The second breathing technique, called “recovery breathing”, occurs once the breath-hold is complete.
The body has a natural instinct to breathe rapidly after completing the breath-hold, but this is
unfortunately not enough to fully recover. These rapid breaths are too shallow to fully draw oxygen into
the lungs. As a result, much of the oxygen in each breath is exhaled without being used.
Recovery breaths are necessary because the long duration of the breath-hold creates an excess of
carbon dioxide and a lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues. They are a specific technique that removes
carbon dioxide from the body and efficiently returns oxygen levels to normal.
Recovery Breathing Sequence
Each exhale during the recovery breaths should be passive. This consumes less energy, since it does not
require extra muscular effort to force the air from the lungs. It should feel effortless and end at the point
where the lungs naturally reach a neutral pressure level.

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• While sitting comfortably, inhale a full breath.

• Gently clench the throat muscles while leaving the mouth open.

• Unclench the throat muscles without using any other muscles. Air should naturally flow out of the
lungs until they reach a neutral pressure.

• Some air should remain in the lungs, since completely emptying the lungs is not the goal of
recovery breathing.

• Make a quick, full inhalation and hold it by clenching the throat muscles.
• Hold this breath for a few seconds. Keep the body relaxed and do not lift the shoulders. This is a
critical step, since the breath-hold allows the body to absorb as much oxygen as possible.

• Repeat the inhalation and exhalation sequence at least three times, focusing on a proper pause
and a passive exhalation.
A proper breath-hold is not finished without first completing the recovery breaths. Every freediver—no
matter how experienced—must make recovery breathing an instinctive habit.

You may find it challenging to complete your recovery breaths during the early stages of your
freediving career. Counting the seconds in your head while completing the skill can help
accurately time your recovery breaths.

Key points | Recovery breathing

• Passive exhalation
• Quick, full inhalation

• Hold for at least seconds

• Repeat the sequence at least three times

43 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.4 | Review
1. The heart rate increases during each _____ and decreases during each _____.
A. Inhalation / exhalation
B. Exhalation / inhalation
C. Relaxation breath / final breath
D. Breath-hold/ recovery breathing cycle
2. Belly breathing requires:
A. Less energy to perform
B. Restricted lips
C. Strong abdominal muscles
D. Strong diaphragm muscles

3. You can minimize visual distractions during a breath-hold by:

A. Keeping your eyes open throughout the breath-hold
B. Focusing on stationary objects
C. Closing your eyes during the preparation and early phases of the breath-hold
D. Watching other freedivers

4. A quiet and peaceful environment:

A. Decreases cold and tension
B. Increases cold and tension
C. Decreases focus
D. Increases focus and improves relaxation

5. Properly fitted freediving equipment will:

A. Restrict breathing
B. Not make any difference
C. Increase comfort and relaxation
D. Decrease comfort and relaxation

6. The breathe-up combines:

A. The final breath and the recovery breaths
B. Hyperventilation and the recovery breaths
C. Relaxation breathing and the recovery breaths
D. Relaxation breathing and the final breath
7. A proper breathe-up:
A. Increases stress
B. Oxygenates body tissues
C. Increases heart rate
D. Creates fatigue
8. It is important to _____ immediately after completing the final breath.
A. Relax the neck and the shoulders
B. Complete the recovery breaths
C. Place one hand on the chest and the other on the belly
D. Keep the eyes open
9. Which technique restores oxygen and reduces carbon dioxide levels in the body’s tissues after a breath-hold?
A. Recovery breathing
B. Hyperventilation
C. Snorkel breathing
D. Breathe-ups

10. The brief pause during the recovery breaths allows the:
A. Body to release more carbon monoxide
B. Freediver to have time to remove their mask
C. Body to absorb more of the inhaled oxygen
D. Freediver to rest

11. _____ must become an instinctive freediving safety skill.

A. Keeping the eyes closed
B. The breathe-up
C. The recovery breaths
D. Always completing two final breaths

44 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.5 | The Mammalian Dive Reflex

1. Positive Buoyancy 2. Negative Buoyancy 3. Neutral Buoyancy

Image © AdobeStock/Hrr

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• State the purpose of the mammalian dive reflex.

• List and describe the four physical changes that occur a part of the mammalian dive reflex.

• List the three triggers of the mammalian dive reflex.

• Explain the relationship between consistent freediving practice and the mammalian dive reflex.

Strengthening the mammalian dive reflex is the only way to develop safer and longer breath-holds.

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The Mammalian Dive Reflex
• Mammalian dive reflex (MDR) | A series of rapid physiological changes that occur due to
breath-holds, especially during immersion.
The mammalian dive reflex (MDR) is a series of physical changes that happen in the body during a
breath-hold. The MDR occurs in all air-breathing vertebrates, but it is the strongest in marine mammals.
It is a survival mechanism that protects the mammal if it becomes submerged. The reactions caused by
the MDR primarily conserve oxygen. As a secondary benefit, the body also becomes more capable of
resisting the greater pressures caused by increasing depths.
As part of your freediving training, you will learn to take advantage of the MDR, increasing your breath-
hold times and becoming more comfortable during your freediving sessions.
Physical Changes
There are four notable physical changes that occur in the body once the mammalian dive reflex (MDR)
is triggered. These changes occur one after another in a nearly simultaneous sequence. The effects of
these changes become stronger as carbon dioxide levels in the blood rise.
Blood Vessel Constriction

• Peripheral vasoconstriction | The constriction of blood vessels in the extremities. It occurs as

a reaction to the mammalian dive reflex.
When the MDR is triggered, capillaries in the body’s extremities constrict to reduce unnecessary oxygen
consumption. This reaction is called “peripheral vasoconstriction”, and occurs to prevent unnecessary
oxygen consumption. Restricting blood flow to the less-essential parts of the body increases the
amount of blood that reaches critical organs like the heart, lungs, and brain.
Peripheral vasoconstriction also creates some side effects in the body. During longer dives, the legs and
arms begin to feel tired as oxygen levels deplete. Lactic acid will also build up more quickly than usual
in the affected tissues, tiring the muscles and decreasing their output.
Blood Shift
Once peripheral vasoconstriction begins, more blood flows toward the thoracic cavity—the body’s core
where critical organs, including the lungs and heart, are located. The blood vessels and capillaries in and
around the lungs expand to accommodate the additional blood volume as it shifts from the legs and
arms.
The increased blood volume fills the capillaries around the alveoli, shrinking them and making the
lungs less compressible, and allowing the diver to naturally adapt to pressure changes. The blood shift
also increases the efficiency of oxygen delivery from the lungs to the blood.
Lowered Heart Rate
As the blood vessels constrict and the blood shifts toward the body’s core, the distance that the blood
circulates is reduced, especially between the lungs and the brain. The shorter distance means that the
heart does not have to pump as hard to move the blood, so the heart rate decreases. The heart rate can
decrease by nearly 50%—even more in highly trained freedivers.
The scientific term for a lowered heart rate is “bradycardia”. As the heart rate drops, the heart works less.
This means that less oxygen is required for the heart to function properly, which extends the amount of
time the freediver can safely maintain their breath-hold.
Spleen Contraction
The spleen contracts as the final part of the mammalian dive reflex. The spleen is an organ that filters
and stores a reserve of blood for the body. This blood reserve has a large supply of red blood cells,
which allow the reserve to be quickly used if needed. The spleen contracts during a freedive, releasing

46 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 additional blood into the circulatory system and increasing the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen around
the body.
Side Effects
There are very few side effects for the MDR since it is an evolutionary survival mechanism. The primary
side effect is “immersion diuresis”, or the removal of liquid from the bloodstream.
As the blood shift occurs, the brain identifies that there is more fluid in the body’s core and acts to
remove it. This fluid is mostly water, which is stored in the bladder as urine. As a result, immersion
diuresis presents itself as an increased need to urinate.
Triggering the Mammalian Dive Reflex

Image © Scubapro

There are three ways that a freediver can increase the MDR. Each of these triggers can occur
independently or in combination with the others.
Breath-holding
The primary trigger is the breath-hold, which causes carbon dioxide levels in the blood to increase. The
body recognizes that the increase in carbon dioxide is caused by a corresponding decrease in oxygen.
Once it detects the higher carbon dioxide, the body initiates the MDR to conserve as much oxygen as
possible.
Facial immersion
The MDR can be triggered by submerging the face into water, specifically the area around the nostrils
and mouth. The body recognizes that breathing ability is impaired when the face is wet or submerged.
This causes the body to initiate the MDR in an attempt to conserve oxygen.

47 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 The effect of facial immersion on the MDR is strengthened in two ways. First, colder water has a greater
effect than warmer water. Second, exposing more of the face to the water will create a stronger effect.
This is why breathing through a snorkel and exposing as much of the face as is comfortable is preferable
to preparing for a breath-hold with the face out of the water.
Increased ambient pressure
Many marine mammals—like whales and elephant seals—dive to great depths in their search for prey.
Their ability to stay at depth for incredible lengths of time is a direct result of the MDR, which becomes
stronger as external pressure increases. As the depth increases, the increased water pressure around
the body promotes the blood shift, which triggers more peripheral vasoconstriction.

You will quickly experience the benefits and effects of the MDR once you begin the in-water part
of your training. Your first breath-hold may feel like a challenge, but the breath-holds that follow
will become easier as you become more comfortable. Freedivers call this the “warm-up”, and it is a
vital part of every freediving session.

Strengthening the Mammalian Dive Reflex

Frequent freediving enhances a freediver’s MDR, making it work more effectively. Since high carbon
dioxide levels are the MDR’s main trigger, breath-hold training, which increases carbon dioxide levels
above normal, helps improve this adaptation.
A safe and properly planned training routine is the key to achieving exceptional and long-lasting
freediving results.
It is not necessary to push the limits to develop an efficient MDR; it may in fact be less effective and
higher risk than a slower, steady approach.
Any training plan that seeks to improve the MDR should incorporate regular freediving sessions and use
a progressive approach to reach the desired milestones, rather than a high risk, high reward mentality.
Many freedivers build an MDR training routine that mimics the behavior of marine mammals, like seals,
dolphins, or whales. These animals have slowly developed their incredible breath-holding abilities over
thousands of generations.

48 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 1.5 | Review
1. _____ is a survival mechanism that protects a mammal if it becomes submerged.
A. The mammalian dive reflex
B. Hyperventilation
C. Cerebral vasoconstriction
D. Henry’s Law
2. Peripheral vasoconstriction occurs when:
A. Blood vessels in the extremities constrict
B. Blood vessels in the lungs shrink
C. Blood vessels in the brain shrink
D. Blood vessels in the lung expand

3. During _____, blood vessels and capillaries in and around the lungs expand to accommodate the additional blood volume from the limbs.
A. The blood shift
B. Peripheral vasodilation
C. Pulmonary vasoconstriction
D. Lung over-expansion

4. The increasing _____ in the chest region compensates for the reduced _____ in the lungs during descents.
A. Air volume / blood volume
B. Blood volume / pressure
C. Air volume / pressure
D. Blood volume / air volume

5. What is the primary effect of bradycardia?

A. Elevated heart rate
B. Lowered heart rate
C. Lowered blood pressure
D. Increased blood pressure

6. When the heart beats more slowly, it:

A. Consumes more oxygen
B. Consumes less oxygen
C. Causes peripheral vasoconstriction
D. Eventually stops
7. Trained freedivers can decrease their heart rate by:
A. 20% or less
B. Up to 30%
C. 40%
D. 50% or more
8. When the spleen contracts it:
A. Releases more red blood cells into the bloodstream
B. Causes the urge to breathe
C. Lowers the heart rate
D. Creates a stronger bond between hemoglobin and oxygen
9. Breath-holding, facial immersion, and an increase in ambient pressure trigger the:
A. Mammalian dive reflex
B. Oxygen consumption
C. Bohr Effect
D. Cerebral vasoconstriction

10. You should _____ to develop an efficient mammalian dive reflex.

A. Chose a “high risk, high reward" approach
B. Push your limits
C. Only do in-water training
D. Freedive frequently and use a progressive approach to reach your milestones

49 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Section 2 | Pressure

Image © Shutterstock-Zi Magine

Managing the effects of pressure is the foundation of good equalization and safe freediving practices.

Introduction
Most people can spend their entire life on the Earth’s surface, surrounded by the gentle pressure of its
atmosphere.
When we leave the surface and descend into the depths, our bodies are exposed to changes in water
pressure. Understanding these changes is an important part of safe and comfortable diving.
As a new diver, you must learn how pressure affects your body, how to manage changes in pressure,
and how to prevent and correct issues caused by pressure.

50 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 2.1 | Effects of Pressure on Divers

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the three types of pressure.

• Define and give at least one practical example of Boyle’s Law.

• Explain how to calculate gas volume changes at different depths.

51 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Understanding Pressure
Different Types of Pressure
Everything that has mass has weight, even the tiny molecules that make up the Earth’s atmosphere. The
weight of the gases or liquids that surround us is called pressure.
As a freediver submerges below the surface, there are three specific types of pressures that act upon
their body. It is important to understand these pressures and their effects to safely and comfortably
complete each freediving session.
Atmospheric pressure
Picture a column of air that rises from sea level to the upper edge of the Earth’s atmosphere. The column
is about 100 kilometers high, and is filled with individual molecules of the various gases that make up
the Earth’s atmosphere.

• Atmospheric pressure | The force per unit of area that is created by gravity acting upon the
mass of the atmosphere. Measured in bar.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the gases within a square centimeter of that column, and is
measured in units of “bar”. At sea level, the pressure of the atmosphere equals one bar, which is about
1.23 kilograms per cubic meter.
Hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure (bar) = Depth in meters / 10

Water molecules weigh about one kilogram per liter, depending on the temperature and how many
solids are dissolved into the sample. As a diver descends, the increasing weight of the water above
them exerts pressure against the diver’s body. This pressure is called “hydrostatic pressure”.

• Hydrostatic pressure | The force per unit of area that is created by the mass of a column of
water acted upon by gravity. Measured in bar.
A liter of water is denser and weighs more than a liter of air, so the hydrostatic pressure of a fluid is
greater than the pressure exerted by an equivalent amount of air. The pressure exerted by about ten
meters of salt water—10.06 meters to be exact—is equivalent to the pressure exerted by the Earth’s
entire atmosphere.
This means that when a diver descends ten meters, the hydrostatic pressure equals one bar. At twenty
meters, the pressure equals two bar, and at thirty meters, it equals three bar.
Absolute pressure

• Absolute pressure | The sum of the atmospheric pressure and the hydrostatic pressure
exerted on a diver. Measured in bar.
Absolute pressure is written mathematically as:

Absolute pressure (bar) = (Depth in meters / 10 meters) +1

Absolute pressure is used to determine the total amount of pressure acting on the diver while they are
below the surface. This information is more important for freedivers who continue to the SSI Advanced
Freediver program.

52 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Pressure and Volume

Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that:

For a gas at a constant temperature, the volume of that gas will vary inversely with the pressure of the
gas.

Boyle’s Law is mathematically written as:

PV = k
Known values
• P = absolute pressure
• V = volume

• k = a constant value that does not change

Since the temperature of the gases does not change during a dive, Boyle’s Law can be used to
determine how the volume of the gases inside a diver’s air spaces will react to changes in
pressure.
Boyle’s Law says that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure. This means
that as the pressure increases, the volume of the gas decreases by a corresponding amount. For a diver,
this means that gas volumes inside the body’s air spaces will become smaller as the diver descends and
pressure increases.
The lungs are flexible, like a balloon, so their volume will change as the pressure of the gas inside them
changes.

53 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Calculating Pressure and Volume Changes
How do atmosphere and pressure affect a diver?
As a diver descends from the surface, the pressure of the water around them increases. The effects of
the increased pressure are the most dramatic in the first ten meters. The pressure on the diver’s body
doubles and the gas volume inside their body’s air spaces is reduced by half as described by Boyle’s Law.
As the diver continues to descend, the relative pressure change becomes less significant and the effects
of increasing pressure on a gas volume decrease. Here is a practical example, using the formula for
Boyle’s Law.
Example | Volume at one bar
A diver with six liters of air in their lungs descends from the surface (1 bar of absolute pressure) to ten
meters (two bar of absolute pressure).
Since pressure has doubled, the volume of the gas must decrease by an equivalent amount. Rearrange
the Boyle’s Law equation to solve for volume:
V=k/P
Known values

• V = the air volume when the diver reaches 10 meters.

• P = the change in pressure (2 bar).

• k = a constant value, equal to the starting volume (6 liters).

Calculations
Volume at 10 meters (liters) = k / Pressure
Volume at 10 meters (liters) = 6 liters / 2 bar
Answer
• The gas in the diver’s lungs at ten meters will be one-half (three liters) of its surface volume.
Example | Volume at three bar
Now calculate the same volume, but for a dive from the surface to twenty meters (three bar of absolute
pressure).
Known values
• P = the change in pressure (3 bar).
• k = a constant value, equal to the starting volume (6 liters).
Calculation
Volume at 20 meters (liters) = k / Pressure
Volume at 20 meters (liters) = 6 liters / 3 bar
Answer

• The gas in the diver’s lungs at twenty meters will be one-third (2.0 liters) of its surface volume.
These calculations demonstrate that pressure changes have a significant effect on a diver, especially in
shallower waters.

54 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 2.1 | Review
1. _____ is the force per unit of area that is created by gravity acting upon the mass of the atmosphere.
A. Atmospheric pressure
B. Air pressure
C. Hydrostatic pressure
D. Absolute pressure
2. The Earth’s atmospheric pressure equals _____ at sea level.
A. 10 bar
B. 0 bar
C. 1 bar
D. 100 bar

3. _____ is the increased weight of the water above a diver at depth.

A. Total force
B. Atmospheric pressure
C. Hydrostatic pressure
D. Liquid pressure

4. Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure exerted by about _____ of salt water.
A. 10 meters
B. 1000 meters
C. 100 meters
D. 10000 meters

5. Absolute pressure is the sum of:

A. Oxygen and nitrogen pressure
B. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide pressure
C. Hydrostatic pressure and atmospheric pressure
D. Oxygen and carbon dioxide pressure

6. What is the absolute pressure at a depth of thirty meters?

A. 4 bar
B. 2 bar
C. 1 bar
D. 3 bar
7. _____ states that the volume of a gas with a constant temperature is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
A. Law of diffusion
B. Boyle’s Law
C. Henry’s Law
D. Archimedes principle
8. The volume of an air filled balloon will _____ as depth and pressure increase.
A. Shrink
B. Become alkaline
C. Increase
D. Remain constant
9. An air-filled balloon with a six-liter volume at the surface must descend to a depth of _____ to compress its volume to two liters.
A. 30 meters
B. 20 meters
C. 15 meters
D. 10 meters

55 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 2.2 | Equalizing Air Spaces

Image © iStock

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe four air spaces affected by pressure changes.

• List the five parts of the ear and state which part is affected by pressure changes.

• Describe the two most common equalization techniques.

• List four ways that the Frenzel maneuver benefits freedivers.

• Describe how to effectively equalize a mask during a freedive.

56 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Air Spaces Affected by Pressure
There are four distinct air spaces that are affected by pressure changes as described by Boyle’s Law.
Unlike water, air is compressible, so most of these air spaces must be equalized when the pressure
outside the body increases, like during a descent from the surface to a deeper depth. If they are not
equalized, tissue damage, pain, and injury may occur.

• Equalization | The process of increasing or decreasing the pressure of a given volume of gas
to match the pressure of another volume of gas.
During ascents, the pressure inside the air spaces is higher than the pressure outside the body. This
means that equalization techniques—which move more air into the air space—are not necessary
during ascents. Air that is already inside the air space should naturally escape, allowing the air space to
passively equalize.

Understanding how these air spaces are designed, and how they equalize pressure, will help you
identify and correct common equalization problems.

The Mask

Image © Mares

Dive masks are not part of the human body, but they do contain an important air space formed by their
rigid frame and flexible skirt, which compresses when the outside pressure increases. This air space
must be equalized during descents using air from the diver’s lungs.

57 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 For dives that involve depth changes, the mask must enclose the nose to allow the diver to equalize the
air space. Lower-volume masks are easier to equalize, since less air must be exhaled through the nose
into the air space. A tempered glass lens and soft silicone mask skirt increase comfort and safety during
pressure changes.
The Lungs

1. Bronchioles 2. Alveoli 3. Alveoli (Close Up) 4. Alveolus with Capillary Network

Image © iStock

The lungs are the body’s largest air space. They are built from semi-flexible tissues that naturally
compress as pressure increases. An average woman’s lungs can hold about 4.5 liters of air, while an
average man’s lungs can hold about six liters.
During a breath-hold dive, the lungs naturally compress due to the increased external pressure. Since
they are flexible, the diver does not need to do anything to equalize them. The lung volume will
decrease during the descent and increase during the ascent, but never beyond the starting volume. The
blood shift caused by the mammalian dive reflex (MDR) protects the lungs by enlarging the blood
vessels around the alveoli. This further reduces the air space affected by increased pressure.

Scuba divers breathe compressed gas from their cylinder at depth, which would expand beyond
the safe limit if they held their breath during the ascent. As a freediver, you only retain the air
inhaled during your final breath at the surface, so there is no risk of your lungs over-expanding.

58 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Sinuses
The sinuses are comprised of four pairs of inflexible
hollow spaces in the skull:
• Maxillary sinuses

• Frontal sinuses

• Ethmoid sinuses

• Sphenoid sinuses
The frontal sinuses are located directly behind the
eyes and eyebrows. The maxillary sinuses are the
largest sinuses, and are located near the nose and
above the teeth. Soft tissue surrounds the sinuses,
increasing their sensitivity to pressure changes.
During ascents, air escapes the sinuses through the
nasal cavity and passes into the lungs or mask.
Congestion issues
Tissue passages connect the sinuses to the nasal
cavity, which allows air to naturally flow in and out.
During normal day-to-day life, the sinuses naturally
equalize through the throat and nasal passages
without conscious effort.
Mucus that is generated in the sinuses typically
drains as quickly as it is produced, without
obstructing airflow. However, if too much mucus is
produced, for example by allergies or the common
cold, airflow to and from the sinuses may be
reduced or even blocked completely. This can make
it difficult or impossible to equalize the sinuses, Image © iStock
which is one of the primary reasons that divers
should never dive if they feel congested.

59 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Ear

1. Outer Ear 2. Ear Canal 3. Ear Drum 4. Eustachian Tube

Image © iStock

The outer ear is the most visible part of the ear, and consists of a fleshy ear lob and the ear canal that
collects sound waves and directs them toward the eardrum. Since it is open to the environment, the
outer ear will fill with water during a dive unless it is sealed by a tightly fitted hood. It does not need to
be equalized, since the water can flow into and out of the ear canal without any action from the diver.
The eardrum, which is also called the tympanic membrane, is a thin, flexible layer of tissue that
separates the inner portion of the outer ear from the middle ear. It vibrates when struck by sound
waves—like the surface of a drum—and transmits these vibrations to tiny bones in the middle ear.
The eardrum has sensitive nerves that enable it to almost instantaneously detect changes in pressure.
Because of this sensitivity, if the diver fails to equalize appropriately, the eardrum stretches and may
cause discomfort or sharp pains if the pressure imbalance isn’t corrected.
The middle ear is located between the ear drum and the inner ear. It contains three tiny bones called
“ossicles” that convert vibrations from the eardrum into waves in the fluid-filled inner ear. The middle ear
contains a hollow space called the tympanic cavity, which is affected by pressure. Like the sinuses, the
middle ear is rigid, and must be manually equalized when pressure changes occur.
Eustachian tubes are small, narrow tubes that connect the middle ear to the nasal cavity. They are
usually closed, and are opened by two small muscles during the normal swallowing action to equalize
pressure. One-third of each eustachian tube is rigid bone and the remaining portion is made from
flexible cartilage.

60 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 The inner ear is the innermost portion of the ear, and is responsible for translating the vibrations from
the middle ear into electrochemical impulses that are transmitted to the brain and interpreted as sound.
They are also responsible for balance and can cause dizziness or nausea when infected or damaged. The
fluid in the inner ear is non-compressible, so the inner ear does not need to be equalized.
Equalization Techniques
Equalization balances the pressure differences between the air spaces in a diver’s body and the
pressure outside their body. This is a necessary component of many freediving sessions, where
the diver descends from the surface to deeper depths, exposing the compressible air spaces
inside their body to increased pressure. Equalizing these air spaces allows the diver to descend
safely and comfortably.
There are two common equalization techniques used by freedivers—the Valsalva maneuver and
Equalize the Frenzel maneuver.
The Valsalva Maneuver
The Valsalva maneuver is the most well-known equalization technique. The diver pinches their nose
closed with their fingers and gently exhales against their blocked nostrils. This increases the pressure
inside the nasal passages, opening the eustachian tubes and pushing air into the middle ear.
It is frequently used by non-divers to equalize during air travel, and it is commonly taught to scuba
divers because it is easy to master. It only works when freediving in shallow water, usually during
diagonal descents. This limits its usefulness during deeper freediving sessions where the freediver may
stay in an inverted position during the descent.
The Frenzel Maneuver
The Frenzel maneuver is similar to the Valsalva maneuver, but is more effective for freedivers. The diver
pinches the nostrils closed with the fingers, but uses the tongue as a piston, instead of pushing air from
the lungs with their diaphragm. This only pressurizes the air in the mouth and nose cavity while the
airway from the lungs remains closed.
Benefits of the Frenzel maneuver
There are four benefits of using the Frenzel maneuver instead of the Valsalva maneuver:

• It works well, even if the diver is inverted.

• It consumes less energy and requires less air since only the air in the nose and mouth are
pressurized.

• It is gentler, more gradual, and more controllable than the Valsalva maneuver.
• It can be performed more frequently and it can holds pressure for longer, which gives the
eustachian tubes more time to open.

You will equalize frequently during your dives. Developing an efficient and comfortable
equalization technique makes your dives more fun and safer.

61 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Mask Equalization
As the diver descends, the increasing external pressure on their mask causes the mask’s internal air
volume to decrease. The mask’s rigid frame limits how much the flexible skirt can compress as pressure
increases. To avoid discomfort or injury, the diver must equalize the mask, even if the depth change is
only a couple meters.
Masks that are designed with a larger volume—like some designed for scuba diving—require a greater
amount of air to equalize. This make them less desirable than small-volume masks to freedivers, who
must conserve as much air as possible.
The mask can be easily equalized by exhaling tiny amounts of air through the nostrils. Air is exhaled
from the lungs, increasing the internal pressure of the mask to keep it at equilibrium with the greater
external pressure. The diver can throttle air flow into the mask by gently squeezing their nostrils almost
shut. The fingers should allow just enough air past the nostrils and into the mask to complete the
equalization process.

Avoid excessively exhaling or allowing air to leak out of the mask while equalizing.

62 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 2.2 | Review
1. Equalization balances the pressure differences between the air spaces in a diver’s body and the pressure:
A. Outside their body
B. At the surface
C. In their lungs
D. In their middle ear
2. A diver equalizes the air spaces in their body:
A. At the bottom
B. Only during the descent
C. Only during the ascent
D. During ascents and descents

3. The _____ naturally compress due to the increased external pressure during a descent.
A. Lungs
B. Middle ear
C. Mask
D. Sinuses

4. The _____ are four pairs of inflexible hollow spaces in the skull.
A. Sinuses
B. Ears
C. Inner ears
D. Middle ears

5. Tissue passages connect the _____ to the nasal cavity and allow air to naturally flow in and out.
A. Ear canal
B. Inner ear
C. Sinuses
D. Outer ear

6. The _____ separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
A. Eardrum
B. Eustachian tube
C. Alveoli
D. Inner ear
7. Which part of the ear must be equalized?
A. Middle ear
B. Outer ear
C. Eustachian tubes
D. Inner ear
8. During a _____ the diver pinches their nose closed with their fingers and gently exhales against the blocked nostrils.
A. Frenzel maneuver
B. Valsalva maneuver
C. Toynbee maneuver
D. Eustachian maneuver
9. The Frenzel maneuver is more effective for freedivers because it:
A. Also equalizes the mask and consumes less air
B. Works well while inverted and is more comfortable
C. Also equalizes the lungs and is more efficient
D. Does not require sealing the nostrils and can be performed more often

10. Air in the _____ does not need to be pressurized to complete the Frenzel maneuver.
A. Lungs
B. Eustachian tube
C. Middle ear
D. Nose and mouth

11. The _____ is(are) easily equalized by exhaling tiny amounts of air through the nostrils.
A. Lungs
B. Sinuses
C. Hood
D. Mask

63 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 2.3 | Pressure-Related Issues

Image © Subgear

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe two types of equipment squeeze and how each can be prevented.

• Describe the cause of, prevention, and care for sinus squeezes.

• Explain how reverse blocks are caused and how they can be prevented.

• List four potential pressure-related issues and at least one way to prevent each issue.

64 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Equalization Issues
Freediving is a very safe sport that is practiced by hundreds of thousands of divers each year. Some of
the most common causes of discomfort or injury during a dive are due to the diver’s failure to properly
equalize. These issues are commonly called “squeezes”, after the sensation a diver feels when an air
space’s volume decreases without equalization.
Equipment Squeezes
Hood squeeze
Many freedivers wear hoods and other exposure protection to increase their comfort and enjoyment
during their dives. If the hood is too small, or creates a very tight seal around the diver’s head, it may
trap air around the diver’s ears, which can create a hood squeeze in the outer ear canal.
Divers can identify hood squeeze if they attempt to equalize but continue to feel pressure in their ear
canals. If left uncorrected, hood squeeze can make it more difficult to properly equalize the ears and
may cause injury.
Prevention and treatment
Hood squeeze is uncomfortable, but fortunately it usually occurs gradually, allowing the diver enough
time to correct the problem. If hood squeeze occurs, they immediately stop descending by holding
onto the dive line or a fixed object. The diver should return to the surface and correct the problem.
A diver can prevent hood squeeze by gently pulling the hood away from the head with their finger. This
allows water to enter the hood while the trapped air escapes, correcting the pressure imbalance and
eliminating the hood squeeze. Some divers will cut small holes in the hood, slightly forward of the ears.
This allows water and air to naturally flow in and out of the hood, equalizing the hood without
significantly reducing exposure protection.

If you regularly dive with a hood, you should develop the habit of breaking the hood’s seal
immediately before you start your dive. This allows some water to enter the hood and fill your ear
canals, preventing hood squeeze.

Mask squeeze
Mask squeeze is another common equipment-related equalization issue. Like hood squeeze, it is the
result of a pressure imbalance between the external water pressure and the decreasing pressure inside
the mask as the diver descends. This creates a pressure imbalance that can cause discomfort of minor
tissue damage to the face and eyes.
Mask squeeze usually affects newer divers who forget to equalize their mask. It’s most common in
freedivers who forget to release their nostrils between equalizations, which prevents air from entering
the mask.
If mask squeeze causes tissue damage, it usually affects the small blood vessels in and around the eyes.
These minor injuries look frightening, but rarely cause permanent damage.
Prevention and treatment
Preventing mask squeeze begin at the surface, before any change in pressure occurs. The diver should
always start the dive with their mask fully equalized, and should equalize frequently during the descent
without waiting for the first signs of mask squeeze.

65 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 You should immediately stop descending if you start to feel a mask squeeze. Use the dive line or a
fixed object to avoid descending further and gently exhale through your nose until your mask is
equalized.

Sinus Squeeze

Image © Shutterstock-Dragana Gordic

Causes
Sinus squeezes are one of the most common problems faced by divers. Air normally moves in and out
of the sinuses and their connecting passages without manual intervention. A sinus squeeze is caused
by an imbalance of pressure between the air in the sinus and the external pressure. The most common
cause is congestion, which is often caused by issues like respiratory illnesses or allergies.
Signs and symptoms
Discomfort and a feeling of pressure, are the most obvious signs of a sinus squeeze. If problem is not
corrected, the discomfort will progress to localized pain in the sinus affected by the squeeze. A squeeze
in the frontal sinuses causes a sharp pain in the forehead or behind the eyes. A squeeze in the maxillary
sinuses causes a toothache or a sharp pain in the cheekbones.
Prevention
Sinus squeezes can easily prevented with a few basic guidelines. Divers should avoid diving while
congested or ill, since this increases mucus production and the risk of clogging passages between the

66 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 sinuses and the nasal cavity. Decongestant medicine might seem like the solution, but the effects of the
medicine may wear off during the session, increasing the likelihood of additional congestion.
Even healthy divers risk sinus squeeze if they allow themselves to become dehydrated. Dehydration is
often caused by tropical environments, or extended time in the water. When a diver becomes
dehydrated, the mucus in their sinus cavities becomes less fluid, increasing the risk of congestion.
Treatment
Sinus squeezes can become serious injuries if a diver does not take action to correct them. If the diver
feels pain or suspects that a sinus squeeze has caused an injury, they should immediately stop diving
and seek medical attention. They should not dive again until they have medical clearance.
Ear Squeeze
Ear squeeze is the result of a pressure imbalance between the outside environmental pressure and the
pressure of the air space within the middle ear. If left untreated, ear squeeze can cause discomfort, pain,
or tissue damage to the middle ear and the eardrum. This injury is generally known as “barotrauma”.
Causes
Inability or inadequate equalization is the primary cause of ear squeeze. The diver may not equalize
efficiently, they may descend too quickly, or they may only equalize a few times during the descent. Any
of these errors can close the eustachian tubes, preventing further equalization.
Like sinus squeeze, diving while congested can also cause ear squeeze. If the nasal passages are
congested, it can be difficult for air to pass to and from the air space in the middle ear, which may create
a pressure imbalance and an ear squeeze.

Always equalize gently, and stop the dive if you cannot equalize.

Middle ear barotrauma

When a middle ear squeeze worsens, it can cause middle ear barotrauma. This occurs when a negative
pressure imbalance draws blood from the tissues surround the middle ear to compensate.
Eardrum rupture
Ear squeeze also affects the eardrum, which is the flexible membrane between the outside
environment and the middle ear. As the pressure outside the eardrum increases, the air volume in the
middle ear decreases and the membrane stretches inward toward the middle ear. If left uncorrected,
the eardrum may tear. If the ear is submerged when the eardrum tears, water may enter the middle ear
through the tear.
Signs and symptoms
Middle ear barotrauma
Middle ear barotraumas are identified by a swollen feeling in the ear and hearing difficulty. The diver
may also experience discomfort or pain, sometimes for multiple days. A diver who tries to equalize with
a middle ear barotrauma may hear a crackling sound, which indicates the presence of liquid. More
severe cases may cause bleeding and hearing loss if enough blood is drawn out of the tissues by the
negative pressure gradient.
Eardrum rupture
Discomfort is the first sign, followed by a sharp pain as the eardrum stretches to its limit. If the eardrum
ruptures, the pain usually disappears, followed by a cool, unpleasant sensation as water enters the ear.

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 Although the pain may decrease or disappear, dizziness, vertigo, and a loss of balance will usually follow
as the water fills the air space. Ruptured eardrums are a serious injury that may take several weeks to
heal.
Prevention
Ear squeezes can be scary, and may have serious consequences if left uncorrected. Fortunately, just like
sinus squeezes, they are easy to prevent. Divers should never dive while congested or use
decongestants to dive if they feel unwell.
Pre-equalize before starting any dive. This loosens the soft tissues in the eustachian tubes and air
spaces, which makes further equalization easier. Divers should equalize early and often during the dive,
before pressure builds up. This reduces the amount of air and effort needed to equalize each time and
decreases the amount of strain on the soft tissues.
The diver should stop descending if they feel pain or discomfort. As with sinus squeeze, proper
hydration increases the liquidity of mucus in the air spaces, making it easier to equalize.
Treatment
Never dive with a barotrauma or suspected barotrauma, and immediately end the dive if you suspect
one has occurred and seek professional medical care. Do not dive again without medical clearance.
Reverse Blocks

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

The internal pressure of an air space like the sinuses or ears increases during an ascent. This pressure is
typically relieved without requiring any action from the diver. A reverse block may occur if the
eustachian tubes or sinus passages are blocked.

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Reverse blocks can get worse if the diver continues to ascend without correcting the problem. They will
feel pressure and possibly discomfort or pain as the internal pressure increases. The symptoms of a
reverse block can persist after the diver surfaces.
Causes
Reverse blocks are often caused by congestion, which can reduce or completely shut the eustachian
tubes. Congestion can also block the sinus passages, trapping air in the sinus cavities. They can also
occur after the diver experiences a squeeze, which inflames the soft tissues in the affected air space.
Attempting to forcefully equalize an air space can create a reverse block during an ascent.
Prevention
It is difficult to resolve a reverse block by ascending more slowly or stopping during a freedive. Divers
know that the best prevention is to avoid the conditions that can create a reverse block. This means
avoiding diving with congestion, or stopping a dive if it becomes difficult to equalize or if equalization
takes longer than normal.
If a reverse block does occur, the freediver should use the dive line to slow or stop their ascent. They can
wiggle their jaw and gently stretch their neck to try to release the unwanted pressure.
They should not attempt another dive—including dives as the supervising buddy—until they are able
to equalize normally again. This sometimes requires waiting at least a day to continue diving.

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Lesson 2.3 | Review
1. Pressure-related issues caused by the decreasing volume of a body’s air space are called:
A. Squeezes
B. Compressions
C. Squashes
D. Congestions
2. The most common pressure-related issues are:
A. Mask, sinuses, lung, and middle ear compression
B. Hood, mask, sinuses, and middle ear squeezes
C. Hood, mask, sinuses, and inner ear compression
D. Hood, mask, sinuses, and inner ear squeezes

3. Hood squeeze can occur if a hood creates a ____ around the head.
A. Thermal barrier
B. Pressure gradient
C. Loose seal
D. Water-tight seal

4. A diver who forgets to release their nostrils between equalizations may experience:
A. Hood squeeze
B. Mask squeeze
C. Lung squeeze
D. Ear squeeze

5. Sinus squeeze may be caused by:

A. Deep diving
B. Congestion
C. Equipment failure
D. Diving in cold water

6. What occurs when air is trapped inside an air space and cannot be released during an ascent?
A. Hood squeeze
B. Mask squeeze
C. Sinus squeeze
D. Reverse block
7. Always _____ if you cannot equalize.
A. Forcefully equalize and descend more slowly
B. Stop the descent and end the dive
C. Ascend a bit and then immediately try to descend again
D. Flood the hood and the mask and continue descending
8. Ear squeeze can be caused by:
A. Inefficient equalization, congestion, fast descents
B. Acidic foods
C. Deep diving
D. Regular freediving

70 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Section 3 | Freediving Disciplines

Image © Mares

“ I’d rather lose myself in passion than lose my passion.”— Jacques Mayol, one of the early founders of
modern-freediving.

Introduction
When you think of freediving, you probably picture a freediver wearing a long fin on each foot and a
shiny two-piece wetsuit, gracefully descending from the surface along a dive line.
You are about to learn that this is only one of many types of freediving activities. The freediving world is
filled with variety, with each activity offering new experiences, challenges, and adventures that you will
share with your freediving buddies.

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Lesson 3.1 | The Buddy System

Image © Subgear

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the buddy system as it relates to freediving.

• List at least three benefits of using the buddy system.

• Describe the roles of each buddy in a three-person buddy team.

• Describe the three considerations for selecting an appropriate buddy.

• List five buddy team responsibilities.

One of the most important rules in diving is to“never dive alone”.

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The Buddy System
• Buddy system | A technique where two divers work together to supervise and support each
other during a dive.
A single freedive is a personal effort, where a freediver tests their abilities to dive deeper, dive farther, or
hold their breath longer. This doesn’t mean that freedivers dive alone; in reality the opposite is true—
freediving is a team activity that is safer and more enjoyable with a buddy.
The buddy system is used in every freediving discipline and in every freediving environment. The
specific duties of the two divers change, since each discipline tests a freediver’s abilities differently.
Benefits of the Buddy System
Diving with a qualified buddy is the best way to
increase safety during the dive. A qualified dive
buddy has at least the same amount of training and
experience, and should have similar objectives for
the dive. The buddy system ensures that a freediver
is properly supervised during their breath-hold. If a
problem arises, the buddy can act quickly to
prevent serious or even life-threatening issues.
Having a buddy increases a diver’s confidence and
relaxation levels. Greater relaxation increases the
likelihood of success during a dive. The diver knows
that they have the support of their buddy while
they make their attempt, and that the buddy will
prompt them through the end of the breath-hold.
Buddies encourage each other to continue training.
Diving can be challenging, so having a supportive
buddy who is also excited about reaching new
targets or continuing training makes it easier to
consistently dive. This mindset—that half of diving
is supporting another diver—makes dives safer and
more enjoyable.

Image © Mares

You will probably meet your first buddy during this program, but you can never have too many.
Ask your instructor and training center about local dive communities and training center events
where you can meet like-minded divers.

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Diving with the Buddy System
There are three roles for divers using the buddy system:

• Performing diver | The freediver making the dive or breath-hold.

• Supervising buddy | The buddy watching the performing diver.

• Standby diver | A buddy without any supervision duties.

Any in-water training, even if it’s only conducted at the surface of the water, involves a certain amount
of risk. SSI training programs teach the buddy system as a method of reducing that risk. When a
qualified buddy participates in the training session, the performing diver focuses on completing their
dive objectives while the other buddy supervises, watching for safety risks or problems.
Ideally, there are three people in the buddy team. One is the performing diver making the dive or
breath-hold attempt. The second buddy supervises the performing diver, ensuring their safety and
prompting them to complete their recovery breaths.

Descriptions of freediving activities in this manual use a two-person buddy team,

since the standby diver does not have any responsibilities while observing the rest
of the team.

If there is a third freediver, they can prepare for their dive while the performing diver is making their
dive. The performing diver becomes the supervising buddy after they complete their recovery breaths,
and the former supervising buddy becomes the standby diver and prepares for their own dive.
Buddy System Guidelines
Finding the right buddy
Divers must thoughtfully select their dive buddy, since a buddy who is appropriate for one discipline or
environment might not be the best choice for another. Divers should use the following criteria to
evaluate their buddies:

• Divers cannot be a qualified buddy if the dive plan exceeds the limits of their training or abilities.
• A qualified buddy must have a similar level of experience, training, and equivalent capabilities.
• All dives must be planned within the limits of the least-experienced or least-trained diver.
Responsibilities
The buddies should review the roles and procedures of the buddy system before starting any
freediving session. This ensures that everyone knows what is expected of them and what each buddy
will do if a problem occurs. Only conduct dives or breath-holds that the buddy can respond to
appropriately.

Verifying a diver’s certification level and number of dives is the first step toward
evaluating their abilities.

During a dive or breath-hold, the supervising buddy’s only responsibility is to supervise and support the
performing diver. They should not have additional tasks or allow themselves to be distracted until the
performing diver has successfully completed their recovery breaths. If a problem occurs, the buddy

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must act quickly and decisively to ensure the performing diver’s safety. Overreacting to a potential
problem is a better outcome than ignoring a small problem that becomes life-threatening.
Dive skills—especially rescue skills—are perishable skills. This means that the quality of the skill
decreases without regular review and practice. A diver who does not regularly refresh the skills they
learned during their initial certification program may not respond appropriately to an emergency.

Good divers are always learning. This means that you should periodically review and refresh your
freediving knowledge and skills. Seek out qualified buddies and additional training programs that
will help you reach your full potential.

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Lesson 3.1 | Review
1. The _____ is a technique where two divers supervise and support each other during a dive.
A. Buddy system
B. Rescue system
C. Buddy check
D. Diver inspection
2. Diving with a qualified buddy is the best way to increase:
A. Physical recovery and confidence
B. Efficient preparation, diving performance, and personal limits
C. Safety, confidence, and relaxation
D. Safety, physical recovery, and mental preparation

3. Buddies _____ each other to continue training and make their dives safer and more comfortable.
A. Supervise
B. Chat with
C. Encourage
D. Watch

4. In a two-person buddy team, one buddy is the performing diver and the other:
A. Dives with the performing diver
B. Acts as the supervising buddy
C. Rests at the surface
D. Supervises the spare equipment

5. You should only dive with a buddy who has:

A. More training and experience than you
B. Completed a first responder program
C. The same equipment as you
D. A similar level of experience, training, and capabilities

6. The buddy team must _____ before starting their session.

A. Fill in their logbooks
B. Complete a stretching session
C. Review the SSI Freediver student workbook
D. Review their roles and procedures
7. The supervising buddy’s primary responsibilities are to _____ during a session.
A. Supervise and support
B. Encourage and prepare
C. Motivate and educate
D. Educate and encourage
8. If an emergency occurs, the buddy team must:
A. Act quickly and responsibly
B. Review the student workbook before responding
C. All answers are correct
D. Wait until more qualified help arrives

76 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 3.2 | Static Apnea

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term “static apnea” as it relates to freediving.

• Describe why static apnea training is more accessible than other disciplines.

• Describe at least two ways that static apnea training improves other freediving activities.

77 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Static Apnea Discipline

Image © Mares

Static apnea is the least complicated freediving discipline. Static means “stationary” and “apnea” is
derived from the Greek word for “breathless”. Therefore static apnea—which is often shortened to
“static”—is simply the act of breath-holding without moving. Since a proper breath-hold is the
foundation of all freediving training, static apnea training is an essential part of every freediving activity.
Location
Since static apnea sessions do not require changes in depth, they can be done on dry land or at the
surface of the water with the face submerged.
Safety Requirements
If the static breath-hold is performed on dry land, there is less risk than if the breath-hold is conducted
in the water. If the freediver is in a safe, dry land environment, they do not need to have a buddy
participate. The freediver should lay down during their breath-hold to avoid falling due to dizziness
caused by blood pressure changes or overexerting themselves.
The buddy system
The buddy system must be used if the static breath-hold is performed in the water—even if the
performing diver stays at the surface. This protects them if they have an issue or blackout during the
breath-hold, since the buddy can identify warning signs or problems and can intervene if needed.

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 Diving is a team sport. By diving as a buddy team, the divers are safer, have more
fun, and can support and challenge each other.

Benefits of Static Apnea Training

The foundation of freediving is a good breath-hold. Static apnea training will improve your
breath-holding performance, which will then improve every other freediving activity you pursue.

Accessibility
One of the biggest benefits of static apnea training is its simplicity. In its most basic form, static apnea
training does not require complicated equipment, a highly trained safety team, or access to specific
training environments.
Anyone can develop their static breath-holding abilities on dry land, in a pool, or in an open body of
water. They don’t need access to deep water or long, open spaces that allow them to swim greater
distances. A static breath-hold can be completed without using the buddy system as long as it is
properly and safely performed on dry land.
Technique Development
Proper breathing techniques, specifically the breathe-up and recovery breaths, are critical to every
freediving session in every discipline. Regular practice is the only way to improve breathing techniques
and develop longer breath-holds.
Static apnea training has very few technical requirements, so the freediver can focus on improving and
mastering their breathing technique without additional stressors like managing depth changes or the
physical exertion of swimming.

Practicing your breathing technique as often as possible helps develop proper habits.

Mammalian Dive Reflex

One of the primary triggers of the mammalian dive reflex (MDR) is increased levels of carbon dioxide in
the blood. Static apnea training is an easy and convenient way to increase the body’s carbon dioxide
levels. By conducting regular static apnea training sessions, the freediver improves their tolerance to
high carbon dioxide levels and strengthens their MDR.
Improved Awareness and Relaxation
At their most basic level, static breath-holds have one requirement—that the freediver hold their
breath. They don’t require equalization, finning techniques, streamlining, or any of the other skills
required in other freediving disciplines.
This lack of complexity means the freediver can focus on improving their awareness of their physical
and mental limits while completing their breath-hold. Instead of worrying about skill development,
they can observe how their body feels and monitor the levels of tension and relaxation that they
experience during the breath-hold.

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 Regular and progressive training makes you more comfortable with the sensations of longer
breath-holds and the urge to breathe. The static apnea discipline is the best way to familiarize
yourself with these sensations.

When a freediver first begins their static apnea training, they often experience stress from pushing their
limits and the new and unfamiliar challenge. They are more likely to mentally and physically relax during
each attempt as their training progresses and they become more familiar with the breath-hold’s effects.
This reduces muscle tension and lowers stress levels, which makes it easier to stay within safe limits.

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Lesson 3.2 | Review
1. _____ is simply the act of breath-holding without moving.
A. Relaxation
B. Dynamic apnea
C. Static apnea
D. Snorkeling
2. A _____ is required if the static apnea session is conducted in the water.
A. Mentor
B. Coach
C. Buddy
D. Instructor

3. Static apnea sessions are easier to organize, since they don’t require access to:
A. Deep water and equipment
B. Deep water or long, open environments
C. Wetsuits or long, open environments
D. Specialized safety equipment

4. Static apnea training helps freedivers:

A. Develop physical strength and stamina for high carbon dioxide levels
B. Improve and master their breathing technique
C. Improve flexibility
D. Develop confidence and physical strength

5. By conducting regular static apnea training sessions, a freediver improves their:

A. Familiarity with specialized equipment
B. Tolerance to lactic acid in their muscles
C. Tolerance to high carbon dioxide levels and strengthens their mammalian dive reflex
D. Visualization skills

6. Static apnea training helps develop a freediver’s _____ during each attempt.
A. Emotional and physical strength
B. Mental relaxation and physical strength
C. Physical and spiritual health
D. Mental and physical relaxation

81 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 3.3 | Dynamic Apnea

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term “dynamic apnea” as it relates to freediving.

• List the three dynamic apnea freediving disciplines.

• Describe how dynamic apnea training improves other freediving activities.

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Dynamic Apnea Disciplines
Dynamic means “movement” or “change”, which makes dynamic apnea dives slightly more technical than
static breath-holds. In the dynamic apnea freediving disciplines, the freediver holds their breath and
swims horizontally on a single breath-hold.
There are three dynamic apnea disciplines, characterized by the type of equipment the freediver uses to
move through the water.
Dynamic Bi-Fin
Bi-fins are the traditional fins used by most divers. The diver wears a fin on each foot that is kicked
independently of the other fin. There are various types of bi-fins available to divers today that will be
covered later in these materials.
Most skill development training programs use bi-fins. This includes SSI Freediver training, which will
only use bi-fins. They are easy for the diver to use and understand, and they promote symmetrical
muscle development and a clear awareness of how to move efficiently through the water.
Dynamic Apnea Specialties
The other two dynamic apnea disciplines use equipment and techniques that are beyond the scope of
the SSI Freediver program.

Freedivers must never attempt a new discipline without proper training and
supervision.

Improper training creates a safety risk and the diver may develop bad techniques or habits that will be
difficult to correct.
Dynamic monofin
This discipline uses a specialized piece of equipment called a monofin. A monofin is a single-piece fin
that fits snugly to both of the diver’s feet. Monofins are more powerful and faster than a similarly sized
pair of bi-fins and feel fast, fluid, and exciting when used correctly. The freediver uses a finning
technique that mimics the tail movement of a dolphin. The monofin kick promotes symmetrical muscle
development, but requires greater flexibility.
Dynamic no-fins
As the name implies, the third dynamic apnea discipline does not use fins at all. Dynamic no-fins is the
most technical dynamic apnea discipline, since the freediver cannot rely on equipment to move
through the water. It requires excellent coordination and buoyancy control, and is a great way to
develop in-water body awareness.

Want to learn more? Ask your instructor about the No-Fins Freediving and Monofin specialty
programs.

83 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Location

Image © Shutterstock-Benoit Daoust

Open water diving is an exciting and thrilling adventure in a challenging and changing environment.
Divers must be prepared for changing temperatures, water currents, visibility, and weather patterns.
Dynamic apnea sessions are often conducted in swimming pools or confined water sites, which have
fewer environmental variables than open water. This allows the freediver to focus on their technique
and breath-hold as they try to reach their target time or distance.
Dynamic apnea training locations are not deep, since the freediver swims horizontally for distance,
rather than trying to reach greater depths. It should only be deep enough to allow the freediver to swim
about one meter below the surface without hitting the bottom.
The location should also be long enough to focus on proper dynamic apnea techniques and to practice
turns, since poor turn technique uses more energy and decreases efficiency.
Safety Requirements
All the dynamic apnea disciplines have an in-water breath-hold, so the freedivers must use the buddy
system to avoid diving alone. As with static apnea sessions, one buddy supervises while the performing
diver completes a dynamic apnea dive, and then the buddies switch roles. The buddy must be able to
keep pace with the performing diver.
The Buddy System
The buddy system ensures the performing diver’s safety. The buddy stays at the surface, swimming the
same path as the performing diver and maintaining a similar speed. They must be ready to assist when
the performing diver surfaces or in an emergency if necessary.

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Benefits of Dynamic Apnea Training
Physical Benefits
Like static apnea training, dynamic apnea training enables the freediver to attempt progressively longer
breath-holds as their abilities improve and their target times and distances increase. Dynamic apnea
training has the added benefit of actively exercising the body’s muscles during each attempt.
Dynamic apnea dives specifically train the muscles used for kicking. The upper quadriceps is the
primary muscle group engaged during the front kick. The gluteal muscles are the primary group
engaged during the back kick.
Kicking puts additional strain on the ankles and feet, so divers should strengthen these supporting
muscle groups to avoid discomfort and cramping.

Correct finning technique is similar to walking on land with pointed toes. Practice regularly to
keep your muscles flexible, and fine-tune your finning technique to maximize your efficiency.

Technique Development

• Buoyancy | The tendency of an object to rise or float when submerged in a fluid. Expressed as
positive buoyancy (the tendency to float), neutral buoyancy, and negative buoyancy (the
tendency to sink).
Buoyancy control is an essential part of dynamic apnea freediving. If the diver cannot maintain neutral
buoyancy during the session, they will use more energy than necessary to avoid floating or sinking.
Freedivers improve their buoyancy control skills through regular dynamic apnea training sessions.
Body positioning and finning technique improve by using fins with different lengths and/or stiffness,
especially during shorter distance, higher repetition training sessions.

Section 4 discusses how to evaluate and select proper freediving equipment.

Dynamic bi-fin training is the best preparation for constant weight dives, which are discussed in the
next lesson. Dynamic apnea training has all of the same components as constant weight training, but it
does not require the diver to equalize. This means that a freediver struggling to equalize, or one without
access to deeper training sites, can continue to train and develop their skills.

It is important to keep an accurate and current logbook to track your personal development and
evaluate opportunities in other disciplines. You should analyze your technique and regularly
review your observations.

Mammalian Dive Reflex

Dynamic apnea dives are an excellent way to maintain or improve the mammalian dive reflex. Dynamic
apnea training increases the body’s tolerance to carbon dioxide and lactic acid buildup, which improves
the mammalian dive reflex and increases stamina. The ability to conduct dynamic apnea training in
almost any sufficiently large pool enables divers to develop and maintain their mammalian dive reflex,

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even when access to open water training sites is not available.

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Lesson 3.3 | Review
1. In the dynamic apnea disciplines, the freediver:
A. Holds their breath and does not move
B. Holds their breath and walks in a straight line
C. Holds their breath and dives to a predetermined depth
D. Holds their breath and swims horizontally on a single breath-hold
2. Dynamic apnea training improves:
A. Muscle development and in-water awareness
B. Familiarity with freediving equipment and equalization skills
C. Muscle development and adaptation to pressure
D. Awareness and physical adaptation to different environments

3. In the dynamic monofin discipline, the freediver:

A. Develops more strength for no-fin dives
B. Tries to achieve personal bests in every session
C. Uses a finning technique that mimics the tail movement of a dolphin
D. Uses bi-fins to swim as fast as possible

4. Dynamic no-fins is the _____ dynamic apnea discipline.

A. Least organized
B. Most technical
C. Easiest
D. Fastest

5. _____ is required for every dynamic apnea discipline.

A. A medical examination
B. Expert-level swimming ability
C. A bi-fin finning technique
D. The buddy system

6. Dynamic apnea freedives:

A. Are less efficient than static breath-holds
B. Do not need any specialized equipment
C. Specifically train the muscles used for kicking
D. Can be done in any type of environment
7. What are the three techniques that improve with regular dynamic apnea training?
A. Finning, duck diving, and equalization
B. Equalization, body position, and blackout rescues
C. Buoyancy control, body position, and finning
D. Body position, finning, and surfacing
8. Dynamic apnea training improves:
A. Lung flexibility
B. Diffusion capacity
C. The mammalian dive reflex and increases stamina
D. Performance at depth

87 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 3.4 | Constant Weight
Freediving

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term “constant weight” as it relates to freediving.

• List two ways to increase safety during a constant weight training session.
• List the three constant weight freediving disciplines.
• Describe how constant weight training improves other freediving activities.

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Constant Weight Disciplines
The freediver holds their breath and swims vertically along a fixed dive line in the constant weight—or
CWT—freediving disciplines. The term “constant weight” refers to the fact that the freediver uses the
same amount of dive weight for the entirety of the dive.
These disciplines require a similar set of skills and techniques as the dynamic apnea disciplines, but the
freediver ascends and descends along the dive line instead of swimming horizontally below the surface
of the water. This means the freediver is affected by changes in water pressure and must be able to
equalize as necessary during the constant weight dive.
There are three constant weight freediving disciplines, characterized by the type of equipment the
freediver uses to move through the water.
Constant Weight Bi-Fin
Constant weight training with bi-fins is probably the most recognizable and popular discipline, and is
what most people think of when they think of freediving. It does not require a significant investment in
specialized equipment, which makes it very accessible to most new divers.
While constant weight sessions can be conducted with regular bi-fins, the best option is to use long fins
that are specifically designed for freediving. This is especially important for the supervising buddy, as
they may need to quickly react in an emergency situation.

It is absolutely essential to develop an efficient bi-fin technique and practice to rescue skills while
wearing bi-fins. A proper technique makes any freediving or snorkeling session more fun and
safer.

Constant Weight Specialties

As with dynamic apnea, there are two constant weight disciplines that require additional training and
skills beyond the scope of the SSI Freediver program.
Improper training creates a safety risk and the diver may develop bad techniques or habits that will be
difficult to correct.
Constant weight monofin
This discipline uses a monofin to provide propulsion, just like in dynamic monofin. It is the most
efficient constant weight discipline, since a proper monofin kick creates more power and is faster than
bi-fins.
Freedivers must have the proper training and experience before using a monofin in open water. If they
are not comfortable using a monofin, they may descend quicker than intended, which can make
equalizing more difficult.

A monofin creates about twenty percent more speed than bi-fins during constant
weight dives.

Constant weight no-fins

The constant weight no-fins discipline is one of the purest forms of freediving. It uses all of the body’s
muscles to propel the freediver instead of only the leg muscles. The freediver uses a modified

89 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 breaststroke to complete a constant weight no-fins freedive. Since the freediver cannot rely on the
power of their fins, they must have excellent muscle coordination to complete the dive.
They must also be able to properly relax, despite the increased demands placed on their muscles during
the dive. Because of these requirements, the no-fins disciplines are an excellent continuing education
option for freedivers who want to improve their body awareness and in-water strength.

SSI Freedivers can take the Monofin and No-Fins Freediving Pool specialty
programs.

Location

Image © Mares

Constant weight sessions have greater depth requirements than dynamic apnea sessions, so they are
often conducted in open water environments. Divers will experience more environmental variables
than they would at pool/confined water sites, including changing temperature, visibility, currents,
waves, and weather.
The primary concern when selecting a training site is diver safety. The second consideration is the
planned depth for the session. An ideal constant weight training site is only a few meters deeper than
the maximum planned session depth. It should also be relatively protected from the elements and not
too far from shore.

90 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Safety Requirements
All the constant weight disciplines have an in-water breath-hold, so the freedivers must use the buddy
system. As with dynamic apnea dives, one buddy supervises while the performing diver completes a
constant weight dive and then they switch roles.
Constant weight dives require the freediver to descend from the surface to a predetermined depth. In
some open water dive sites, the actual bottom might be significantly deeper than the planned depth.
The dive line and lanyard are safety measures that protect the freediver from going deeper than
planned.
• Dive line | A rope with pre-measured markings that is eight to twelve millimeters thick. It
hangs from a surface buoy and is drawn taut by a bottom weight to form a vertical guideline
for the divers.
The dive line should never be set deeper than the planned dive. This prevents the freediver from
accidentally exceeding their planned depth.
The performing diver should always use a freediving lanyard. This is a short tether that connects the
freediver to the dive line, and prevents them from drifting away from the dive line.

You can always stop descending by grabbing the dive line. Start your ascent to the surface by
giving an initial downward pull on the dive line.

The Buddy System

Like dynamic apnea dives, constant weight dives require the buddy system, since they involve
underwater breath-holds. Freedivers using the buddy system can follow the “one up, one down” rule,
where one buddy acts as the supervising buddy and monitors the performing diver from the surface.
Benefits of Constant Weight Training
Training Benefits
Constant weight bi-fin training helps to develop the appropriate descent and ascent speed, and
improves equalization skills, body awareness, and finning techniques. These fundamental skills are used
in every freediving discipline, and are the foundation of almost all SSI freediving training. This makes
diving and snorkeling safer and more enjoyable, and helps divers reach greater target depths.

Mastering constant weight bi-fins is critical for the safety of you and your buddy.

New Experiences
Diving in open water exposes the diver to new encounters and adventures that they usually cannot
experience in a pool or confined water environment. Open water dive sites often have exciting
topography and marine life encounters. These environments require the diver to use their skills and
training to adapt to the changing conditions of the open water site.

Section 5 describes the excitement of diving in open water environments in more

detail.

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Lesson 3.4 | Review
1. The freediver _____ in the constant weight disciplines.
A. Removes their weights at the deepest part of the dive
B. Holds their breath and moves horizontally
C. Uses air supplied by a scuba diver at their deepest depth
D. Uses the same amount of weight for the entire dive
2. _____ is probably the most recognizable and popular discipline.
A. Dynamic monofin
B. Constant weight no-fins
C. Free immersion
D. Constant weight bi-fins

3. Using _____ is especially important for the supervising buddy, as they may need to react quickly in an emergency situation.
A. Extra weight
B. A monofin
C. A dive scooter
D. Bi-fins

4. Which is the most efficient constant weight discipline?

A. Constant weight short-fins
B. Constant weight no-fins
C. Constant weight bi-fins
D. Constant weight monofin

5. The constant weight no-fins discipline uses _____ to propel the freediver.
A. Only the arms
B. Only the legs
C. All answers are correct
D. All of the body’s muscles

6. Which of the following prevents the freediver from accidentally exceeding their planned depth?
A. Using a dive computer and a good buddy
B. Using a lanyard and setting the dive line no deeper than the planned dive
C. Diving with scuba divers and using high-quality equipment
D. Using a dive line with visible depth marks and swim goggles
7. A freediver will _____ with regular constant weight bi-fin training.
A. Improve their body awareness
B. Prepare themselves for monofin training
C. All answers are correct
D. Develop cold water tolerance
8. Constant weight bi-fins training:
A. Develops proper descent speed and equalization skills
B. Improves finning technique
C. All answers are correct
D. Is the foundation of all disciplines that involve depth

92 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Section 4 | Freediving Equipment

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

The right equipment can be the difference between a forgettable dive and one that you will remember
forever.

Introduction
The Total Freediving System
It would be difficult to explore the underwater world without a few important pieces of equipment. This
equipment helps divers see and move underwater, protects them from the elements, and tracks their
training and adventures.
SSI uses the term “Total Freediving System” to describe the minimum equipment needed to safely
freedive. This system includes a:

• Mask

• Snorkel

• Fins

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• Exposure protection

• Weight system

• Logbook

Section 4 discusses each piece of equipment, its features and materials, and how to find the right
equipment for your personal goals and needs.

94 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 4.1 | Seeing and Moving

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the three selection criteria for a freediving mask.

• Describe the two most important selection criteria for a freediving snorkel.

• List and describe the main characteristics of a freediving fin.

• Describe the features and selection criteria for an equipment bag.

95 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Mask

1. Strap Lock 2. Frame 3. Lens 4. Nose Pocket 5. Mask Strap

Image © Cressi

Overview
The earth’s atmosphere has a specific density that bends light before it enters the eye through a process
called refraction. Light enters the eye through the cornea and is converted to electrical signals that are
interpreted by the brain. The human eye has evolved to focus light bent by the earth’s atmosphere, not
by water. There is less refraction as light passes though water, so the brain misinterprets the light,
resulting in blurred vision.
A mask creates an air space between the water and the eye. Light refracts more as it passes through this
air space. This means that it can be correctly interpreted by the brain, allowing divers to see clearly
underwater.
Features
There are thousands of different mask models available to today’s diver, many with unique features to
make them stand apart from their competition. Some masks are designed to fit as many faces as
possible. Others are designed to meet a specific need. Any mask used for scuba or freediving should
have:

• One or more lenses

• A frame that encloses the lenses

• A skirt that encloses the nose

• A mask strap

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 The mask frame is made from a hard composite plastic and holds the lenses. A light, flexible skirt sits
behind the mask frame and adjusts to the contours of the diver’s face. This skirt keeps water out of the
mask, and flexes during pressure changes. The skirt must have a nose pocket so the diver can equalize
their mask. The frame or skirt has attachments for an adjustable strap that holds the mask to the diver’s
face.
Selecting a Mask
Construction
There are two categories of masks, low-volume and high-volume, that refer to the internal air volume of
the mask when it is worn by a diver. Low-volume masks have a smaller mask frame, and the lenses often
sit closer to the diver’s eyes, which can increase the viewing area of the mask.
The mask frame should be made from a durable, high-quality plastic. The lenses should be made from
tempered glass, which is shatter- and scratch-resistant. Tempered glass lenses will last longer, and are
less of a safety risk if the lens does break.
The mask skirt should be 100% silicone. This material lasts longer than plastic/silicone composites, and
it will not warp if exposed to sunlight or heat.
Design
Every diver’s facial structure is unique, so it’s important that they select a mask that is comfortable and
fits properly. A poorly fitted mask can be uncomfortable, may be hard to equalize, and could leak,
ruining the diver’s underwater adventure.
Freedivers should choose low-volume masks, which are easier to equalize. The nose pocket of the mask
should allow the diver to equalize easily and comfortably to prevent mask squeeze. The skirt should fit
cleanly around the edges of the diver’s face, without crowding their eyes or creating unwanted pressure
points.
If a diver wears corrective lenses, they can dive with contacts or buy prescription lenses for their mask.
The silicone and plastics used in the mask construction come in a range of colors, from completely clear
to black. Since freedivers spend much of their time on the surface, a non-transparent mask and skirt can
reduce the effect of the sun’s glare, which can be uncomfortable and distracting.
Fitting a mask

• Fold the mask strap over the front of the mask to keep it out of the way.

• Place the mask on the face and ensure that no hair is caught between the mask skirt and the face.

• Tilt the head back and gently inhale through the nose to create a slight suction.

• Hold the breath, tilt the head forward, and look through the mask.
A properly fitted mask will not pinch or push against the diver’s face, or have any gaps between the
mask skirt and the skin. The diver should not feel any pressure points, which can become
uncomfortable after wearing the mask for a long time.
If the mask falls off, it indicates that the mask did not seal properly, which could allow water to leak in
during a dive. The diver should continue to try various models and sizes until they find a mask that fits
well and has the features they want.

Facial hair can cause a mask to leak. If you have facial hair, you can trim a thin line below your
nostrils to help improve the seal.

97 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Snorkel

1. Mouthpiece 2. Flexible Tube 3. Pipe 4. Vent

Image © Scubapro

Overview
A comfortable breathing cycle is a key part of any successful dive. A snorkel allows a diver to breathe at
the surface while they relax with their face in the water. This uses less energy since they do not have to
raise their mouth above the surface to breathe. It also protects the diver from unexpected surface
waves.
Freedivers use their snorkel to breathe on the surface, removing the mouthpiece during the freedive
and replacing it after completing their recovery breaths. This reduces the risk of inhaling water in an
emergency and makes it easier to rescue the freediver if something goes wrong.
Snorkels are also a valuable part of the buddy system, especially during constant weight dives. The
buddy can breathe through their snorkel at the surface while watching the performing diver make their
attempt. They can maintain constant eye contact and respond quickly if needed.
Features
Snorkels come in many different designs with a wide range of features. Some snorkels should not be
used for freediving due to their design or size. The most basic snorkel design has a mouthpiece
connected to a tube—or bore—shaped like the letter “J”.
Some designs include a one-way valve below the mouthpiece to easily drain water from the snorkel.
Others have a ball or baffle at the end of the bore that prevents water from entering the snorkel. These
features can add bulk and weight to a snorkel, making them less desirable to freedivers.

98 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Selecting a Snorkel
The two most important selection criteria for a snorkel are a comfortable fit and low breathing
resistance. The snorkel should sit comfortably next to the diver’s head in a streamlined position. The
snorkel’s bore should be rigid enough to stay upright but soft enough to still be comfortable when
placed under the mask strap.
The snorkel should not be longer than 40 centimeters. The bore’s diameter should be about 20
millimeters wide. A wider bore or a longer tube means that the diver has to exhale more forcefully to
get fresh air instead of re-breathing their exhaled breath. A smaller bore diameter is more restrictive,
which increases the breathing resistance.

Your snorkel will last for years if you take care of it. Brightly colored snorkels are more visible at the
surface, and are easier to find if you accidentally drop them.

The Fins
Overview
Water is denser than air, so it takes more energy to
swim a short distance through water than it would
to walk the same distance on land. To overcome this
challenge, divers wear fins to propel themselves
through the water like a fish or marine mammal.
Features
Freediving fins have long, slender blades and full-
foot pockets that fit closely around the diver’s feet.
These streamlined designs help reduce the effort of
kicking and increase performance. Freediving fins
often have less material than fins designed for
scuba divers, since a freediver does not have to
move the added weight of scuba equipment
through the water.
Materials
Freediving fins are made from a variety of materials,
which affect the performance and cost of the fin.
The fin’s foot pocket is often made from a flexible,
durable rubber that closely adheres to the wearer’s
foot shape. The most common materials used to
make freediving fin blades are plastic, carbon, and
fiberglass.
Plastic fins are cheaper, but less efficient than fins
made from higher-quality materials. Carbon fiber
fins maximize performance and can be bought in a
range of stiffnesses that allow a diver to fine-tune 1. Blade 2. Blade-Stabilizing Rails 3. Foot Pocket
their performance. Fiberglass fins are almost as Image © Mares
good as carbon fiber fins and offer a balance
between price and performance.

99 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Selecting Fins
The foot pocket
Fit and comfort are two of the most important criteria when selecting a fin. The foot pocket must fit
snugly and be the correct size for the diver’s foot. Fins that are too loose or too tight can chafe and
create blisters. Fins that fit snugly will also perform better, since more energy is transferred from the
diver’s leg to the fin.
Blade design
Fin stiffness and flexibility also determine how comfortable a fin is and will affect the diver’s
performance. Very stiff fins require more energy to move. This can tire the leg muscles, making it harder
to maintain a good kicking technique.
Fins without the proper stiffness—or fins that are too short, like snorkeling and scuba fins—will move
less water with each kick. Freediving with these features consumes more energy and degrades the
freediver’s performance.
The blade should be offset from the ankle at an angle that keeps the blade parallel to the shin during
the kick. This angle compensates for the lack of flexibility in the ankle and maximizes the efficiency of
the blade.

New freedivers sometimes buy impressive-looking fins that are not suitable for entry-level
training. You should consider buying fins in a standard size with medium to soft blade stiffness.

100 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Equipment Bag

Image © Subgear

Overview
Learning to dive involves using a lot of new equipment, so divers need a way to keep their equipment
organized. An equipment bag is an essential piece of specialized equipment that divers use to store
their equipment, or to transfer equipment from one location to another without losing a critical item
like their mask.
Features
The most basic equipment bags have a single large compartment to store everything. Others may have
multiple smaller compartments or pockets to store things like a mask, snorkel, or towel. The bag can be
made from a simple plastic mesh material or from quick-drying nylon. Some bags have padding to
protect the equipment stored inside. Bags designed for travel often have a rigid internal frame.

You can use a waterproof equipment bag to rinse of your equipments without wasting too much
water.

Selecting a Bag
There are many designs and features to select from when purchasing an equipment bag. Divers should
know what their needs are before making a decision. At a minimum, the bag should be made from a
quick-drying or waterproof material and large enough to hold all of the equipment the diver needs.

101 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

It should be long enough to hold the fins without bending them, since the fin blades can warp over
time if they are not stored flat. The bag should have protective padding—or room for additional
padding—if it will be stored in a cargo compartment or transported long distances.

Many equipment bags look similar, so you should always have an easy way to identify yours. You
could choose a bag with unique identifying marks, or you could decorate your bag with stickers,
bright pieces of fabric, or travel tags.

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Lesson 4.1 | Review
1. Masks can be categorized as:
A. Low-volume and high-volume
B. High-performance and low-performance
C. Wide-vision and narrow-vision
D. Low-vision and high-vision
2. Freedivers should choose masks that are easier to:
A. Store
B. All answers are correct
C. Adjust
D. Equalize

3. The mask skirt should be:

A. 50/50% plastic/silicone composites
B. 50/50% rubber/plastic composites
C. 100% silicone
D. 100% rubber

4. _____ lenses last longer and are less of a safety risk.

A. Plastic
B. Tempered glass
C. Tempered plastic
D. Glass

5. The mask skirt should enclose the nose to:

A. Increase the mask volume
B. Prevent water entering the nose
C. Protect from sunburn
D. Allow for equalizing the mask

6. A wider snorkel bore or a longer tube means that the diver will:
A. Feel more breathing resistance
B. Re-breathe less exhaled air
C. Inhale more fresh air
D. Re-breathe more exhaled air
7. The snorkel’s bore should be rigid enough to stay _____ but soft enough to be _____ placed under the mask strap.
A. Closed, comfortably
B. Comfortable, efficiently
C. Flat, easily
D. Upright, comfortably
8. A foot pocket that fits snugly will:
A. Perform better
B. Be uncomfortable
C. Require more energy to move
D. Decrease efficiency
9. The most common materials used to make freediving fin blades are:
A. Rubber, carbon, and fiberglass
B. Rubber, plastic, and fiberglass
C. Plastic, carbon, and fiberglass
D. Plastic, carbon, and rubber

10. Very stiff fins can tire the _____, making it harder to maintain a good _____.
A. Leg muscles, kicking technique
B. Ankles, equalization
C. Knees, bend
D. Abdominal muscles, speed

11. The fin blade angle compensates for lack of flexibility in the:
A. Hip
B. Ankle
C. Foot pocket
D. Fin

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12. An equipment bag should be made from a _____ or waterproof material and _____ enough to hold the fins.
A. Quick-drying, long
B. Slow-drying, long
C. Slow-drying, slim
D. Simple plastic mesh, padded

104 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 4.2 | Exposure Protection
and Buoyancy

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain the two reasons why exposure protection is necessary.

• List the three most common types of wetsuit configurations.

• Describe the two types of neoprene used to construct wetsuits.
• Give at least one benefit and one disadvantage of each wetsuit material combination.

• List three types of wetsuit accessories.

• Explain why divers use weight, and give at least three examples of freediving weight systems.

• Describe how to properly select and fit a weight system for dynamic apnea and constant weight
dives.

Feeling warm and comfortable while diving improves your performance. It also makes the dives safer
and more fun.

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Exposure Protection
Divers explore an exotic variety of underwater worlds, from warm, tropical reefs to the frozen, ice-
covered waters of the Earth’s polar regions. These environments expose divers to wide ranges in water
and air temperatures, solar radiation, and potentially harmful marine life, like jellyfish that hunt with
stinging cells called nematocysts.
Historically, divers used thick, inflexible rubber suits to dive in colder waters, or simply went without
exposure protection in tropical climates. Today, modern designs allow divers to find the perfect
combination of protection, comfort, and style—regardless of where they want to dive.
Today’s freedivers have many more options, from thin dive skins or rash guards that only provide sun
protection to specialized freediving wetsuits for almost any dive environment.
Environmental Protection
Sun exposure is an obvious concern, since divers may spend hours outside in tropical environments.
Freedivers have a higher risk than scuba divers, since they spend more of their time at the surface.
Almost every form of dive skin or wetsuit provides some protection from the sun’s rays, based on its
ultraviolet protection factor.
The second consideration is protection from undesirable interactions with marine organisms.
Nematocysts are tiny cells with a spring-loaded, poisonous barb that automatically fires when the cell
contacts the skin of a prey animal. Fortunately for divers, the nylon, Lycra, or neoprene material of a dive
skin or wetsuit blocks the stinging cells, even when the suit is very thin.

Most jellyfish stings are only mildly irritating. Of over 9,000 species in the phylum Cnidaria, only a
few are dangerous to humans. You will learn more about jellyfish and their relatives later on.

Thermal Protection
Divers almost always use some kind of thermal protection, even at dive sites where the water
temperature is relatively close to the human body temperature. This protection is necessary because
water transfers heat 25 times faster than air. Unprotected divers who spend long periods of time in the
water—even in tropical environments—can still get cold, or even experience hypothermia.
Wetsuits prevent heat loss by trapping a thin layer of water between the suit and the body. This water is
warmed by the body’s heat and then stays close to the skin instead of moving away into the water
column. Wetsuits typically range from thin, half-millimeter tropical skins to thick, eight-millimeter suits
designed for polar waters.
Fit
Proper fit is essential when selecting a wetsuit for thermal protection. A wetsuit will only work
effectively if it traps water against the skin. Too loose, and water will continue to flow in and out of the
suit, taking body heat with it. Too tight and the suit becomes uncomfortable, restricting blood flow and
proper breathing patterns. Thicker wetsuits are more restrictive and less flexible, but they are the only
way to stay warm at colder dive sites.

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Wetsuit Selection
Choosing the right wetsuit can be intimidating for
an inexperienced diver. Manufacturers may use
branded terms for materials or design features, and
finding the ideal equipment configuration is
challenging without a lot of in-water experience.

1. Non-Zipper Necks 2. Slick Outer Coating 3. Two-Piece Suits 4. Knee Pads

There is no “one-size-fits-all” decision when it comes to selecting a wetsuit. The decision depends
on your needs, the type of diving you will do, and the environment in which you plan to dive. The
following information can be used to help determine the proper wetsuit for you. You should ask
your instructor and other more experienced divers for advice when you are ready to start your
search for new equipment.

Configuration
There are three common configurations for freediving wetsuits:
Two-piece wetsuits
This the most common freediving wetsuit configuration. They are made from neoprene and divided
into a pair of high-waisted pants and a separate long-sleeved jacket that extends below the hips and
has a built-in hood. The jacket is secured between the legs with a wide flap attached to the bottom of
the jacket that buttons to the jacket’s front.

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 Two-piece wetsuits do not have zippers, which restrict flexibility and create an unwanted path for water
to enter the wetsuit. They can range from one to eight millimeters in thickness, and provide the best
thermal protection of any wetsuit design.
Single-piece wetsuits
Single-piece wetsuits are assembled from multiple pieces of neoprene that are sewn and glued
together into a single garment. The most popular single-piece design used by freedivers has full-length
sleeves and legs. Some single-piece designs have short sleeves and legs, and others can have short legs
and full-length sleeves—although these are less common.
They rarely have an integrated hood, and will have a front- or back-mounted zipper that allows the
diver to more easily put on the wetsuit. The zipper allows more water to pass through and usually makes
the wetsuit less flexible than a two-piece wetsuit with the equivalent thickness. Divers often use thinner,
single-piece wetsuits in warm pools or tropical environments.
Rash guards
Rash guards—and their full-length cousin, the dive skin—are long- or short-sleeved shirts made from
synthetic fabrics like Lycra instead of neoprene. They provide almost no thermal protection and are
typically only worn in very warm water where limiting sun exposure is more important than the
insulating capacity of the garment. Rash guards can also be worn over a wetsuit to protect it from the
sun or from chafing during rocky entries and exits.
Materials
Almost every modern wetsuit is made from
neoprene, a flexible synthetic rubber that degrades
more slowly than many other rubber materials. Air
is introduced into the neoprene material during the
manufacturing process, creating thousands of tiny
air bubbles. These air bubbles increase the
insulating ability of neoprene, which is why it is the
preferred material for diving wetsuits.
There are two types of neoprene used for wetsuits,
categorized by how the rubber is coated.
Unlined neoprene
Unlined—or open-cell—neoprene is the most basic
form of neoprene. It is simply raw neoprene without
any lining on either side of the material.
Smooth-skin neoprene
Smooth-skin neoprene is a form of unlined
neoprene that has been treated after the initial
manufacturing process. The porous surface of the
neoprene is heated or coated, giving it a distinctive,
shiny appearance.
Lined neoprene
Lined—or closed-cell—neoprene wetsuits have a
fabric lining on one or both sides of the neoprene.
These linings protect the neoprene from solar
radiation and make the wetsuit more resistant to
tearing or abrasion.
Image © Mares

108 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Material combinations
Lined and unlined neoprene layers are used for the inside and outside layers of the garment to create
wetsuits with different thermal characteristics and features. Some configurations are more appropriate
for freediving and they all have advantages and disadvantages. The most common configurations are:

• Lined outside and inside layers

• Lined outside layer, unlined inside layer

• Smooth-skin outside layer, lined inside layer

• Smooth-skin outside layer, unlined inside layer

Characteristics
Unlined inside layer
The inside layer of freediving wetsuits is often made from unlined neoprene. It is porous and seals
closely to the skin, decreasing water movement and increasing the insulating ability of the wetsuit. The
top and bottom halves of an unlined two-piece wetsuit can also seal against each other to create a
nearly watertight barrier.
The sticky nature of unlined neoprene means that it does not slide easily over skin. Divers often use a
lubricant like soapy water or talcum powder to put on a wetsuit that has an unlined inside layer.
Unlined neoprene is more elastic, since there is nothing restricting the neoprene’s stretching ability.
However, without a protective lining to give it strength, unlined neoprene tears and abrades more
easily. It will also degrade more quickly if left in direct sunlight for too long.
Lined inside layer
A wetsuit with a lined inside layer will slide more easily over dry skin than an unlined wetsuit.
Wetsuits with a lined inside layer do not have direct skin-to-neoprene contact, which allows more water
movement compared to unlined neoprene. The lining also makes the wetsuit less flexible than an
unlined wetsuit with an equivalent thickness.
Lined outside layer
Many popular wetsuit designs have a lined outside layer, since the lining makes the wetsuit more
durable and protects the neoprene from the sun. Wetsuits designed with a lined inside and outside
layer are the most durable but least flexible.
Smooth-skin outside layer
Smooth-skin neoprene is used for the outside of the wetsuit. It is the most flexible and comfortable
option when combined with an unlined inside layer. It also provides excellent insulation, making it a
good option for cold-water diving. In contrast to lined wetsuits that dry very slowly, smooth-skin
wetsuits dry quickly once the smooth-skin surface is exposed to air.
Smooth-skin neoprene has the same disadvantages as other types of unlined neoprene.

109 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Wetsuit Accessories
There are many types of accessories that improve a diver’s exposure protection. These include:
Vests
Dive vests are often made from neoprene or other insulating fabrics. Freedivers prefer neoprene vests,
since they have the same characteristics as freediving wetsuits. They are typically worn under the
wetsuit, adding an extra layer of thermal insulation around the diver’s torso. Vests made from unlined
neoprene provide more insulation and fit better than vests made from lined neoprene or other
materials.
Gloves
Thin gloves protect a diver’s water-logged hands from chafing on the dive line or other underwater
hazards. They also protect a diver’s hands from sun exposure during surface intervals. Divers in colder
waters can wear thicker, insulating gloves for thermal protection. Thicker gloves are less flexible, which
can make it more challenging to operate equipment or hold the dive line.

Wetsuits and gloves are usually worn for thermal protection, but they also do a great job of
protecting your skin from the sun’s rays—especially at the surface during your surface intervals or
as you prepare for your next dive.

Socks
Like gloves, thin socks can simply provide environmental protection, while thicker neoprene socks keep
the feet warm and improve the fit of the fins. Divers often wear socks to make their fins more
comfortable, even if they do not need them for warmth.

Socks that are thicker than three millimeters will affect the fit of your fins, so plan accordingly.
Neoprene compresses at depth, so you should choose the thinnest sock that can still keep you
warm and comfortable.

110 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Weight System

Image © Mares, Scubapro

Purpose
Most divers have at least a small amount of positive buoyancy created by the air spaces inside their
body. When they wear a wetsuit, the tiny air bubbles inside the neoprene add even more buoyancy.
Divers use weights to compensate for this buoyancy so they can comfortably and safely complete their
dives.
Components
All weight systems include lead blocks or lead shot that creates negative buoyancy and a method for
attaching the weight to the diver. Freedivers typically will use one or more of the following systems:
Weight belt
A weight belt is a simple strap with a buckle that threads through slotted lead blocks. The buckle should
be easily opened with one hand so the belt can be removed if necessary.
Some weight belts use fabric pouches to hold the weight, although these are not recommended for
freediving. Freediving weight belts are usually made from rubber or other elastic materials. This elastic
design keeps the weights in position, even if the wetsuit compresses with pressure or the diver’s body
adjusts.
The weights should be threaded onto the belt and evenly distributed to keep the diver balanced. The
weight belt should be worn on the hips, slightly higher than the pelvic bones.

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Weight harness
A weight harness is a vest or series of interlinked straps that is worn over any exposure protection. The
weights are either attached or stored in pouches on the harness. Weight harnesses are often used for
spearfishing in shallow waters. Some divers use them to reduce the amount of weight worn on their
weight belt, or they can replace the entire weight belt.
Weight harnesses are more difficult to remove than weight belts and can change the diver’s center of
gravity, which can create problems with balance and streamlining.
Neck weight
A neck weight is a small, necklace-shaped system that is worn around the freediver’s neck. Some neck
weights are modular, allowing the freediver to adjust the size and amount of weight, while others are
built by the freediver out of flexible tubes filled with lead shot. They usually weigh between one and
three kilograms and are combined with a weight belt or harness.
All neck weights must have a quick-release buckle. This buckle must be located behind the freediver’s
neck so the weight can be easily removed in an emergency.

Your ideal weight configuration depends on your freediving discipline, your exposure protection,
and where you dive. Your instructor will help you determine what weight works best for you.

112 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Choosing the Right Weight

Image © Mares

Finding the right amount of weight—and how it is distributed—is an important part of every
freediving session. If the freediver has the wrong amount of weight, their technique will suffer and they
will waste energy as they try to maintain the proper depth.
Proper weighting is more of an art than a science. There is no single rule or calculation that a diver can
use to determine their ideal amount of weight. They must consider factors like water temperature and
salinity, their personal buoyancy characteristics, their exposure protection and equipment
configuration, and their objectives for the dive. There are guidelines to estimate the correct weight, but
it takes practice and experience to find the ideal amount.
Muscle tissue is heavier than most other types of tissue. This means that divers with more muscle and
less fat will generally require less weight. Divers with more fat tissue will be more buoyant.
Weighting Guidelines
Generally, an average-sized freediver can estimate how much weight they need to dive in salt water
using the following guidelines:
Dynamic apnea dives

• Doubling the thickness of the wetsuit, convert to kilograms, and then add one or two additional
kilograms for men (two to three kilograms for women).

113 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Estimated weight = (Wetsuit thickness in millimeters * 2) + additional
weight

Constant weight dives

Weight estimates for constant weight dives will often be less than half of the weight required for a
dynamic apnea dive in the same wetsuit thickness.
• Convert the thickness of the wetsuit to kilograms, and then add up to one additional kilogram for
men (one to two kilograms for women).

Estimated weight = Wetsuit thickness in millimeters + additional

weight

Weight Selection | Dynamic Apnea

Weight distribution
The weights should be evenly distributed so that the freediver’s body is balanced when they lay
horizontal in the water. If the weight is uneven, the freediver will rotate more to one side or the other as
their body compensates for the unequal weight. Properly distributed weight ensures that the freediver
only uses their energy to move forward, not to maintain depth.
A neck weight is incredibly helpful during a dynamic apnea dive. It distributes the freediver’s weight and
moves their center of gravity from their waist up to a point closer to their head. This keeps the
freediver’s body perfectly parallel in the water, improving their streamlining ability.

The air in your lungs naturally makes your upper body more buoyant than your legs. Using a neck
weight shifts the weight balance, raising your legs when you swim horizontally.

Starting weight
Always verify the amount of required weight before starting a dynamic apnea session.
Weighting examples
For a man wearing a 5mm wetsuit:

(5mm * 2) + 1–2 kilograms of additional weight

Answer

• He should start with 11–12 kilograms of weight.

For a woman wearing a 3mm wetsuit:

(3mm * 2) + 2–3 kilograms of additional weight

Answer
• She should start with 8–9 kilograms of weight.

114 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Buoyancy check | Dynamic apnea
Divers do a buoyancy check before starting their dive to make sure they have the correct amount of
weight. The buoyancy check simulates the dynamic apnea dive, allowing the freediver to glide through
the water without kicking or using arm strokes for about ten seconds. Many freedivers count the
seconds in their heads.
At the end of the glide, the freediver verifies that they do not float toward the surface or sink toward
the bottom. If necessary, they adjust their weight and repeat the buoyancy check until they are
neutrally buoyant.
Weight Selection | Constant Weight
Freedivers also need to compensate for unwanted buoyancy during constant weight sessions. Neutral
buoyancy for a constant weight freedive is set deeper than for a dynamic apnea dive. This means that
the diver requires less weight to complete their dives since the hydrostatic pressure of the water at
depth compresses their lungs and wetsuit, which reduces the diver’s buoyancy. Neck weights are not
required for constant weight freedives.

Freedivers adjust their weight selection so that they can remain positively buoyant
at the surface.

If a freediver is under-weighted, they will use more energy to descend, causing them to overexert
themselves early in the dive. If they are overweighted, they will use more energy on their ascent,
creating a serious safety risk.
Starting weight
Always verify the amount of required weight before starting a constant weight session when using a
new wetsuit or at a new location.
Weighting examples
For a man wearing a 5mm wetsuit:

5mm + 0–1 kilogram of additional weight

Answer

• He should start with 5–6 kilograms of weight.

For a woman wearing a 3mm wetsuit:

3mm + 1–2 kilograms of additional weight

Answer

• She should start with 4–5 kilograms of weight.

Buoyancy check | Constant weight
Freedivers do a buoyancy check at the surface before starting their constant weight session. They begin
by floating at the surface, then exhaling almost all of their air. This allows them to see how buoyant they
are. After waiting a few seconds for their buoyancy to adjust, they check the water level.

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They should be floating with the water level somewhere between their eyes and forehead. They remove
weight if they are too deep or their body continues to sink. They must add weight if the water line is
lower than their eyes. If necessary, they adjust their weight and repeat the buoyancy check until they
are neutrally buoyant.

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Lesson 4.2 | Review
1. Thermal protection is necessary because water transfers heat _____ faster than air.
A. 2 times
B. 25 times
C. 10 times
D. 5 times
2. Exposure protection protects the diver from:
A. Solar radiation
B. All answers are correct
C. Abrasion
D. Marine organisms with stinging cells

3. A _____ is the most common freediving wetsuit configuration.

A. Two-piece wetsuit
B. Rash guard
C. Single-piece wetsuit
D. Dive skin

4. Single-piece wetsuits rarely have _____, and always have _____.

A. An integrated hood, a zipper
B. A zipper, an integrated hood
C. An integrated weight harness, a zipper
D. An integrated hood, pockets

5. Rush guards provide very little _____ protection.

A. Marine organisms with stinging cells
B. Solar radiation
C. Thermal
D. All answers are correct

6. Lined wetsuit layers are generally _____ than unlined wetsuit layers.
A. More durable and less insulating
B. More durable and more insulating
C. More flexible and less durable
D. More insulating and more flexible
7. Wetsuits with a smooth-skin outside layer and unlined inside layer are _____ compared to wetsuits with inside and outside lined layers:
A. More comfortable
B. Less durable
C. All answers are correct
D. Better insulating
8. _____ are typically worn under the wetsuit as an extra layer of thermal insulation.
A. Neoprene vests
B. Rash guards
C. Long-sleeved jackets
D. Dive skins
9. Neoprene compresses at depth, so you should choose a sock that is as thin as possible to prevent:
A. A loose foot pocket
B. A decrease in buoyancy
C. Pinching due to the compression
D. All answers are correct

10. Gloves protect the hands from _____ the dive line and from _____ exposure or cold.
A. Gliding on, sun
B. Chafing on, sun
C. Loosing, water
D. Gliding on, heat

11. Divers wear additional weight to compensate for:

A. Only the buoyancy of their wetsuit
B. Only the buoyancy of their body
C. The buoyancy of their wetsuit and body
D. The force of their finning technique

117 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

12. During a dynamic apnea dive, what helps keep the freediver’s body parallel in the water?
A. A weight belt
B. Wrist weights
C. Ankle weights
D. A neck weight
13. Evenly distributed weights help the freediver:
A. All answers are correct
B. Look neat and tidy in the water
C. Stay balanced in the water
D. Maneuver in the water
14. A freediver requires ____ for a dynamic apnea dive than they require for a constant weight dive.
A. More than twice as much weight
B. The same amount of weight
C. 2–3 additional kilograms
D. 1–2 additional kilograms

118 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 4.3 | Safety and
Progression

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the purpose of a freediving lanyard, and list the five parts of a typical lanyard.

• Describe the operation of the lanyard.

• Give two examples of how a dive computer increases safety.
• Explain at least three benefits of using a logbook.

119 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lanyards

1. Strap 2. Swivel 3. Cable 4. Carabiner 5. Quick Release

Image © Mares

Open water environments are exciting, fascinating places to dive, but they can be challenging—
especially for a new or inexperienced diver. Water temperatures are often colder, there may be waves or
currents, and visibility is often lower than a pool or confined water dive site.
Purpose
The freediving lanyard is an important safety tool for open water freediving sessions. It connects the
freediver to the dive line during a constant weight dive, ensuring that the diver cannot move too far
from the dive line.
In the unlikely event that the freediver cannot reach the surface, the lanyard allows their buddy to use
the dive line to quickly pull them to the surface.

The SSI Advanced Freediver program teaches you to set up a freediving buoy and dive line for
different freediving environments.

Components
There are five parts to a typical freediving lanyard:

• Wrist strap
• Swivel

120 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 • Cable

• Carabiner

• Quick-release
Operation
The freediver secures the lanyard to their wrist using the wrist strap, which is often made from Velcro. A
swivel connects the strap to the cable and prevents the lanyard from twisting during normal operation.
The cable is made from stainless steel cable or other inflexible material and connects the swivel to the
carabiner. The carabiner connects the lanyard to the dive line and should have an opening that is large
enough to accommodate various thicknesses of dive line.
Every freediving lanyard must have a quick-release option. This allows the freediver to quickly
disconnect themselves from the dive line if necessary. The quick-release can be integrated into the wrist
strap, or designed as a snap shackle that is located between the wrist strap and cable.

You instructor will show you how to properly put on and use a lanyard during your open water
training.

Dive Computers
Dive computers are a relatively new introduction in
the dive world. Historically, scuba divers and
freedivers used stopwatches or other waterproof
time-keeping devices to time and track their
underwater adventures. Computer technology has
improved to the point where using a wrist-mounted
dive computer is now the standard, rather than the
exception.
Purpose
Divers need a way to track their depth, how long
they have been submerged, and other important
information about their dive. Some of this
information can be tracked using a stopwatch and
depth markers on the dive line, but a dive computer
provides immediate, accurate feedback on the
freediver’s wrist. It also saves the information for
later when the diver is ready to record their
experience in their logbook.
Features
Modern dive computers come with a wide range of
features and designs. Freediving computers are
designed to be relatively lightweight and are worn
like a normal wristwatch on the freediver’s wrist. For
freedivers, the most useful functions are:

• Depth
• Dive time
1. Depth 2. Surface Time 3. Maximum Depth 4. Dive Time
• Time at the surface Image © Suunto

121 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 • Water temperature

• Stopwatch

• Dive history

• Alarms
Scuba dive computers
Most equipment manufacturers make dive computers that can be used for both freediving and scuba
diving. Some computers are designed specifically for scuba diving, and have features and costs that
make them less useful for freediving. They may be too large, too heavy, cannot be worn like a watch, or
they have features like integrated gas monitoring that cannot be used by freedivers.

Ask your instructor for advice if you have questions about a dive computer’s suitability for
freediving.

Dive Computer Safety Features

Dive computers are designed to be user-friendly and have many features that are similar to modern
watches. Divers must always read and understand the user manual before they start to use their
computer, since the computer provides information that is critical to the diver’s safety and the limits of
their dive.
Tracking surface intervals
One of the most important safety functions of a dive computer is the ability to track surface intervals.
This ensures that the freediver has enough time to fully recover between freedives and does not
overexert themselves.
For freedives shallower than thirty meters, the surface intervals should be at least three times as long as
the duration of the dive.
Example
A freediver completes a constant weight freedive to twenty meters that takes forty-five seconds. They
should wait at least two minutes and fifteen seconds at the surface before making their next attempt.
Depth and dive time alarms
Exceeding the planned depth or planned dive time creates a significant safety risk for a diver. A dive
computer constantly tracks this information and displays a simple, updated readout that the diver can
quickly interpret.
As an added safety measure, the diver can set an alarm when they approach or exceed a depth or time
limit. Some dive computers beep audibly and are easily heard through even a thick wetsuit hood. They
can also show a visual indicator on the screen, like a flashing depth indicator or a warning triangle with
an exclamation point inside.
Stopwatch function
The dive computer’s stopwatch function is manually operated by the diver. For freedivers, the
supervising buddy uses their stopwatch function to track the performing diver’s breath-hold and
surface intervals. For deep dives, they also use the stopwatch function to start their descent toward the
performing diver at the predetermined time.
Freedivers use the stopwatch function to track their breath-holding milestones, like the time when the
urge to breathe shows itself, or the point in a training session when things start to feel more difficult.

122 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Logbooks

Image © Mares/Predrag Vuckovic

Purpose
Logging each dive is an important part of each freediving session, since the logbook documents the
freediver’s successes, failures, and new experiences. The logbook is an essential part of the Total
Freediving System, recording the freediver’s personal bests and incremental training progress over their
freediving career.
Divers record information like what equipment they wore and how much weight they used, which they
can quickly reference when they create a dive plan for a similar dive site or similar conditions. To track
their progress, they can log what went well, what they learned, and what needed improvement. Many
divers will also log interesting things that they saw, or how they felt during their adventure.
Some advanced training programs or more challenging dive sites require proof of additional
experience or training. This information should be kept in the logbook for easy reference.
Logbooks can be as simple as a handwritten paper log, or digitized as a self-generated spreadsheet or
online document. Some, like the MySSI digital logbook, can import information from the dive
computer, simplifying the dive logging process.

123 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 We encourage you to try the MySSI digital logbook. It is included for free in your MySSI app and
automatically records your training experience and certifications. You can also include about your
progression, your equipment, and your freediving goals. By using the MySSI digital logbook, your
information will always be within reach.

Parts of a Logbook Entry

A logbook entry should include all of the relevant information for the session. This will vary, depending
on the type of dive, the environment, and the diver’s objectives. Adding more detail about the
experience helps a diver remember key details, even after a long time has passed. Every logbook entry
should include at least the following information:

• The date

• The dive site location

• What type of water | examples: fresh water, salt water, ocean, lake

• Water conditions | examples: currents, waves, temperature, visibility

• Weather conditions
• Equipment | examples: wetsuit configuration, thickness, amount of weight

• Dive buddies
• Freediving discipline

• Depth at which neutral buoyancy is set

• How many dives were done during each session

• The number of warm-ups

• Maximum depth/distance/time

• Notes for reference and improvement

124 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 4.3 | Review
1. The lanyard connects the freediver to the ______ during open water dives.
A. Buddy
B. Dive line
C. Surface buoy
D. Wrist or ankle
2. The lanyard’s wrist strap is usually made from _____ so it can be securely attached to the freediver’s _____.
A. Nylon webbing, ankle
B. Flexible rubber, wrist
C. Velcro, wrist
D. Stainless steel, ankle

3. A swivel prevents the lanyard from _____ during the dive.

A. Twisting
B. Floating
C. Sinking
D. Stretching

4. The cable is the connection between the swivel and the:

A. Dive line
B. Wrist strap
C. Quick release
D. Carabiner

5. Every freediving lanyard must have a _____ integrated into the wrist strap, or designed as a snap shackle.
A. Carabiner
B. Quick release
C. Cable
D. D-ring

6. Surface intervals ensure that the freediver has enough time to _______between freedives.
A. Over-breathe
B. Analyze the dive
C. Receive feedback
D. Fully recover
7. What is the minimum surface interval after completing a constant weight dive to fifteen meters that takes fifty seconds?
A. Two minutes and thirty seconds
B. Three minutes and fifteen seconds
C. Two minutes and fifteen seconds
D. Two minutes
8. _____ is a safety measure that helps a diver stay within their depth or time limits.
A. Using long freediving fins
B. Dive computer alarms
C. All answers are correct
D. Kicking more quickly
9. Why should the logbook include proof of experience and additional training?
A. It’s required for all advanced training programs
B. It will impress other divers
C. It provides legal protection
D. It is required for some advanced training programs

10. Logged information about the dive site and your equipment configuration:
A. Can be used as a reference for similar conditions
B. All answers are correct
C. Helps to remember details about the dive
D. Can be used later as a reference for similar dive sites

11. By logging information about what went well and what needed improvement, divers can:
A. Earn credit for their next certification
B. All answers are correct
C. Increase their target times and depths
D. Track their progress

125 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Section 5 | The Freediving
Experience

Image © iStock

“ The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonder forever. ”— Jacques Cousteau

Introduction
The world is filled with exciting dive sites, from artificial deep pools to colorful open-ocean tropical
reefs, so your adventures are only limited by your training and imagination. You and your buddies will
choose dive sites that meet your interests and evaluate them to verify they are safe to dive. You will
evaluate the dive site’s features and environment, and then you will create a dive plan that allows you to
safely complete your objectives.
As you explore and gain experience, you will discover new interests and goals that can only be achieved
with additional training. You may even become a freediving professional, sharing your passion for the
sport and the underwater world with new freedivers.

126 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.1 | Diving Environments

Image © Stock-Carlos Negrete

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe two types of artificial environments and state the benefit of each.

• Describe four natural dive environments.

• Give at least two examples of appropriate freediving activities for each natural environment.

• List five environmental conditions and give at least one practical example of how each condition
can affect freediving sessions.

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Artificial Environments

Image © AdobeStock-nudiblue

Artificial dive environments are designed for people to enjoy various types of in-water activities. The
conditions in these sites are usually carefully controlled, which reduces the amount of planning and
risk. They usually allow year-round diving opportunities. For divers, the two most important types of
artificial environments are pools and diving wells.
Swimming Pools
Pools are an essential part of dive training. They are available almost everywhere, from simple
recreational swimming pools to larger, deeper pools that are custom-built for dive training. Pools are
usually indoors and are built close to towns or cities, so there are fewer logistical considerations or
equipment needs. This makes it easy to organize and conduct dive sessions.
The conditions and chemicals in pools are carefully regulated, which creates consistent temperatures
and excellent visibility, without waves, currents, or wildlife. Since the conditions in a pool environment
are always the same, divers can focus on learning new skills, evaluating and improving their existing
skills, or simply enjoying the experience of diving with others.
Many SSI Training Centers have on-site pools or access to a local community pool. They offer regular
hours and host scheduled training sessions and social activities, which makes it easy to find like-minded
divers to share the experience.
Deep Pools
Deep pools are pools that allow access to greater depths than traditional swimming pools. They have
the same controlled conditions, but are significantly deeper since they are built specifically for deeper

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 diving. They are often built in locations that lack access to open water sites. This makes it easier for
divers to experience a more-realistic experience without needing to travel long distances or wait for the
weather to improve.
Divers can use deep pools to learn new skills, or to further develop their open water skills in a controlled
environment. Some deep pools are deep enough to use for all levels of freediving training.
Natural Environments

Image © Fotolia

Natural environments are uncontrolled and have more considerations than artificial environments.
Divers who visit natural environments have to evaluate factors like changing temperatures, reduced or
limited visibility, bottom topography, and waves, tides, or currents. Despite this, natural environments
offer an incredible variety of underwater experiences to divers.
Freshwater Environments
Most new divers only think of diving in the salty waters of the earth’s oceans and seas. More
experienced divers, or those who live further inland, know that freshwater sites can offer unique and
exciting experiences that are the equal of many marine dive sites.

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Quarries and reservoirs
Quarries and reservoirs are built by humans and then filled with water, either intentionally or
accidentally. Quarries were excavated to extract rocks and minerals, but are now flooded with fresh
water. Reservoirs are designed to hold water for human needs, like drinking water and agriculture. They
have conditions that are more similar to open water dive sites than pools and have lower visibility and
colder temperatures. They often make convenient training sites, since they generally have easy access
to depth near the entry point.
Quarries and reservoirs may have little or no aquatic life, aside from some freshwater algae and small
fishes. To compensate, the site owners often add unique underwater features, like submerged boats,
vehicles, and sometimes even planes to make the site more interesting to divers. They can also offer
regular diving events, like scavenger hunts or themed dives.
Lakes
Like quarries and reservoirs, lakes are large bodies of fresh water that are completely surrounded by
land. They usually have more controlled conditions than the ocean or seas, since they are not large
enough to experience significant wave or tidal action that would create currents.
Lakes are often colder, and may have limited visibility due to reduced water movement. Most lakes are
suitable for almost every type of freediving. Divers can use deeper lakes for depth training, while
shallower lakes are suitable for exploring and confined water exercises. Lakes may also contain aquatic
life that can only be found in a few unique locations.
Rivers
Rivers are natural bodies of water that flow downhill in a channel toward another body of water. Diving
in a river is a unique underwater experience, as the river’s current draws the diver downstream past
underwater features and aquatic life.
Most rivers are not suitable for dive training, since the sustained current makes skill demonstration and
practice difficult. Some rivers may not be suitable for any type of diving, due to the intensity of water
flow, weather, limited visibility, or boat traffic.

Always ask a local training center for advice before diving in a river.

130 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Marine Environments

Image © iStock

About 71% of the earth is covered by water—almost all of it in the oceans and seas. They are salt water,
and usually have more dynamic conditions than freshwater environments since they are large enough
to be affected by the wind and the gravity of the moon and sun.
Importance of the oceans
The oceans are a part of everyone’s life, even for people who live hundreds of kilometers from the
nearest coastline. Ocean currents help drive atmospheric weather patterns, and marine organisms—
primarily plankton—produce 50–80% of the earth’s oxygen. The oceans are also a critical part of the
water cycle; where water evaporates from the oceans and then falls back to land as rain. This
groundwater is used by humans, plants, and animals for survival.
The ocean also provides habitat for thousands of marine species, from the microscopic plankton to the
colossal blue whale. These species create complex food webs that include humans and domesticated
animals.
Tropical oceans and seas
Tropical environments are located in the latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. They receive more direct sunlight than the rest of the earth and are typically hotter and
wetter than other regions. Tropical waters tend to be warmer than waters in the far northern and
southern latitudes, and are often filled with brilliantly colored aquatic animals. Almost all coral species
are found in tropical waters.

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 Coral reefs
Coral reefs are easily one of the most interesting places to explore underwater. Corals are tiny colonial
animals that are responsible for building coral reefs. The skeleton of a coral polyp is made from calcium
carbonate, which creates the reef ’s distinctive structure. Corals have a symbiotic relationship with a
plant-like organism called zooxanthellae, which absorbs sunlight and provides energy to the coral.
Coral reefs create habitat for thousands of marine species, providing shelters, nurseries, and hunting
grounds. They protect coastlines from erosion and provide colorful, beautiful structures for divers to
look at. Unfortunately, color reefs grow very slowly—over thousands of years—and are easily damaged.
Corals may break if touched, and can be damaged by boat impacts, severe wave action, or killed by
warming waters.

You can learn more about coral reefs and why they are so important in the SSI Marine Ecology
program.

Cold-Water Sites
Away from the tropical latitudes, cold-water sites start to become more popular. As the impact of the
sunlight is smaller, the waters are generally colder in these areas. Cold-water sites are generally rich in
marine organisms that attract bigger sea life at certain times of the year. There can be exciting freediving
opportunities with unique encounters with big marine mammals.
Environmental Conditions

1. Wind 2. Formation of waves

Dynamic environmental conditions are the main difference between diving in a pool or confined water
and diving in open water. Divers must think about how changing conditions may affect their in-water
experience. They can then create a safe dive plan based on this information.

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 A detailed description of dive site evaluation and planning is discussed in the next
lesson.

Waves

• Wave | a moving ridge or swell on the surface of the water.

Waves are one of the most obvious differences between diving in a pool or confined water and diving
in open water. They are usually the result of wind movement across the water’s surface and can range in
size from small ripples to massive, thirty-meter tall oceanic swells. The size of the wave is determined by
the wind’s speed and duration, how far it blows, and the water’s depth.
Effects on divers
Waves can be hazardous to divers, especially in shallow waters or near shorelines. Even a relatively small
wave—around one meter tall—can knock an unprepared diver over if they are standing in the surf
zone. Wave action can make entering and exiting the water difficult for both shore dives and boat dives.
The up and down motion of waves in deeper water can rock a diver or a dive boat, disturbing a diver’s
equilibrium and causing seasickness or a disoriented feeling.
Tides

• Tide | The rise and fall of the ocean’s surface due to gravitational forces exerted by the sun
and moon and the rotation of the earth.
Tides are the result of the moon’s—and to a lesser degree, the sun’s—gravity. As the gravity from these
celestial bodies pulls on the ocean, the surface of the water bulges, rising in the area closer to the moon
or sun, and lowering at the point that is farthest away. As the distance between the earth and the moon
and sun changes, the tidal effects change too.

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 Effects on divers
The rise and fall—or flood and ebb—of tides are measurable and predictable. Since tides create water
movement, they can affect visibility and create currents, two factors that divers must consider when
making their dive plans.

Did you know that the tide tables are predictable within an accuracy of several
centimeters for the upcoming two years?

Currents

Image © iStock/kurmyshov

• Current | The continuous, directed movement of water from one point to another.
Currents are caused by a number of factors, including winds, tides, the shape of the land, and
temperature or salinity differences. They can be small and local, like the current of a river or one that
runs through a gap in the reef. They can also be much larger, like tidal currents and the oceanic currents
that affect the earth’s climate and weather patterns.

134 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Effects on divers
Tidal currents
The vertical motion of a tide near the shoreline moves water horizontally in a tidal current. These
currents are the only type of current affected by the interaction of the earth, sun, and moon.
Ideally, divers want to dive during slack tides, when the tide has the least impact on water movement.
Slack tides occur during the turning point between an incoming and outgoing tide. They may last for
only a few seconds, or several minutes before the current switches direction.
If the diver experiences a current during their dive, they should start the dive by swimming into the
current. During the second part of their dive, they can move with the current, using less energy to
return to their exit point.
Freedivers using a dive line should hold onto the freediving buoy or a surface line to maintain their
position without wasting energy.
Drift diving
Currents create a dynamic environment that may affect the diver’s safety. Divers often choose dive sites
that have little to no current, but some popular sites have predictable and consistent currents that
divers can use to their advantage. This is called drift diving, and it is one of the more exciting types of
diving.
Drift divers use the current to move them over the dive site, creating a flying sensation. By moving with
the current, the diver can conserve energy while seeing a larger section of the site than they would
otherwise see. The freediving buoy setup also moves with the current, creating a strong, stable platform
from the buoy to the dive line anchor.
The current moves drift divers away from their entry point and may move them further from shore,
depending on the direction of the current. Drift divers should have a boat that follows the divers as the
current moves. They should also ensure that all divers and the freediving buoy and dive line stay
together throughout the dive.

Region-specific tide charts can help a diver determine the best times to dive.

Rip Currents
Rip currents are strong, localized currents that run perpendicular to the shoreline and out into open
water. They can be identified by a narrow band of water moving away from shore between two sets of
incoming waves. Rip currents move rapidly at the surface and can carry an unprepared diver away from
safety, especially if they try to swim directly back through the rip current to shore.

135 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Effects on divers
Rip currents are primarily only a concern for divers during the entry or exit, when the diver transitions
from shore to the dive site. A proper dive site survey before entering the water will usually identify a rip
current. Smaller, manageable rip currents may even help the diver reach their dive site without much
effort.

If you find yourself caught in a rip current, simply swim parallel to shore. Rip currents are usually
fairly narrow, so a quick sideways swim is usually enough to escape from the danger zone.

Underwater Visibility
There are four characteristics of light that affect how
far a diver can see underwater.
Refraction
Vision changes underwater due to a phenomenon
called refraction. Refraction causes light to bend
differently when it passes from one medium—like
air—into another medium—like water. Rainbows
are one of the most obvious products of refraction.
For divers, refraction occurs when the sun’s rays pass
from the less dense molecules in air into the denser
molecules of water and then into the air space in
the mask. The human eye misinterprets the light
particles that pass from the mask air space into the
eye, making underwater objects look 33% larger
and 25% closer than they actually are.
For example, a one-meter long fish, seen from a
distance of one meter, would appear to be 1.33-
meters long and 0.75 meters away from the diver.
Diffusion
Diffusion occurs when light particles scatter as they
pass through the water. Light particles scatter as
they pass through the water, decreasing and
softening the intensity of the light.
Absorption
As the light particles move through the water, some
are absorbed and converted to heat. Over fifty Image © iStock
percent of the visible light spectrum is absorbed in
the first ten meters, even in clear, tropical
environments.
The amount of light absorbed by the water depends on the light’s wavelength. Longer wavelengths are
absorbed more quickly, so the color red is the first color to fade as the water’s depth increases. Orange,
yellow, and then green follow, with the shorter wavelengths—like the color blue—penetrating into the
depths.

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 Turbidity
Water is denser than air, so small particles of mineral and organic matter can remain suspended in the
water column. This is less noticeable in a pool, but becomes immediately apparent in natural
environments or open-air artificial environments.
Turbidity is a measurement of how clear the water is, based on the amount of light scattered by any
material that is suspended in the water. It affects visibility by limiting how far a diver can see before the
water becomes too hazy. It also creates an effect known as “backscatter”, which is when light reflects off
the material instead of passing through the water molecules.

Backscatter is especially important to underwater camera operators, who have to

consider its effects when they position their cameras and underwater lights.

Effects on divers
Visibility in a pool is generally not a major concern for divers, since the water is usually clear, calm, and
relatively shallow and well lit. Open water environments are more dynamic and have waves, sandy
bottoms, currents, and weather conditions that can decrease a dive site’s visibility. The same dive spot
can look very different throughout the day as conditions and the environment change.
Divers should choose shallower dive sites or easier dives to prevent stress if they are concerned about
limited visibility. Freedivers should use a lanyard in limited visibility, since it is more difficult to see the
dive line and the supervising buddy.
Water Temperature
The temperature of a pool is usually maintained at a point that allows users to spend long periods of
time in the water. In confined water or open water environments, the water’s temperature depends on
the amount of sunlight the water gets, and the temperatures of the air and land around the water. Some
tropical dive sites may have surface temperatures that exceed 30 degrees Celsius. Dive sites that are
further from the equator can have temperatures as low as zero degrees.

You will eventually get too cold to dive, even in water that is only slightly colder than your body
temperature.

Thermoclines
Cold water is denser than warm water and sinks, so the water column tends to be the warmest at the
surface and coldest at its deepest point. Under the right conditions, the water column will form layers
with measurable temperature differences.
A thermocline occurs when two layers of water with different temperatures do not mix, creating a
noticeable temperature change from one layer to the next. A diver who only wears thermal protection
for the surface temperatures may find themselves getting too cold as they descend.
Effects on divers
Water conducts heat more quickly than air, so a diver will cool down more quickly in the water than
they would in air that is the same temperature. Divers must know the expected temperature at the
surface and at the deepest point of their dive. This information helps them determine how much
thermal protection they need to safely and comfortably enjoy their dives.

137 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Did you know that water absorbs body heat approximately twenty-five times faster
than air?

Changing Weather
Divers usually try to minimize their stress, since relaxation and comfort are key parts of a safe and
enjoyable dive experience. Local weather conditions can impact the water and air temperature, the
visibility at the dive site, and the size of waves at the surface.
Freedivers spend a large part of each session on the surface, which means they are more affected by the
weather. Ideally, the weather will be calm, warm, and sunny enough to help warm the freedivers and
keep them relaxed and comfortable during their breathe-ups. Light breezes or windless conditions are
preferable to strong winds, which can create waves and move the freediving buoy.
Effects on divers
Weather conditions can change quickly and dramatically, especially over large bodies of water. Adverse
weather conditions like cold, rain, or heavy winds can increase stress levels, create safety risks, and
negatively impact the experience.

You will use your knowledge of diving environments and environmental conditions to evaluate
dive sites and plan your dives throughout your diving career.

138 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.1 | Review
1. Divers can focus on learning _____ skills and measuring their skill _____ in a pool environment.
A. Open water, intensity
B. Professional, efficiency
C. Advanced, complexity
D. Fundamental, development
2. Deep pools allow divers to _____ in controlled conditions.
A. Complete additional freediving training
B. Develop deep diving skills
C. Learn open water skills
D. All answers are correct

3. Quarries and reservoirs make convenient training sites since they:

A. Generally have access to depth near the entry point
B. All answers are correct
C. Usually have greater depth than artificial pools
D. Lack waves, tides, or currents

4. Lakes usually have controlled conditions that are:

A. Cold all year
B. Only suitable for advanced freedivers
C. Suitable for all types of freediving
D. Restricted with limited visibility

5. Some rivers may not be suitable for dive training, due to their:
A. Greater depth
B. Exposure to wind and tides
C. Increased visibility
D. Fast currents and limited visibility

6. Marine environments are more dynamic, since they are large enough to be affected by:
A. The movement of the Earth’s crust
B. The wind and the gravity of the moon and sun
C. International shipping traffic
D. Marine construction and human impacts
7. Waves can physically affect divers by:
A. Reducing visibility or creating currents
B. Causing disorientation or seasickness
C. Creating temperature differences or increasing visibility
D. Unexpectedly changing the diving conditions
8. Ocean tides are caused by gravitational forces exerted by _____ and the _____ of the earth.
A. The sun and moon, rotation
B. Cosmic events, rotation
C. The sun, mass
D. The sun and moon, mass
9. Currents may be caused by:
A. Winds and tides
B. The shape of the land around the dive site
C. Differences in temperature or salinity
D. All answers are correct

10. In low visibility conditions, freedivers should:

A. Use a dive light
B. Complete the dive with their buddy
C. Reduce the training depth by half
D. Use a lanyard

11. Water conducts heat _____ efficiently than air, so a diver will cool down _____ quickly in the water.
A. Less, more
B. More, less
C. Less, less
D. More, more

139 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.2 | Preparing for a Session

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• List the three benefits of developing a proper dive plan.

• List at least two resources for researching a dive site and describe the type of information each
resource can provide.

• List at least three dive site characteristics and describe how they can affect the dive planning
process.

• Describe the three criteria for determining the appropriate sequence for the dive plan.

• List at least two hazards that a diver should consider when creating a dive plan and describe the
emergency response for each.

“ Plan the dive and dive the plan.

140 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Purpose of a Dive Plan

Image © iStock/RomoloTavani

No diver should ever enter the water without a dive plan, even if they are only diving in a pool or
confined water site. A properly developed dive plan ensures that each diver knows the dive site, their
expectations and responsibilities, and what to do in the unlikely event that an emergency occurs.
Creating a dive plan is a collaborative effort that includes every diver in the buddy team or group. It
should have as much information as possible to ensure that each diver can safely and comfortably
complete the session. This also makes it more likely that everyone will enjoy themselves.
Selecting a Dive Site
Planning Resources
Historically, divers had only a few options if they wanted to research potential dive sites. They had to
seek out information from their local library, interview boat captains and crew members, or search
through weather forecasting almanacs to learn about environmental conditions and predicted tide
tables.
Many divers rely on the experience and knowledge of their local training center’s professionals. These
individuals spend hundreds of hours diving their local sites and popular dive destinations, and they can
usually provide a good site recommendation based on the diver’s needs, goals, and experience.
Thanks to the internet, today’s divers have thousands of other resources for their research efforts. Many
training center, national weather organization, and non-profit websites have information about water
temperatures, tidal movements, and local conditions.

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 SSI’s MyDiveGuide is a database of popular dive sites, created by recreational divers and dive industry
professionals. It combines user-submitted information and curated dive site descriptions to create one
of the world’s largest repositories of information on the marine life and site conditions for dive
destinations around the world.

Every time you log a dive session, you contribute new data and personal experiences to the
MyDiveGuide database.

Creating a Dive Plan

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

The divers can start creating their dive plan after they select and research their dive site. This often
requires the divers to simulate their dive from start to finish as they review and discuss each aspect of
the dive.
Every dive site is unique, even open water sites that may only be a few meters apart from each other. An
effective dive plan considers the site’s features and how they interact with weather and water
conditions.
Dives in artificial environments are generally easier to plan, since there is little water movement and
visibility is generally better. Open water dive sites require more careful planning.
Divers try to address the following questions or criteria when they create their dive plan.

142 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Site Characteristics
The diver’s research should give them a good understanding of what their dive site looks like and what
conditions they can expect during their dive. They should be able to answer questions like:
• Is it a pool/confined water or open water dive site?

• How will we get to the site, and where will our staging area be?

• What are the expected weather conditions?

• Could we encounter waves, tides, or currents?

• What is the maximum depth? Can we keep the bottom weight at a safe distance from the bottom
at all times?

• What kind of bottom do we expect?

• What kind of visibility does the site have at the surface and at depth?

• What marine life could we see?

Sequence
Each diver should know what is expected of them at each stage of the dive session, from the moment
they start preparing their equipment to the point when they finish logging their experiences. They
should also know their buddy’s goals and expectations, and what each diver’s role will be while
everyone is in the water. They should be able to answer questions like:
Preparation

• Does everyone have the equipment they need, and is it in good working order? Who is
responsible for the freediving buoy setup?
• What does the final buddy check look like before we enter the water?

• When do we make a final decision that it is safe to dive and everyone is ready?
Transitions

• Where and how will we enter and exit the water?

• How far is the dive site from shore, and how will we get there?
• How will we exit if the primary exit point isn’t available?
Conducting the session
• How many divers are there in the buddy team?

• What is everyone’s experience level?

• What are each diver’s targets and objectives for the session?

• Are they achievable based on the experience level and abilities of the least qualified member of
the buddy team?
• How long is the session? How many dives will each diver do?

• What order will we dive in?

• What is each diver’s role during the session?

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Emergency Planning

Image © SSI

Responsible divers always plan dives within the limits of their training and experience. They also
understand that accidents can happen, even with a detailed dive plan. Every dive plan should include
an assessment of hazards and safety considerations, and each diver should know what to do if an
emergency occurs. They should be able to answer questions like:
Hazards

• Is there surface traffic at the site, like boats or windsurfers?

• Are there any underwater obstacles or entanglement risks?

• Is there any potentially hazardous marine life?

Emergency response

• Who knows that we are diving? Is anyone staying on shore that knows our dive plan?

• What emergency equipment is available on site?

• Where and how far away are emergency medical services, and what is their contact information?
• What is the emergency action plan if something goes wrong, and what will each diver do?

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Deciding to Dive
A well-developed dive plan minimizes risk, but does not guarantee that each diver can safely complete
their dive objectives. The diver and their buddies must complete a final evaluation before they enter the
water to verify that the plan is still accurate, the conditions are still safe, and everyone in the buddy
team is ready to dive.
This final check usually occurs at the edge of the water before everyone begins to put on their
equipment. After reviewing the dive plan, each diver should decide whether they are comfortable with
the dive plan and that they can safely complete their objectives and perform their duties as part of the
buddy team.
Each diver should be comfortable making this decision on their own without being influenced by their
dive buddies. They should not use a more experienced or overconfident buddy as justification for diving
beyond their abilities or in an environment they do not feel comfortable in.

145 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.2 | Review
1. A properly developed dive plan ensures that a diver:
A. Is only responsible for their own actions
B. Is responsible for the entire buddy team
C. Knows each diver’s expectations and responsibilities
D. All answers are correct
2. Local training centers and professionals provide site recommendations, based on their:
A. Mood and feelings
B. Training and habits
C. Experience and knowledge
D. Experience and training level

3. SSI’s MyDiveGuide is a database of popular dive sites created by:

A. Recreational divers and industry professionals
B. Artificial intelligence and technical divers
C. Tour operators and industry professionals
D. Recreational divers and tour operators

4. Which of the following questions are used to plan an open water session?
A. All answers are correct
B. What are the expected weather conditions?
C. What kind of visibility does the site have at the surface and at depth?
D. Will there be waves, tides, or currents?

5. Proper equipment assembly and a pre-session check should be completed:

A. After entering the water
B. After completing the surface swim Post session
C. Before the first dive
D. Before entering the water

6. Divers must consider transitions during the dive planning stage, including:
A. Entries, exits, and surface swims
B. How deep they will go for each attempt
C. The duration of each attempt
D. All answers are correct
7. Planning the order in which they will dive enables divers to:
A. Effectively use the buddy system
B. Set target depths and objectives for each diver
C. Make the session more efficient
D. All answers are correct
8. How does considering possible safety hazards during the planning stage benefit a diver?
A. All answers are correct
B. They will have a more exciting dive session
C. They can contact emergency medical services in advance
D. They know what to do if an emergency occurs
9. The decision to dive should be completed:
A. Only by the most senior diver
B. Individually by each diver
C. By the most confident diver
D. By at least one diver in each buddy team

10. Which of the following is part of emergency response planning?

A. Identifying contact information for emergency medical services
B. Knowing how to use
C. All answers are correct
D. Creating an emergency action plan

146 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.3 | Conducting a Session

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the importance of the pre-session check and list the three steps buddies should verify
before entering the water.

• List at least three considerations for entering the water.

• List at least two considerations if a surface swim is required to reach the dive site.
• Briefly describe the three parts of a static breath-hold attempt.

• Briefly describe the three parts of a dynamic apnea dive.

• Briefly describe the three parts of a constant weight dive.

• Describe the importance of logging freediving sessions, and list at least three questions that
should be answered during a personal analysis.

When all of your questions have been answered, the dive plan has been reviewed, and the final
checks are complete, it’s time to start diving!

147 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Pre-Session Check

Image © Mares

Preparing for the Dive

The divers should start using the buddy system when they begin to get ready to enter the water. Even
experienced divers can make mistakes, and many in-water problems can be prevented by a proper pre-
session check with a buddy.
The buddies should be observing and assisting each other as they prepare to verify that their
equipment is correctly assembled and put on. The final task before entering the water is to complete a
head-to-toe inspection of each buddy’s equipment. This inspection should verify that:

• The mask, fins, and snorkel are properly put on and adjusted.
• The weight system has sufficient weight and is put on correctly.

• Any accessories or additional equipment required for the session are properly assembled and
accessible.

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Reaching the Dive Site
Entering the Water
The proper entry point and method of entry should be identified and agreed upon during the dive
planning process.
Entering the water is a simple process if the dive site is at a pool or inland location. The divers can enter
the water along the pool edge or shoreline without worrying about waves or currents.
Some sites have steep entry points or unstable footing. Open water sites can have high-energy waves,
oceanic currents, or rip currents that can make the entry challenging. Entering the water from a boat
may require the divers to jump from a short height above the surface or to enter in water that is too
deep to stand.
Transitions
Transitions like entering and exiting the water create some risk, since the divers are moving from one
environment to another.
When the divers are ready to enter the water, they should enter as a buddy team if conditions permit so
they can assist each other if necessary. If they have to enter in sequence, each diver should watch their
buddies until it is their turn to enter the water.
Divers should complete their entry as efficiently and safely as possible, moving away from the entry
point to allow other divers to enter and maintaining communication and close proximity to their
buddies.
Surface Swims
An ideal dive site has an entry point that is very close to the descent point. Many open water sites, like
protected reefs or off-shore sites, require the divers to swim a short distance on the surface before they
can begin. The divers should stay close to each other if a surface swim is necessary so they do not
become separated. They should swim at a normal pace so they do not become tired, and they should
pause when they reach the dive site. This gives everyone time to recover before starting the session.
Conducting a Static Apnea Session

Warning | Uncertified divers must never dive or attempt a new discipline without
proper training and supervision. The following descriptions are for reference only,
and must not be attempted without the supervision of a qualified SSI
Professional.

Preparation
Freedivers conducting an in-water static breath-hold use a mask and snorkel. This allows them to keep
their face submerged while completing the breathe-up. The performing diver should wear enough
exposure protection to stay warm and float comfortably at the surface. This exposure protection usually
consists of a neoprene wetsuit.

While completing the breathe-up, you may notice that your legs sink and change your position at
the surface. You can always put additional flotation under your legs to fine-tune your buoyancy.

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Conducting the Breath-Hold
Once both freedivers have agreed upon the goals of the static apnea session, the performing diver
floats face down on the surface while wearing their mask and breathing normally through their snorkel.
After completing the breathe-up, the performing diver removes the snorkel from their mouth and
begins the breath-hold.
The performing diver should attempt to remain relaxed and motionless to conserve as much energy
and oxygen as possible during the breath-hold. They will often develop heighten levels of awareness.
They may feel their heart beating, be more aware of sounds, or have increased tactile sensitivity on their
face and limbs. These sensations are a perfectly normal part of the breath-hold process.

Experiencing stress during a breath-hold is normal. As you conduct your breath-hold, periodically
think about whether your muscles are getting tense and try to relax them without moving your
body.

Buddy System Procedures | Static Apnea

The buddies alternate their breath-hold attempts, with one buddy acting as the supervising buddy
while the other performs their breath-hold. The supervising buddy is responsible for timekeeping,
safety checks, assisting the performing diver with body positioning, and prompting them to correctly
complete their surfacing routine.
Surfacing
The performing diver ends the breath-hold when they need to start breathing again, if the supervising
buddy prompts them to lift their head from the water, or once they reach their breath-hold time. The
performing diver must follow the correct surfacing procedure to ensure their safety.
First, they start to surface using a support like the pool edge or a buoy. They place their feet on the
bottom, just below their head, keeping their knees bent and avoiding standing too far out of the water.
This prevents their blood pressure from dropping too far and conserves oxygen in their muscles.
They stand up until the water is at shoulder level, continuing to hold onto the pool edge or buoy for
support. As soon as their face is clear of the water, the performing diver completes their recovery
breathing sequence. The buddies switch roles and the next attempt begins.

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 Best Practices | Static Apnea

Image © Mares

• Focus on increasing the time after the urge to breathe (UTB) in small increments instead of
increasing the total breath-hold time.
• Set specific breath-hold targets for each static apnea session.

• The static apnea training focus should be on a repetitive and progressive approach for a safe and
efficient training regime.
Conducting a Dynamic Apnea Session
Preparation
Freedivers use a mask, snorkel, exposure suit, fins and weights to comfortably complete their breathe-
up and execute dynamic apnea dives. The performing diver must have enough weight to establish
proper neutral buoyancy during the dynamic apnea dive.
The performing diver starts the dynamic apnea dive by standing or floating upright in the water. They
usually begin at one end of the pool, which maximizes the distance they can swim before they have to
complete a turn. They complete the breathe-up and take a full final breath.

Check your buoyancy and adjust your weight if necessary before each dynamic apnea session.

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Conducting the Dive
After taking a final breath, the performing diver descends to the correct depth. This is usually about one
meter below the surface, but it may be shallower or deeper, depending on the conditions. They begin
the horizontal swim, focusing on maintaining a streamlined body position and proper finning
technique at a consistent, sustainable pace.
The freediver may need to complete one or more turns during their dynamic apnea attempt. If they
have to turn, they should make efficient turns without losing speed or changing pace.
Buddy System Procedures | Dynamic Apnea
Proper buddy system procedures are a critical part of every dynamic apnea session. Just like with static
apnea, the supervising buddy supports the performing diver’s efforts. They will count down to the start
of the dynamic apnea dive, and will swim at the surface, following and supervising the diver
throughout each phase of the dive.
The buddy must stay focused on the diver without any distractions, and they must be ready to help if
necessary. They must be equipped so they can keep pace with the diver, and they must wear only
enough weight to keep their balance in the water.

As the supervising buddy, you are responsible for giving countdowns, and for supporting and
assisting the performing diver during their dives.

Surfacing
The surfacing technique for a dynamic apnea dive is almost identical to the technique used for an in-
water static apnea session. Once the dive is finished, the performing diver surfaces and holds onto the
pool’s edge, a buoy, or their buddy’s arm. They should avoid standing fully upright, keeping the water
level at shoulder height. Since the diver is wearing weight and fins, standing from a dynamic apnea
attempt requires more effort and balance than standing from a static apnea attempt.
As soon as their face is clear of the water, the performing diver completes the recovery breathing
sequence. The buddy prompts the recovery breaths and monitors the performing diver for any
problems. The buddies switch roles and the next attempt begins.

152 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Best Practices | Dynamic Apnea

Image © AdobeStock-aetb

The following best practices apply to dynamic apnea dives:

• The supervising buddy must wear bi-fins. Bi-fins are easier than monofins to maneuver and dive
with.
• The ideal pool length for dynamic apnea training is twenty-five meters, which makes it easier to
calculate distances. If possible, use the lane at the edge of the pool, where the wall can be used for
support at all times.

• The performing diver should always wear enough weight to maintain proper buoyancy during the
session.

• The buddy should remove some weight to make it easier to follow the performing diver during
their attempt.

• Increase dynamic apnea targets by slowly increasing the maximum distance for each attempt.
Improve dynamic apnea skills by conducting multiple attempts for shorter distances.

Using personalized and appropriate equipment improves the efficiency of your training. If you
use inappropriate equipment or train incorrectly, you can develop bad techniques and unsafe
habits that can be hard to fix.

153 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Conducting a Constant Weight Session
Preparation
The performing diver uses the same amount of weight throughout a constant weight dive. This weight
makes the descent easier, since they do not have to exert as much energy to overcome the resistance of
the water and their natural buoyancy.
They must only wear enough weight to comfortably descend, otherwise the ascent will be more
difficult. They verify that they have the correct amount of weight by conducting a buoyancy check prior
to starting the dive. This buoyancy check quickly identifies whether they are positively buoyant,
neutrally buoyant, or negatively buoyant.

You should always be slightly positively buoyant at the surface before starting a dive.

The diver floats vertically in the water and fully exhales to start their buoyancy check. They briefly pause
to allow their buoyancy to adjust, and then they determine whether they sink or float. They have too
much weight if they sink, or if the water level stays above their forehead. If the water level is below their
eyes, they have are too positively buoyant and must add some weight.
The freediver floats face-down on the surface and breaths through their snorkel. This position is similar
to the one used to start a static apnea session. Once the freediver is ready to begin their dive, they
complete their breathe-up and take a full, final breath.
Conducting the Dive

Descent
After taking the final breath, the freediver removes the snorkel from their mouth and equalizes their
ears. They start the descent using a technique called a “duck dive”, where both legs point upwards to
provide the driving force for the descent. After submerging, the freediver positions themselves parallel

154 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 to and facing the dive line before they begin kicking.
The performing diver stays within an arm’s length of the dive line at all times as they descend. This
enables them to quickly reach out and grab the dive line if they need to stop their descent for any
reason. Equalization—both early and often—is the primary concern during the descent.
The performing diver begins their descent along the dive line by kicking. One hand remains on the
nose for the next equalization, while the other arm stays relaxed at the freedivers’ side.
Ascent
When it is time to ascend, the performing diver grabs the dive line to stop their descent. They briefly
pull back toward the surface to reorient themselves and to generate speed for the ascent. Once they
begin kicking toward the surface, they release the line and keep their arms relaxed and by their side.
The freediver focuses on staying relaxed and using proper technique during their ascent. They should
avoid looking up during the dive, since this can create stress and a sense of urgency. They can look up as
they near the surface to verify that they have a clear exit spot around the buoy.
Buddy System Procedures | Constant Weight
During a constant weight dive, the supervising buddy stays at the surface and holds onto the dive line.
They breathe through their snorkel and keep their face in the water so they can watch the diver during
the descent. The performing diver pulls on the dive line to start their ascent, which signals the
supervising buddy to start their descent. They start with a duck dive and then kick down the line as the
performing diver continues to swim toward the surface. The supervising buddy meets the performing
diver partway, and the divers face each other and ascend as a pair.
Surfacing
The surfacing technique for constant weight dives is very similar to the one used for dynamic apnea
dives. At the surface, the performing diver holds onto the buoy with both hands and performs the
recovery breathing cycle. The supervising buddy verbally directs the recovery breaths and watches for
any problems. Once the performing diver completes their recovery breaths, the divers switch roles and
continue the session.

155 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Best Practices | Constant Weight
The following best practices apply to constant
weight dives:
• All freedivers must perform CWT training with
an in-water supervising buddy.

• The supervising buddy must wear bi-fins. Bi-

fins are easier to maneuver, and are more
comfortable and less challenging to use than a
monofin.

• The dive line must not be set deeper than the

planned dive depth.

• Freedivers should increase their depth target

by no more than two meters each time to
develop good equalization skills and comfort
with greater depths.

• Freedivers should always use a lanyard.

Finishing the Session
The day is not quite finished, even if the session is
complete and the divers have exited the water.
Equipment maintenance and logging the session
are important parts of the freediving experience.
Equipment Care
Investing in high-quality equipment makes the dive
experience safer and more enjoyable. Maintaining
this equipment ensures that it will work properly
and last longer before it needs to be replaced.
Image © Shutterstock-Dudarev Mikhail
Any equipment that was used in the water should
be thoroughly rinsed with fresh water. This includes
equipment used in freshwater pools, since pool water is often treated with chemicals. Allow the
equipment to dry completely before storing it in a cool, dry place that is out of direct sunlight.
Long-bladed fins are especially vulnerable to sunlight and can permanently warp if left in direct sunlight
or intense tropical heat for too long. They should be stored topside facing down on a flat surface so that
they do not deform.

156 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Logging the Session
One of the most rewarding aspects of freediving is the ability for divers to track their progress and
improved skills. New divers may only be able to complete basic breath-holds or reach entry-level
depths, but with regular practice and skill development, they can see the progression as they reach
greater targets.
Divers should discuss their experience with their dive buddies at the end of each session. Sharing their
experience and hearing from their buddies helps identify important details of the session, and they may
learn something from their buddy that they missed during their session. They should log critical
information from the session in their logbooks.
Personal analysis
Recording the details of a dive gives the diver an opportunity to reflect on their experience, analyzing
what they learned, and how they can use their new knowledge and skills during the next dive. To help
analyze themselves, divers should takes notes like:

• What went well?

• What challenges did I face?

• How did I overcome or adapt to these challenges?

• Was I a good buddy? How could I have supported my buddy better?

• Did I have any new accomplishments or personal bests?

157 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.3 | Review
1. Many in-water problems can be prevented by:
A. Diving with at least three buddies
B. Proper pre-session checks with a buddy
C. Annual equipment purchases
D. Letting a more-qualified diver make the dive plan
2. The pre-session check includes:
A. The mask, fins, and snorkel are properly put on and adjusted
B. All answers are correct
C. Any accessories or additional equipment are properly assembled and accessible
D. The weight system has sufficient weight and is put on correctly

3. What should divers evaluate when choosing an entry technique?

A. Status of the entry location and surface conditions
B. How to hold their equipment during the entry
C. All answers are correct
D. The length of their surface swim

4. If a surface swim is necessary, the divers should:

A. Stay close to each other and swim at a normal pace
B. Stay just below the surface to avoid waves
C. Pick their own pace and direction
D. Stay together and kick hard to reach the dive spot as quickly as possible

5. During a static session, the performing diver should wear:

A. Enough exposure protection to stay warm and float comfortably on the surface
B. An empty weight belt to create a seal in their exposure protection
C. Additional exposure protection to maintain their body temperature
D. A dive computer to accurately track their breath-hold times

6. During a static session breath-hold, the performing diver should:

A. Move gently and slowly
B. Focus on the elapsed time and then relax their muscles
C. Slowly exhale and remain relaxed
D. Remain relaxed and motionless
7. The performing diver ends the breath-hold when:
A. The supervising buddy prompts them to lift their head from the water
B. They reach their desired breath-hold time
C. All answers are correct
D. They need to start breathing again
8. The performing diver must _____ to establish proper neutral buoyancy during a dynamic apnea dive.
A. Kick harder
B. Fully exhale
C. Have enough weight
D. Slightly exhale
9. Which of the following makes a dynamic apnea dive more efficient?
A. Proper turn technique
B. All answers are correct
C. Maintaining a streamlined body position
D. Proper finning technique at a consistent, sustainable pace

10. After completing an in-water breath-hold attempt:

A. Float on their back to complete their recovery breaths
B. Stand upright out of the water
C. Immediately drop their weights to establish positive buoyancy
D. Avoid standing fully upright

11. The performing diver should wear _____ during a constant weight dive.
A. Heavier fins to compensate for buoyancy differences
B. As little weight as possible to comfortably ascend
C. As much weight as possible to quickly descend
D. Only enough weight to comfortably descend

158 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

12. At the end of a constant weight dive, the performing diver:
A. Floats freely at the surface and gives an “OK" sign to their buddy
B. Holds onto the buoy and gives an “OK" sign to their buddy
C. Holds onto a ladder or float line and completes their recovery breaths
D. Holds onto the buoy and completes their recovery breaths
13. What information should divers record in their logbooks to help them analyze their experience?
A. All answers are correct
B. What went well and any challenges they experienced
C. Their experience as part of the buddy team
D. Accomplishments and personal bests

159 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.4 | Your Freediving Career

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain how reviewing and practicing skills after certification benefits the diver.

• List at least three best practices that apply to any freediving training.

• Explain the benefit of diving in new environments.

• List the three members of SSI family and explain their relationship to the dive community.
• List at least three benefits of equipment ownership.

• Describe the three benefits of completing additional training and give at least one example for
each benefit.

160 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Gaining Experience

Image © Mares-Predrag Vuckovic

The Diver Diamond explains that it takes a combination of knowledge, skills, equipment, and
experience to become a safe and confident freediver. By completing the SSI Freediver certification, a
freediver shows that they have the basic knowledge and skills to safely freedive up to twenty meters
deep in environments similar to the ones that they were trained in.
The next step after earning any new dive certification is to gain more experience.
Retaining Skills and Knowledge
A diver’s ability to correctly recall and complete a skill will diminish without regular practice. If they do
not make an effort to review and practice their skills, they will be less comfortable in the water and their
dives will become more challenging. This is especially important for skills related to safety.
By regularly practicing the skills they have already learned, the diver develops their ability to complete
the skills without conscious thought or significant effort. They can periodically review their
performances to identify which skills are becoming easier, and which skills are still creating a challenge
and may require additional focused effort. Mastering all of their entry-level skills is a good indication
that they may be ready for more advanced training programs or more challenging diver environments.
Best Practices
The following best practices apply to any freediving training:

• Comfort through repetition is the best way to improve freediving abilities.

• Focus on gradual progression that incrementally increases targets or limits.

161 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 • Don’t exceed target limits or attempt advanced skills without proper supervision and training.

• Use properly fitted equipment that is appropriate for the discipline and skill level.

• Learn proper skills and techniques before attempting a new discipline to avoid developing unsafe
or incorrect habits.
Environmental Experience
A diver’s entry-level training only gives them experience in a limited set of environments and dive
conditions in a short period of time. To have a fulfilling and exciting dive career, a diver should explore
new dive sites that have different features, weather conditions, and new animal species to encounter.
By diving in a variety of environments, divers learn to anticipate and evaluate the site conditions. This
makes their dive plans more accurate and enjoyable, since they are better prepared and more likely to
react appropriately when conditions change.
Developing a Community

Image © Mares

Almost every diver, from the newest entry-level student to the veteran Instructor Trainer, will agree that
one of the best parts of the dive experience is sharing it with others. Fortunately, the dive industry is
filled with people around the world with similar interests and passions.

162 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Members of the SSI Family
Student and certified divers
These individuals are the reason the dive industry exists. They purchase equipment, participate in
training programs, and travel to exotic destinations to witness the incredible beauty of our underwater
world.
Students and newer divers can learn a lot from more-experienced divers, who are often eager to share
stories of their adventures, their favorite dive sites, and what they like and dislike about different types
of equipment. Divers can also motivate each other to continue diving and establish life-long friendships
as they develop their abilities and interests together.
SSI Professionals
SSI Professionals—like all industry professionals—are an excellent source of information. They are a
trusted source of information about skills, safe diving practices, and what continuing education
programs will meet a new diver’s needs and goals for their diving career. Diving with a professional,
even if it’s only for enjoyment, can be a great learning experience. Professionals have mastered their
dive skills and can usually identify interesting underwater features or aquatic life that make the diver
more interesting.
SSI professionals must maintain “active status” with SSI to keep their ability to train and certify students.
This means that they are affiliated with an SSI Training Center, and are authorized to teach SSI programs.
SSI Training Centers
SSI Training Centers are the hub of the SSI Family. They provide a central location for divers to gather
where they can share their experiences with like-minded people. SSI Training Centers support their SSI
Professionals, which means that their students have easy access to training resources, more-
experienced dive professionals, and more training opportunities than with an independent instructor.
SSI recognizes a variety of businesses that fit the description of training center, including domestic and
resort SSI Training Centers, SSI Dive Schools, and SSI Dive Boats. Information about dive sites, travel
opportunities, and new training or travel opportunities are shared within the network of SSI Training
Centers, which means that a diver can find the perfect adventure, regardless of where they live in the
world.
Equipment Ownership
Historically, divers had very few decisions to make when they selected their equipment. Early masks
were often made from stiff rubber with a single glass lens that was difficult to equalize. The wetsuit is a
relatively modern innovation—divers often had to use rubber suits or would dive without adequate
exposure protection.
The modern dive industry is significantly different, with dozens of manufacturers who provide
hundreds of equipment designs that can meet the needs of even the most selective diver. Even rental
equipment, which used to be limited to cheaper, “one size fits all” designs can often provide new divers
with the opportunity to test different models before they decide to purchase their own equipment.

163 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

The Selection Process
Equipment ownership can be intimidating, especially for new divers who are just starting their
adventure. The wide variety of equipment models and features can make the selection process difficult,
especially for a diver who does not have specific goals for their diving career.
Many divers begin their initial training by renting equipment. This gives them time to decide which
features they like, what models fit them well, and what equipment they need to meet their personal
goals. Some training centers will have equipment available for their customers to try before making a
purchase. Most industry professionals have used equipment from many different manufacturers, which
means they can provide suggestions and advice during the selection process.
Benefits of Ownership
Divers who only dive once or twice a year, or who have financial or personal limitations, may decide that
it makes more sense to rent their equipment. They may only buy one or two pieces, like a mask and
snorkel, or they may rent equipment for their entire career.
Many divers, especially those who dive multiple times a year, decide that owning their equipment
makes the most sense.
Equipment ownership has multiple benefits:
It makes diving more convenient, since the diver does not have to complete the rental process each
time they want to go diving. If they dive often enough, owning equipment is cheaper than renting
equipment, since they only have to pay a single purchase price, and properly maintained equipment
can last for years.
Personal equipment is more comfortable than rental equipment, since the diver can choose the models
and configurations that work best for their needs, rather than equipment that must work for a wide
range of body types and dive conditions.
Personal equipment is safer and improves a diver’s performance. The diver does not need to
refamiliarize themselves with the equipment before each dive, so their dives are more efficient and
comfortable. They can adapt their equipment to increase their efficiency or make their diving more
comfortable.
Over time, they will become more confident with how each piece works, so they can focus on the dive
experience without worrying about their equipment. They can be confident that their equipment will
work as expected, since they know how it has been used and maintained. They will also be able to
identify when it is time to replace worn out equipment that is reducing their efficiency.

164 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Training Opportunities

Image © iStock-mihtiander

The SSI Freediver program teaches freedivers to dive safely with a buddy up to twenty meters deep in
open water environments similar to those that they trained in. It is an entry-level program, which means
it is only the beginning of an exciting and rewarding freediving adventure.
Continuing Education
SSI offers a complete range of training programs that can meet any diver’s goals, whether they want to
learn new skills, explore new environments, or simply want to learn more about the world below the
surface.
New training tools
An SSI Freediver who wants to develop new skills and abilities can take the Free Immersion or Training
Techniques specialty programs. These programs build upon the SSI Freediver training, helping the
freediver enhance their freediving routines and skills to reach more challenging targets.
New knowledge
The SSI Ecology programs are perfect for those who are interested in learning more about the aquatic
world, covering everything from tiny coral polyps to the massive blue whale—the largest animal that
has ever existed.
New experiences
Freedivers who are looking for new experiences can register for continuing education programs like
Monofin, No-Fins Freediving Pool, or Spearfishing Safety & Training. These programs introduce

165 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 equipment and techniques that are beyond the scope of the SSI Freediver program. Completing these
training programs expands a freediver’s skillset, increasing the opportunities and adventures found in
each freediving adventure.
The SSI Advanced Freediver program is a continuing education program for freedivers who want to
reach greater depths. It expands upon the SSI Freediver program content, teaching new stretching,
equalization, and breathing techniques, developing the freediver’s understanding of the effects of
pressure, and introducing new skills like free-falling.
Diving as a Career
Some divers will discover that recreational diving is not enough to satisfy their passion for the sport.
Something may be missing, even after years of exploring underwater, or learning everything they can
about the sport. For these divers, becoming a professional is the next logical step in their diving career.
Dive professionals are the face of the industry. They represent the training agencies and are responsible
for the students and customers who dive with them. They take new students and certified divers into
the aquatic world, showing them how to safely and comfortably dive while exploring underwater
ecosystems in an environmentally responsible manner.
Dive professionals are expected to be incredibly knowledgeable about the sport, and they must be
capable of perfectly demonstrating their skills, even for the most inexperienced student. These
requirements can seem intimidating, especially for a new diver who has just begun their adventure, but
the path to becoming a professional is easier than it might appear.
For freedivers, the professional pathway begins with the Freediving Assistant Instructor certification.
Becoming a Freediving Assistant Instructor

Image © iStock-mihtiander

166 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Teaching options
Freediving Assistant Instructors have an important role in the SSI Family. They teach experience
programs like Try Freediving and Basic Freediver, which have fewer completion requirements than
entry-level programs like SSI Freediver.
Experience programs are designed to generate interest and enthusiasm for the sport of diving, so the
student may decide that diving is not for them if they have a negative experience. Their experience is
often directly impacted by their instructor’s teaching efforts.
They can also teach the Pool Freediver program, which is simply the academic and pool/confined water
portion of the SSI Freediver program, and they can assist other instructors with parts of the SSI
Freediver open water sessions and the SSI Advanced Freediver and SSI Performance Freediver
pool/confined water sessions.
Prerequisites
Instructor candidates must meet certain prerequisites that ensure they have the training and
experience necessary to start their professional career. Candidates for the Freediving Assistant
Instructor program must be at least eighteen years old and have logged at least 50 in-water freediving
sessions. They must also have certain certifications, like SSI Freediver and Training Techniques.
Benefits
The ability to teach others is one of the greatest benefits of becoming a dive professional. It can be a
challenging profession, but it gives professionals the opportunity to share their passion for the sport
with their students. There are many careers that pay better, but very few that allow someone to teach
something they care deeply about to others.
Since diving is a destination activity, many dive professionals can find work in locations that most
people only get to visit on vacation. Even dive professionals who work at in-land training centers often
have the opportunity to lead trips for training or pleasure to once in a lifetime travel destinations.
All SSI Professionals affiliate with an SSI Training Center where they can teach. This improves the quality
of their training and gives them more teaching opportunities than they would have as an independent
instructor. SSI Training Centers often provide discounts on equipment and continuing education
programs to their professionals, which also benefits the training center.

These are only a few of the benefits of becoming an SSI Professional. Ask your instructor why they
became a professional to see if a career in the dive industry is a good fit for you.

167 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 5.4 | Review
1. If a diver does not regularly review and practice their skills:
A. Their dives will become more challenging
B. All answers are correct
C. They will be less comfortable in the water
D. Their ability to correctly recall and complete a skill will diminish
2. A diver can gain more experience by:
A. All answers are correct
B. Learning proper skills and techniques before attempting a new discipline
C. Focusing on gradual progression
D. Using properly fitting equipment that is appropriate for the discipline and skill level

3. By diving in a variety of environments, divers:

A. Practice different freediving skills
B. Can log different types of dives
C. Learn to anticipate and evaluate the site conditions
D. Develop better breath-holding abilities

4. Students and newer divers can learn a lot from _____ divers, and they can _____ each other to continue diving and establish life-long
friendships.
A. Competitive, finance
B. More-experienced, motivate
C. Professional, support
D. Other, prevent
5. SSI Professionals are a trusted source of information about:
A. Skills, competitions, and diving business
B. Safe diving practices, continuing education programs, and dive center management
C. Skills, safe diving practices, and continuing education programs
D. Extreme diving practices, knowledge, and continuing education programs

6. Equipment ownership can:

A. Offer a safer and more comfortable diving experience
B. All answers are correct
C. Make diving more convenient by eliminating the rental process and offering financial benefits
D. Improve a diver’s confidence and performance

7. Continuing education programs can give a freediver new _____ to enhance their freediving experience.
A. Skills and abilities
B. Ideas and knowledge
C. Experiences and vision
D. Skills and equipment

168 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Section 6 | Safe and Responsible
Freediving

Image © Mares-Damir Zurub

“ Slow is safe. Safe is smooth. Smooth is fast.

Introduction
Freediving is one of the fastest growing waterports in the world. Thousands of people experience this
amazing activity every year without any safety issues. Freediving has some risks, just like any other
physical activity.
Learning about these risk factors is the first part of safe freediving. Understanding how to react if an
emergency occurs is the second. Freediving responsibly—to eliminate or minimize the risks—is the
last.
Responsible diving is another important part of being a freediver. Divers must understand how to
interact with aquatic life and how to take care of the underwater world. This ensures that dive sites and
the animals that inhabit them will continue to be healthy and accessible for the next generation of
divers.

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Lesson 6.1 | The Effects of Hypoxia

Image © AdobeStock-artifirsov

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term“hypoxia”.

• Define the term “loss of motor control” and describe how it affects the diver.

• Define the term “blackout” and describe how it effects the diver.

• List at least three signs and symptoms that occur during both a loss of motor control and a
blackout.

170 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Hypoxia
• Hypoxia | A condition caused by a lack of an
adequate supply of oxygen.
The human body requires a minimum amount of
oxygen to maintain consciousness. This oxygen is
normally supplied through the breathing cycle.
When the breathing cycle is interrupted, the body
continues to consume oxygen, decreasing the
remaining oxygen supply in the bloodstream. “
Hypoxia” is the medical term used to describe this
low oxygen condition.
Hypoxia is not a medical emergency. In fact,
humans are often slightly hypoxic—for example
during anaerobic exercise when the body consumes
oxygen faster than it can be replenished. Freediving
is a breath-holding activity, so freedivers
intentionally enter a state of mild hypoxia every
time they start a breath-hold.
There is a limit to the amount of hypoxia the body
can safely experience. Some parts of the body, like
the arms and legs, are more tolerant to a lack of
oxygen. More critical organs like the brain are more
sensitive, which is why the mammalian dive reflex
(MDR) shifts blood from the extremities toward the
torso and brain.
If the freediver continues to push their limits their
body will enter a hypoxic state. If this occurs, they
may experience a loss of motor control or blackout.
Image © iStock
Loss of Motor Control
Definition

• Loss of motor control | A physical reaction to hypoxia, where the diver experiences
involuntary muscle contractions.
A loss of motor control, or “LMC”, occurs when the level of oxygen in the blood drops low enough that
the brain loses the ability to control the body’s motor functions. For freedivers, an LMC is most visible at
the surface and usually lasts only a few seconds without any loss of consciousness.
Effect on the diver
A diver experiencing an LMC will struggle to maintain their balance and control of their muscles. Their
situational awareness will fade—known as perceptual narrowing or “tunnel vision”.
Signs and Symptoms
The most common symptoms of an LMC include:
• Tunnel vision

• Ringing in the ears

• Light-headedness

• Numbness

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 • Whole-body tingling

• Sense of unreality

• Muscle twitching

• A feeling that the dive is getting easier

The buddies of a diver experiencing an LMC may see the following signs:

• Uncontrolled head nodding

• Loss of balance and coordination

• Tremors

• Difficulty speaking

• Eye rolling
• Blue lips and face (cyanosis)

• Difficulty with the recovery breaths

Corrective Actions
An LMC can quickly escalate into a blackout if it is left uncorrected. Proper recovery breathing will
quickly re-oxygenate the diver’s body. As the diver breaths, oxygen moves from the lungs to the brain,
rapidly restoring motor control and ending the LMC. Afterwards, the diver may not realize they had an
LMC, and may not remember what happened during the LMC.
Blackout

Image © iStock-serg269

172 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Definition

• Blackout | A temporary loss of consciousness caused by decreased oxygen levels in the body.
Blackouts can occur during breath-holds, especially when lower oxygen levels are combined with
decreasing external pressures, like during a freediving ascent to the surface. They can happen at depth,
or on the surface.
Effect on the diver
If oxygen levels continue to decrease, the brain will temporarily lose consciousness in an attempt to
protect the body. On land, a person who intentionally holds their breath for too long will eventually lose
all muscle control, including the muscles that allow them to manually control their breathing cycle. The
body’s automatic functions continue, maintaining circulation and supplying oxygen to the brain. As the
brain receives oxygen, the breathing cycle quickly restarts and consciousness returns within seconds.
An underwater blackout is significantly more serious. If the face is submerged when the blackout
occurs, a laryngospasm causes the vocal cords to contract and seize. This blocks the airways and
prevents water from entering the lungs, which temporarily protects the diver from drowning.
Signs and Symptoms
The most common signs of a blackout include:

• Irregular finning technique

• Loss of coordination
• Unfocused or rolling eyes
• Air escaping from the diver’s mouth

• Rushing to reach the surface

• Panicked or uncontrolled pulling on the dive line

• Erratic or unexpected behavior

An LMC will always occur before a blackout, so the symptoms of blackout feel identical to those of an
LMC.
Corrective Actions
A freediver experiencing a blackout loses consciousness and cannot rescue themselves. The supervising
buddy must be observant and react quickly if they notice any symptoms. The victim will require
immediate assistance to reach the surface and breathable air before their body tries to restart their
breathing cycle.

Freedivers who experience an LMC or blackout must stop freediving for the rest
of the day and possibly longer. Continuing to freedive increases the risk of
another blackout occurring.

173 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.1 | Review
1. Hypoxia is caused by ____ levels in the body.
A. High carbon monoxide
B. Low carbon dioxide
C. High oxygen
D. Low oxygen
2. _____ is a physical reaction to hypoxia and causes involuntary muscle contractions.
A. Muscle cramping
B. A blackout
C. Dehydration
D. A loss of motor control

3. Loss of motor control and blackout share which common symptoms?

A. Tunnel vision, muscle twitching, and light-headedness
B. Whole-body tingling, numbness, and diuresis
C. Numbness, hot flashes, and ringing in the ears
D. Ringing in the ears, fatigue, and a sense of unreality

4. _____ is a temporary loss of consciousness caused by decreased oxygen levels in the body.
A. Loss of motor control
B. Stroke
C. Blackout
D. Dyspnea

5. If a freediver continues diving after a loss of motor control or blackout, they:

A. Will be slightly weaker for the next dive
B. Increase the risk of another blackout
C. Increase their ability to overcome mental barriers
D. Develop a tolerance to hypoxia

174 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.2 | Rescue Techniques

Image © Mares

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the six key points of a loss of motor control rescue.

• State and describe the differences between the rescue phases of three freediving disciplines.

• Describe the two key points of the “response phase” of a blackout rescue.

• Describe the two key points of the “revive phase” of a blackout rescue.

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Conducting Rescues

Image © SSI

Hundreds of thousands of people around the world safely dive every year. Diving emergencies are rare,
but they can happen. When they do, the divers must quickly respond with the correct actions to prevent
a more serious injury or fatality from occurring. The priority in an emergency is to bring the victim to the
surface and then support them with their face out of the water while they breathe and recover.
Loss of Motor Control Rescues
Overview
During a loss of motor control (LMC), the victim will instinctively struggle to maintain their balance and
control of their body. They will try to remain steady and keep their head above the surface while they
try to breathe.
The supervising buddy must assist the victim when they observe the signs of the LMC occurring, since
the victim may not be able to keep their head clear of the water if the LMC is severe enough. Their
primary responsibility is to support and encourage the victim while they recover.
The buddy should avoid taking control of the victim, since this can make the situation worse. If they try
to stabilize the victim by forcing them onto their back, it could cause the victim to struggle harder,
potentially triggering a blackout.

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Rescue Sequence
The supervising buddy’s first action is to quickly respond when an LMC occurs. Hesitating, or waiting too
long to provide assistance, increases the risk that the victim may accidentally inhale water or experience
a blackout. An efficient rescue prevents additional problems from occurring and comforts the victim as
quickly as possible.
Stabilizing the victim is the first step in any rescue. The buddy should grab the edge of the pool or a
freediving buoy with one arm for support. If the water is shallow enough, they should stand on the
bottom in a stable position so they can support the victim during their recovery.
The victim cannot control their neck or airway during an LMC, so the buddy must act to prevent them
from accidentally inhaling water. The buddy uses their free arm to firmly hold the victim, keeping their
airway above the surface until they are fully recovered. If necessary, they should protect the victim’s
airway from splashing water or waves. The buddy should protect the victim’s head if they are close to
the edge of the pool or other hard surfaces.
The victim can hear and follow orders during an LMC. Verbally guiding them throughout the rescue
procedure will speed up their recovery. While supporting the victim, the buddy should talk to the victim
in a clear, confident voice, directing them to complete their recovery breaths. If the victim cannot
properly complete their recovery breaths, their buddy should remove their mask to make the recovery
easier.
The buddy continues to encourage the victim to complete their recovery breaths. If the victim is
struggling to perform their recovery breaths, blowing directly onto their face will help trigger their
instinct to breathe. The buddy continues to physically support the victim while providing verbal
encouragement until they have completely recovered from the LMC.

Your instructor will thoroughly discuss and demonstrate the proper response to LMC and blackout
as part of your training. You will have the chance to practice rescues during the in-water portion of
this program.

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Blackout Rescues

Image © Shutterstock-Benoit Daoust

Overview
When a freediver experiences a blackout, they lose consciousness and cannot recover without
assistance. A freediver who blacks out with their face submerged could easily drown unless their buddy
acts quickly.
There are three components to a blackout rescue, known as “rescue, respond, and revive”—or
“RRR”.

LMC and blackout may seem scary and dangerous if you are just beginning your freediving career.
You can minimize the risk by freediving safely and responsibly, and regularly practicing your
rescue skills.

Rescue Sequence
Rescue
The first and most important part of any blackout is the rescue. If the blackout occurs on the surface,
the supervising buddy’s primary goal is to keep the victim’s face dry and out of the water.
If the blackout occurs underwater, the supervising buddy’s priority is to bring the victim to the surface
before the rescue attempt can continue. The buddy must act quickly and descend to the victim to begin
the rescue.

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Static apnea rescue
During a static apnea attempt, the buddy stands in a stable position next to the performing diver. If a
blackout occurs, they establish control of the victim by holding them firmly at their shoulders and then
rolling them around until they face the surface. At the surface, the buddy adjusts their hand position so
they can maintain control of the victim while keeping the their airways clear of the water.
Dynamic apnea rescue
If the victim is wearing a neck weight, the buddy removes it to make the victim more buoyant. They
establish control of the victim by holding them firmly at their shoulders and then rolling them around
until they face the surface. At the surface, the buddy should stand in a stable position in shallow water
if possible.
The buddy then adjusts their hand position so they can establish positive control of the victim while
keeping the victim’s airways clear of the water.
Deepwater blackout rescue
The buddy establishes positive control of the victim by placing one hand under their chin and the other
hand on the their neck with their forearms held closely against the victim’s body. The buddy extends
their arms, pushing upward until the victim is higher in the water than the buddy.
The buddy maintains control of the victim and kicks strongly toward the surface. They should stay close
to the dive line as they ascend so they have a visual reference. Once they reach the surface, they should
remain close to the freediving buoy so it can be used for support if necessary.
Once the victim’s face is clear of the water, the buddy should roll them onto their back. This rolling
action can begin as the freedivers approach the surface to simplify the process.
The buddy adjusts their hand position so they can establish positive control of the victim while keeping
the victim’s airways clear of the water. They must complete their own recovery breaths before starting
the next part of the rescue.
Response
Once the victim is on their back and their airways are clear of the water, the buddy attempts to get
them to respond to physical and verbal stimuli. First, the supervising buddy removes the victim’s mask
and any other facial equipment, like a nose clip, to make it easier for the victim to breath.

• Blow-tap-talk | A sequence of actions that provide an additional set of stimuli and sensory
inputs that tell a non-breathing victim’s brain that it can restart the breathing cycle.
Next, they complete a “blow-tap-talk” sequence for ten to fifteen seconds. The buddy blows across the
victim’s face, lightly taps the victim’s cheek, and talks to the victim, saying their name and reminding
them to breathe. If the victim does not respond to these efforts, the buddy begins the revive phase of
the rescue.
Revive
If the victim does not start breathing, or struggles to breathe, the supervising buddy must help them
breathe until they revive or medical assistance is available. The buddy provides an initial rescue breath
to fill the victim’s lungs, then repeats the blow-tap-talk sequence for about five seconds to see if they
improve.
If there is no response, the buddy continues to alternate rescue breaths and the blow-tap-talk
sequence. In almost every instance where blackout occurs, the rescue breaths can end the
laryngospasm, allowing the victim to resume their breathing cycle.
Almost every real-world occurrence of a blackout was corrected using the blow-tap-talk procedure or
rescue breaths. In the few cases where the victim did not immediately recover, there was an additional

179 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

medical condition that caused or worsened the blackout. If the victim does not respond to the rescue
breaths, the buddy’s priority is to get them to land where they can receive emergency medical care.
They should pull the victim to shore or a stable surface like a swimming platform, signaling and calling
for assistance and attempting to keep the victim’s airways clear of the water.

If you want to learn more about freediving rescues and more advanced rescue techniques, talk to
your instructor and SSI Training Center about the SSI Advanced Freediver program.

180 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.2 | Review
1. During a loss of motor control rescue, you must:
A. Protect the victim’s airways and head
B. Direct the victim to complete their recovery breaths, and remove any facial equipment if necessary
C. All answers are correct
D. Respond quickly and efficiently
2. If the victim struggles to perform the _____ directly on their face will help trigger their instinct to breathe.
A. Recovery breaths, blowing
B. Surface protocol, tapping
C. Recovery breaths, tapping
D. Surface protocol, blowing

3. If a blackout occurs during a static apnea attempt, establish control of the victim by holding them firmly _____ and then rolling them _____.
A. Under the armpits, to face the surface
B. At the shoulders, to face the surface
C. Around the chest, until their head is clear of the water
D. At the shoulders, until their head is clear of the water

4. During a dynamic apnea rescue, you must:

A. Remove the neck weight
B. Keep their airways clear of the water
C. All answers are correct
D. Establish control by holding the victim at their shoulders

5. What is the first action that the rescuer must do at the surface during a deepwater blackout rescue?
A. Start towing the victim
B. Call for help
C. Release the victim’s weight belt
D. Complete their recovery breaths

6. What are the key points of the “response phase" of a blackout rescue?
A. Complete a “blow-tap-talk" sequence and call for help
B. Administer rescue breaths
C. Remove the victim’s facial equipment and complete a “blow-tap-talk" sequence
D. Shake the victim to wake them up
7. What are the key points of the “revive phase" of a blackout rescue?
A. Commence the rescue breaths and repeat the “blow-tap-talk" sequence until the victim starts breathing
B. Administer 100% oxygen and remove the victim’s equipment
C. Try not to move the victim and call for emergency medical care
D. Tow the victim to the nearest stable surface and administer CPR

181 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.3 | Freediving and Scuba

Image © Subgear

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain why freedivers must never breathe from a scuba cylinder during a dive.

• Explain why decompression sickness is not a serious concern for freedivers.

• Describe SSI’s policy for freediving after scuba diving.

182 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Freediving and Scuba Diving

Image © Mares

Freediving and scuba diving appear to be similar sports to the untrained eye. Both sports use
equipment like masks, fins, and wetsuits to dive under the surface. With the right training and
equipment, scuba divers and freedivers can explore dive sites anywhere in the world, from exotic
tropical reefs to the local aquarium or pool. Many divers enjoy the unique challenges of both sports,
and most SSI Training Centers offer certifications and travel opportunities that cater to freedivers and
scuba divers alike.
While many freedivers are certified to scuba dive and many scuba divers are certified to freedive, there
are some significant differences between the two sports that everyone must understand to stay safe.
Breathing at Depth
The biggest difference between scuba diving and freediving is how the diver breaths. Freedivers take a
single breath at the surface and then hold that breath throughout their freedive. Boyle’s Law—
discussed in Section 1—explains that the volume of that breath will compress during the descent and
will expand during the ascent.
Since the freediver took their final breath at the surface, where the external pressure on their lungs was
at its lowest point of one bar, the air in their lungs will never expand beyond its initial volume.

183 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Breathing on scuba

Scuba is an acronym that stands for “self-contained underwater breathing

apparatus”. The acronym has become common enough that dictionaries no longer
capitalize the individual letters.

Scuba divers continue breathing during their dives by carrying a cylinder of compressed breathing gas.
This cylinder is usually pressurized to more than 200 times surface pressure with standard surface air, or
a gas mixture called nitrox that has more oxygen and less nitrogen.
As the scuba diver descends, the increasing hydrostatic pressure of the water column begins to reduce
the volume of their lungs. When they inhale, the high-pressure gas from the cylinder is reduced by a
regulator to a pressure that counteracts the hydrostatic pressure. During a typical dive, this dynamic
process keeps their lungs at about the same volume as at the surface as long as they breathe normally.
During their ascent, the hydrostatic pressure decreases and the gas in the scuba diver’s lungs expands.
If they continue to breathe normally, the expanding gas is exhaled into the water and their lungs stay at
a safe pressure. If they held their breath, the scuba diver would create a potentially dangerous
overexpansion risk.

The first rule that all new scuba divers learn is, “never hold your breath”.

Risk for freedivers

The overexpansion risk is why freedivers must never accept breathing gas from a scuba diver, and why a
scuba diver must never offer their breathing gas to a freediver. Breathing the compressed gas would
increase their lung volume beyond the volume of their final breath at the surface. This gas volume
would expand during their ascent, creating a dangerous risk of physical injury.
Since the greatest pressure change happens in the first ten meters, taking a full breath at a relatively
shallow depth—like two meters—and then holding it to the surface could hurt the freediver. It is
difficult to precisely control an exhalation, so even exhaling during the ascent would not guarantee the
freediver’s safety.
Nitrogen Accumulation

Nitrogen makes up almost 79% of the Earth’s atmosphere and is inert, which means
it is not used by the human body. The amount of nitrogen in our bodies is usually at
equilibrium with the nitrogen in the air around us.

New scuba divers learn about the effects of breathing compressed gas at depth when they complete
their Open Water Diver certification. This program explains that a scuba diver’s body tissues absorb
excess nitrogen with each breath that they inhale from their cylinder as they descend and spend time at
depth.

184 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 The absorbed nitrogen slowly leaves the scuba diver’s tissues as they ascend and is exhaled from the
lungs with each breath. This slow, gradual process—called “decompression”—continues after the diver
reaches the surface until the excess nitrogen is gone.
Recreational scuba divers limit their time at depth and how deep they go to keep their absorbed
nitrogen within safe limits. For those who want to go deeper and stay longer, SSI’s Extended Range
programs teach scuba divers to use specialized techniques and more exotic breathing gases.
Risks for scuba divers
Since nitrogen is an inert gas, it can be safely absorbed by the body’s tissues. Scuba divers follow no-
decompression limits that describe how long they can safely spend at a depth before returning directly
to the surface.
If the scuba diver accumulates too much nitrogen in their tissues, they may not have enough time
during their ascent to safely off-gas the unwanted nitrogen. The remaining nitrogen may expand until it
gets trapped in their tissues, creating a serious medical condition called decompression sickness or “the
bends”. This can also occur if the diver ascends too quickly and the nitrogen expands before it leaves the
tissues.
Staying within limits
To minimize the risk of decompression sickness, scuba divers only continue diving when the excess
nitrogen in their body decreases to a safe level. They follow guidelines that state how long to wait after
each dive before it is safe to dive again. They also wait at least eighteen hours before flying or driving to
a higher altitude, since the lower atmospheric pressure creates a potential safety risk.
Risk for freedivers
Freedivers also absorb nitrogen as they descend. Since they can only absorb nitrogen from their final
breath, decompression sickness is not a significant concern. A freediver could complete several
freedives and would quickly off-gas the absorbed nitrogen during their surface intervals.
Since freedivers do not absorb much nitrogen, they could safely complete a freediving session and then
a scuba dive after a short surface interval.
Freediving after scuba diving without allowing all of the excess nitrogen to off-gas is unsafe, and is not
recommended by any training agency. If the diver still has excess nitrogen in their tissues when they
freedive, they will compress and expand the gas, increasing the risk of decompression sickness.
Best Practices | Freediving and Scuba Diving
SSI recommends the following guidelines for freediving and scuba diving:
• Scuba diving after freediving | Schedule the freediving sessions for the morning, and the scuba
dives for the afternoon. Reduce the depth and duration of the scuba dives to increase the safety
margin.

• Freediving after a single scuba dive | Wait at least twelve hours, or until the wait-to-fly indicator no
longer appears on the dive computer.
• Freediving after multiple scuba dives or multiple days of scuba diving | wait at least eighteen hours
or until the wait-to-fly indicator no longer appears on the dive computer.

185 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.3 | Review
1. What is the biggest risk of breathing from a scuba cylinder during a freedive?
A. Deepwater blackout
B. Loss of motor control
C. Expanding gas volume can cause a lung injury
D. Decompression sickness
2. If your dive computer shows a wait-to-fly indicator you should _____ before freediving.
A. Wait twelve hours or until it no longer appears
B. Continue freediving since there are no restrictions
C. Wait at least eight hours
D. Wait at least six hours

3. Freedivers can only absorb _____ from their final breath and quickly off-gas it during their surface intervals.
A. Oxygen
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Nitrogen
D. Carbon monoxide

4. What can you do to safely combine freediving and scuba diving?

A. Reduce the depth and duration of the scuba dives to increase the safety margin
B. All answers are correct
C. After multiple scuba dives, wait at least eighteen hours or until the wait-to-fly indicator no longer appears on the dive computer
D. Schedule the freediving sessions for the morning and the scuba dives for the afternoon

186 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.4 | Duties of a Freediver

Image © Shutterstock-Zi Magine

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain the three guidelines for interacting with underwater life.

• List two reasons why an aquatic animal may act aggressively toward a diver.
• Describe three ways that a diver can avoid negative animal encounters.
• Describe the four parts of environmental stewardship and how they affect the underwater life.

187 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Interacting with Underwater Life

Image © Scubapro

Observing Wildlife
The underwater world has thousands of unique ecosystems that are filled with an incredible amount of
wildlife, from microscopic plankton to the blue whale, which is the largest animal that has ever existed
on Earth. Nearly everything that lives under water can be safely observed by divers, as long as they
observe some basic guidelines about interacting with nature.
Aquatic animals have lives that are similar to those of their land-based counterparts. They hunt, mate,
sleep, build homes, and raise their offspring in a complex interaction with other animals that is
sometimes called the “web of life”. Unlike land-based animals—with the exception of flying mammals
and birds—aquatic animals live in three dimensions, filling the water column with life from the deepest
oceanic trenches to the top few millimeters of the surface.

If you want to learn more about different types of aquatic animals, you should ask your instructor
and training center about the SSI Marine Ecology and animal identification programs.

Respecting Wildlife
Nature documentaries, zoo and aquariums, and digital cameras have made it easier than ever to
observe the daily lives of rare or exotic animals. It can be easy to forget that wildlife is just that—wild,
untamed, and undomesticated.

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Maintain a safe distance
Very few aquatic animals have developed a fear of humans, which means that divers can watch them
without disrupting their usual routines, as long as the diver maintains an appropriate distance.
Freedivers have the added benefit of breath-hold diving, so they do not produce noisy bubbles that can
frighten animals away.
Divers must remember that they are the visitors when they explore aquatic ecosystems. Humans are
not natural prey for anything that lives in the sea, so almost every animal-related diving injury is the
result of a diver’s negligence or ignorance.
Even gentle animals may instinctively respond with aggression if they feel threatened or trapped. Most
injuries caused by aquatic animals occur when a diver intentionally or accidentally touches an animal, or
if they get too close to the animal. The animal may bite the diver to protect itself from a perceived
threat, or the diver may injure themselves on the animal’s natural defenses, like sharp spines or
venomous stinging cells. All of these injuries can be prevented by keeping a safe distance from the
animal.
Interact with caution
Some animals, like dolphins, are incredibly curious. One of the greatest experiences a diver can have is
an up-close encounter with an underwater animal, especially large, playful mammals like dolphins and
sea lions. Even tiny cleaner shrimp and energetic wrasse may approach a diver to investigate.
Divers who are fortunate enough to experience this kind of interaction should remain still and calm,
allowing the animal to choose whether to interact or not. They should also avoid any rapid movements,
like arm waving or erratic kicking that might startle the animal.
If the diver is not comfortable with the animal’s behavior, they can calmly swim away, increasing the
distance between themselves and the animal and surfacing if necessary.

Talk to your instructor about potential marine aquatic encounters that you may
experience during your open water sessions.

Look but do not touch

Responsible divers never attempt to force an interaction with an animal, since chasing or trying to touch
an animal can cause the animal to react negatively. The animal will likely flee or hide, and may
accidentally injure the diver.
Divers are more likely to unintentionally hurt an animal than they are to be injured by one during their
dive. Some animals have a protective layer of mucus, or brittle spines or polyps that can be easily
damaged by a careless diver or uncontrolled equipment. Some ecosystems—like coral reefs—grow
very slowly and may take hundreds of years to recover from an accidental fin kick or misplaced hand.

189 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Potentially Harmful Species

Image © iStock

Very few aquatic species are a threat to responsible divers. Many animals that are considered dangerous
—like sharks—are considerably less of a threat than the media or popular culture make them out to be.
Accidental Bites
Carnivores are animals that consume other animals to survive. Many aquatic mammals, fishes, and
invertebrates are carnivorous. Others are omnivores, which means they also consume plant material as
part of their diet. Carnivorous or omnivorous animals will not seek out divers, since the animal does not
recognize divers as their normal prey.
Some species, like moray eels, octopuses, or triggerfish, hunt small fishes and crustaceans—like shrimp.
These animals will bite to defend themselves if they feel threatened. Some eels also have relatively
weak eyesight, which means they may mistake a diver’s fingers for their prey if the diver swims too close
or puts their hand inside the eel’s burrow.
Sharks
Sharks are opportunistic hunters, which means that they seek out sick, weak, or old animals. They also
use taste to identify things, so they may use an exploratory bite to determine if something is
appropriate to eat. Unfortunately for humans, a single exploratory bite can cause significant damage.
Most shark species will avoid close encounters with humans. Some of the larger species, like the great
white or tiger sharks, are too large to be threatened by humans. These shark species are usually
responsible for the few shark bites that are reported. Fortunately, their reputation as killers is greatly
overexaggerated, and thousands of divers report safe and exciting interactions with sharks every year.

190 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 Ask your instructor about the Shark Ecology program if you want to learn more about these
fascinating animals.

Venomous Species
Venomous hunters
Some aquatic species use venom as a hunting tool to quickly immobilize their prey. The sea snake is a
distant relative of land-based snakes like the cobra. They have the most potent venom of any snake
species, but are not aggressive. Most sea snakes bites occur when a human accidentally handles a sea
snake that gets entangled in a fishing net or line. They are not a significant threat to divers who maintain
their distance.
The blue-ringed octopus is one of the world’s most venomous animals. They live and hunt in tropical
coral reefs. They are shy and docile, and will generally avoid contact with humans. Bites are rare, and
only occur if the animal is threatened. This usually occurs when the octopus is handled and cannot flee.
Some invertebrates, like cone snails, prey on small, bottom-dwelling fish or marine worms. They use a
modified organ—similar to a tiny harpoon—to paralyze their prey. When handled, the cone snail may
“sting” the human in an attempt to defend itself.
Jellyfish use venomous stinging cells to hunt their prey. Even though they lack a spine, they can capture
small fishes and invertebrates as they drift through the water column. A few jellyfish species can cause
painful or lethal stings, but there are very few of these stings reported each year. Almost all jellyfish
species are non-lethal, and most lack the stinging strength to penetrate human skin or a wetsuit.
Defensive venom
Many venomous species use their venom as a defense mechanism to protect them from predators.
These animals are only a threat to divers who attempt to interact with or handle the animal.
Lionfish and stonefish are two species of fish that have venomous spines on their fins and back. These
fishes are ambush predators and will sit nearly motionless as they wait for their prey to swim by. Most
injuries caused by these animals are the result of touching or mishandling the fish without protective
gloves.
Fire corals are not true corals, but have a similar appearance. Fire coral has stinging cells that operate like
those of the jellyfish that are used defensively, not for hunting. The venom is nonlethal, but can be
painful for the diver who accidentally comes in contact with fire coral.

Remember, keeping a safe distance is the best way to avoid an unwanted animal encounter or
injury.

191 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Environmental Stewardship

Image © Shutterstock-seamind224

Proper Diving Practices

Much of the damage from divers and other ocean tourists is caused accidentally. Divers who get too
close to the bottom, or who are not comfortable with their kicking technique, can break corals or kick
up silt that clogs marine habitats.
Divers can help promote good environmental stewardship by following responsible diving practices
and by incorporating environmental considerations into their pre-session and post-session briefings.
Reviewing the Responsible Diver Code is a good way to highlight these practices in a formal setting.
Positive Actions and Good Habits
Keep dive sites clean by removing trash and debris from the beach and the underwater site, and
encourage other divers to do the same. Glass, or other objects that have been submerged long enough,
become part of the environment—providing habitat and shelter to marine animals—and should be left
undisturbed.
Lead by Example
Ensure that equipment is properly secured and in good working order. Divers should avoid getting
close to the bottom until they can float effortlessly at any depth without disturbing the environment.
Proper Training
Divers who understand the importance of the ocean, and how they impact the dive sites they visit, will
be more aware and careful when they travel and dive. They can take continuing education programs

192 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

 like the SSI Ecology specialty programs, or participate in other activities like beach cleanups or
recycling programs that help keep the ocean healthy and free of debris.

SSI has a free Blue Oceans program if you want to learn more about being a good environmental
steward.

Safety Guidelines
After you complete your SSI Freediver certification, you will have the knowledge and skills need to
freedive in environments similar to those in which you trained.
Keep this student workbook and your notes from your training as a reference guide. Periodically
reviewing the academic content and refreshing your skills as you continue your diving career will help
keep you and your buddy safe and comfortable.
SSI created a set of Responsible Diver Codes that describe guidelines that freedivers, scuba divers, and
extended range divers use to dive safely. Every student taking an SSI training program signs the
Responsible Diver Code before completing their training. The codes summarize many of the important
concepts that are taught in the academic portion of each training program.
The Freediving Responsible Diver Code is included in your MySSI account under ‘Documents’ so you can
review it at any point in your freediving adventure.
As you finish your training and become a certified diver, remember the following general safety
guidelines:
Stay within the limits
• Never dive alone—follow the buddy system and the “one up, one down” rule.
• Dive within the limits of the least-experienced diver.

• Stop diving for the rest of the day if a loss of motor control or a blackout occurs.
Use proper technique
• Never hyperventilate before a dive.
• Use proper skill technique to conserve energy.
• Regularly review and refresh skills—especially rescue skills—with a buddy.

• Always use proper breathe-up and recovery breathing techniques, and rest properly between
dives.
Use a slow, progressive approach

• Repeat performances before increasing target depths, times, and distances.

• Only increase personal targets in small increments.
Use appropriate equipment

• Only use enough weight to establish proper neutral buoyancy.

• Use properly fitted, high-quality equipment to maximize efficiency.

• Always use a lanyard for constant weight dives.

A freediver who dives responsibly and within the limits of their training and experience can go their
entire career without creating any safety risks.

193 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

Lesson 6.4 | Review
1. Which of the following helps divers safely interact with aquatic animals?
A. They should keep a safe distance and avoid touching animals
B. They should only pick up animals that do not have teeth
C. All answers are correct
D. They should let their instructor demonstrate which animals can be touched
2. An animal that feels _____ may act aggressively toward a diver.
A. Curious or territorial
B. Threatened or trapped
C. Hungry or excited
D. Protective or curious

3. Describe three ways that a diver can avoid negative animal encounters.
A. Touch gently, approach from behind, and move fast
B. Keep your distance, interact with caution, and don’t touch
C. Keep your distance, do not carry shiny objects, and be cautious
D. Do not touch, do not urinate, and do not feed

4. Divers promote good environmental stewardship by following _____ diving practices and by considering _____ when they create their dive
plans.
A. Aggressive, their buddy’s skill level
B. Technical, animal’s needs
C. Responsible, the environment
D. Careful, weather conditions
5. Keeping dive sites clean by removing trash and debris from the beach and the dive site demonstrates environmental stewardship through:
A. All answers are correct
B. Positive actions and good habits
C. Proper training
D. Proper diving practices

6. Using properly secured and good working order equipment is an example of:
A. Proper training
B. All answers are correct
C. Positive actions and good habits
D. Leading by example

7. SSI Ecology specialty programs can help you to:

A. Develop a better understanding of the aquatic world
B. All answers are correct
C. Learn more about underwater life
D. Discover new and exciting freediving opportunities

194 © SSI International GmbH, 2023

What Comes Next
Congratulations!
You have reached the end of your student
workbook. Look in the Menu bar to see if there are
any pages you may have missed or reviews you still
need to complete.

• Previously viewed pages have an icon of an

eye to the right of their title.

• You can also click the “Pages not seen” icon on

the left side of the menu bar to quickly identify
any unseen pages.
• Click the “Reviews not passed” icon to see any
reviews that you still need to complete.
You are ready for the next step in your training if
you have completed all of the required reading and
successfully passed the review questions at the end
of each lesson.
Contact your affiliated SSI Training Center to
begin the next phase in your adventure!

Image © Fotolia

195 © SSI International GmbH, 2023