Department of Education

REGION V
Division of Masbate
Southern Masbate Roosevelt College, Inc.
Katipunan, Placer, Masbate

COLLEGE of teacher education

SOES 118
PRODUCTION OF SOCIAL
STUDIES’ INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
-NOTES-
(BSED Social Studies III)

Quarter List of Topics

What is Teaching?
PRELIM
What is Instructional Material
Educational Models
Developing Instructional Design in Social Studies
MIDTERM
Selecting and Choosing Relevant Instructional Materials
Formulation of Lesson Plans
SEMI-FINAL
Practical Application of Production of Instructional Design
FINAL Practical Application of Production of Instructional Design

PREPARED BY:
ANGELO D. BARTOLAY

In case you have some questions regarding the modules or concerns about school-related matters, please
contact me through my FB account. Facebook account: Bartolay Angelo.
You can also reach me via g-mail: [email protected]
You can also consult to me on college faculty office.

WHAT IS TEACHING?
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 In much modern usage, the words ‘teaching’ and ‘teacher’ are wrapped up with schooling and schools.
One way of approaching the question ‘What is teaching?’ is to look at what those called ‘teachers’ do – and
then to draw out key qualities or activities that set them apart from others. The problem is that all sorts of
things are bundled together in job descriptions or roles that may have little to do with what we can sensibly
call teaching.
Teaching means:
 Impart knowledge to or instruct (someone) as to how to do something; or
 Cause (someone) to learn or understand something by example or experience.

Functions:
1. Diagnostic function: The initial task in changing or modifying the behavior of the students is to have
proper diagnose of existing situation. The teacher performs the following diagnostic functions:
 Diagnosing the entering behavior of the student in terms of cognitive, psychomotor and affective
abilities. After this, teacher presents the new knowledge to the pupils
 Formulating specific educational objectives, the type and quality behavioral changes to be introduced
in the students in the light of entering behavior and environmental conditions.
 Analysis of content, method and other facilities available for carrying out the task. It should be
decided whether that content is according to pupil’s capacity or not.
 Diagnosing his own personalities and capacities and bringing about desirable changes in his own
behavior for achieving success mission of modifying the behavior of the students.
2. Prescriptive function: Here the teacher is more active; he has to work for the meaningful interaction.
He makes the decision regarding the use of teaching methods, strategies and tactics and mutual
relationships between various keeping in view the individual differences of the pupils. Cooperation of
students is also important for carrying out the prescriptive function by the teacher.
3. Evaluative function: This function is concerned with the task of finding out the process and outcome of
teaching process. The criterion of evaluation is the achievement of the objectives. If the objectives are
achieved, the remedy by the teacher is correct. In case the results are contrary, necessary changes are
made in the teaching learning process to get the desired results.

Acts of Teaching:
Instructional strategies are the tools of effective practice. They are the deliberate acts of teaching that
focus learning in order to meet a particular purpose. Instructional strategies are effective only when they
impact positively on students’ learning. Teachers need to be able to use a range of deliberate acts of teaching
in flexible and integrated ways within literacy-learning activities to meet the diverse literacy learning needs
of our students. These deliberate acts include:
 Modelling. Modelling, or “showing how”, is perhaps the most powerful and pervasive form of
instruction. Almost everything the teacher does and says in the course of the school day provides a
potential model to the students in the classroom. Much of this modelling is implicit and occurs without
either teacher or students being conscious of it. Modelling often involves providing the language that the
learner needs. This may be language for encoding or decoding text, for making meaning, or for
discussing texts and thinking analytically about them.
 Prompting. Prompting means encouraging the learner to use what they already know and can do. It is an
effective strategy to focus students’ attention and to build their metacognitive awareness and their
confidence. In order to prompt effectively, the teacher needs a detailed knowledge of the learner.
Prompting may take the form of a strong hint, a clue, or a gentle “nudge” to help students use their
existing knowledge and literacy strategies to make connections and reach a solution.
 Questioning. Questioning is perhaps the instructional tool used most commonly by teachers. Strategic
and purposeful questioning is crucial to students’ literacy learning. Questions may be directed towards
building a particular aspect of students’ knowledge, such as a strategy for encoding or decoding. At a
metacognitive level, questions can help to build students’ awareness. Questioning can be an ideal way to
generate thoughtful discussion and help students to develop the habit of being critically reflective. One
or two well-thought out questions can be powerful in helping students to get beyond the surface features

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 of a text they are reading or writing. It is important that teachers ask a range of questions and know why
they are asking them.
Questions become effective teaching tools when:
o they are directed towards helping students to meet a learning goal
o they are centered on and draw out students’ knowledge
o there is adequate “wait time” for students to think through their responses
o students’ responses are valued and not transformed by evaluative comments that
o suggest the responses were inadequate
o appropriate follow-up questions are used to extend students’ thinking.
 Giving Feedback. Feedback is defined as “… providing information how and why the child understands
and misunderstands, and what directions the student must take to improve.” Like all the teaching
strategies, feedback is most effective when it relates to specific learning goals and to the ultimate goal of
enabling students to monitor and regulate their own learning. The purposes of feedback are:
o to affirm
o to inform
o to guide future learning.
Effective feedback motivates students to learn. The way that students feel about and perceive
themselves affects their expectations and consequently their performance. A simple comment can
have a major impact – positive or negative – on a student’s motivation.
Feedback may be thought of as either evaluative or descriptive. Evaluative feedback
involves making a judgment about what the learner is doing or has done and carries the idea of
approval or disapproval. Descriptive feedback means describing or explaining what has or has not
been achieved and why. It also involves giving information on how to learn further or what to do
next in order to succeed.
 Telling. At its simplest level, telling means supplying what the student needs, such as an unknown word
or a topic for a literacy-learning task. A strategic use of telling may involve providing the language
needed to participate in an activity.
 Explaining. Explaining can be thought of as an extension of telling. Teachers may explain the task
itself, or they may explain the content of a text or learning activity. Teachers also use explanations in the
context of classroom management (for example, when they explain what is involved in an activity such
as paired reading) so that all the students can participate confidently
 Directing. Directing is simply giving a specific instruction. Like all these instructional strategies, it is
used deliberately, for a purpose.

Teaching and Instruction:

Teaching is more complex in nature. When we talk about teaching, we are dealing with different
techniques, strategies, and approaches that will facilitate learning. Teachers have to come up with varied
instructional materials and must use the right strategies in teaching their lessons. Teaching is also a never-
ending process. By the time individuals start going to school to the time they graduate and start working,
they’re involved in the teaching-learning process. They don’t only learn from teachers but also from those
around them. This makes teaching both formal and informal. It is formal when it occurs inside the
classroom or informal when you learn things outside the portals of the school.

When we talk about instruction, it’s not as complex as teaching. Instruction is simply giving direction.
You instruct someone on what to do and how to do it. In school you’re given instructions by your teachers
on how to answer a test or how to perform an experiment. After which, you’re simply left to do your work
on your own. Instruction makes learners dependent on the teacher. You’re told what to do and oftentimes,
there are steps you need to follow. Instructions must be understood and followed strictly in order to
accomplish a particular task. Once you fail to do so, you won’t be able to finish the task correctly.

Strictly speaking, teaching and instruction are mutually exclusive. However, teaching and instruction go
together especially in education. Both are needed in helping people learn and develop as individuals.

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 Teaching Instruction
Teaching works for overall development. Instruction works for skill development.
Teaching arouses critical thinking. Instruction arouses functional thinking.
Instruction aims for producing carbon copy or
Teaching produces new product.
photocopy.
Teaching is explaining how something is done. Instruction is telling how something is done.
When you teach someone, you may transmit almost When you instruct someone, you’re giving him a
anything: concepts, ideas, theories or, say, history. set of tools or tasks to do something specific.
A teacher strews ideas to be subverted. An instructor lays down rules to be obeyed.
Teaching provokes. Instructions prescribes.
Teaching is liberation. Instruction is regimentation.

Instructional Design
Instructional design (ID), also known as instructional systems design (ISD), is the practice of
systematically designing, developing and delivering instructional materials and experiences, both digital and
physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring
acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner,
defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome
of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and
assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five
phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Robert M. Gagné is considered one
of the founders of ISD due to the great influence his work, The Conditions of Learning, has had on the
discipline.

Instructional Methods:
In general, the use of instructional methods also depends on your overall aim and how you want people
to learn. Hence, each instructional method is suitable for a particular learning style. There is also a specific
teaching style associated with each instructional method. Learning can be categorized into the following
main styles:
 Knowledge-Based. The main focus of this is to transfer knowledge to the audience. As a result, the
session is usually fact-based and information-rich. The most representative example for this style is
giving a lecture.
 Skill-Based. In contrast, the main focus of this is the transfer of specific skills. As a result, it is not
enough just to explain the topics. The person who wants to learn the new skills must give them a try to
gain hands-on experience. This leads to participatory training

Teaching can be categorized into the following styles:

 Formal. In a formal setup you have total authority over the session. It is common for you to do most of
the talking in formal sessions.
 Facilitator. Your role is to facilitate the training session. You don’t necessarily do most of the talking;
instead the focus is to help participants explore a particular domain on their own.
 Demonstrator. You can demonstrate a particular function. This is usually based on a carefully planned
setup that helps to educate the observer in understanding how something works.
 Delegator. As a delegator, your role is to assign people a specific task. You will brief them on what
they need to do and respond to their enquiries in relation with the task at hand.
 Mentor. As a mentor, your role is to be a wise and trusted teacher, master and supporter. Your main aim
is to set the environment in which the mentored learns under your guidance.

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 The term teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies used
for classroom instruction. Your choice of teaching method depends on what fits you — your educational
philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission statement.
 Teacher-centered approach. Taken to its most extreme interpretation, teachers are the main authority
figure in a teacher-centered instruction model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” who passively
receive knowledge from their teachers through lectures and direct instruction, with an end goal of
positive results from testing and assessment. In this style, teaching and assessment are viewed as two
separate entities; student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.
 Student-centered approach. While teachers are still an authority figure in a student-centered teaching
model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary
role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material, and to measure
student learning through both formal and informal forms of assessment, like group projects, student
portfolios, and class participation. In the student-centered classroom, teaching and assessment are
connected because student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.

Instructional Media:
In general, instructional media are seen by educators as aids rather than substitutions for the teacher.
Teachers spend a disproportionate amount of their time in routine chores—in collecting and assigning books
and materials and in marking, or grading—that could be partly obviated if aids could be so constructed as to
free them to concentrate on the central job of promoting understanding, intellectual curiosity, and creative
activity in the learner.

Speaking-listening media:
With in-person lectures and with audiovisual recordings, teachers are able to set out their material as
they think best, but usually the audience reception is weakly passive since there is not much opportunity for
a two-way communication of ideas. Furthermore, in lectures, much of the students’ energies may be taken
up with note writing, which inhibits thinking about the material. Recordings enable one to store lecture
material and to use it on occasions when a teacher is not available, but they are rather detached for young
learners and seem to evoke better results with older students.

Visual and observational media:

Useful visual materials include physical or electronically presented objects and models, diagrams, charts,
graphs, cartoons, posters, maps, globes, and pictures, as well as videos and films. Facilities include
electronic whiteboards, traditional blackboards, bulletin boards, display cases, and museums. Such activities
as field trips and the use of visiting authorities (usually called resource people) are considered part of visual
and observational programs, and even demonstrations, dramatizations, experiments, and creative activities
are usually included. In general, pictures and diagrams, fieldwork, and contrived experiments and
observations are all used as concrete leads to the generalizing, abstracting, and explaining that constitutes
human learning. To fulfill that function, however, their use must be accompanied by interpretation by an
adult mind.

The teacher must offer careful elaboration and discussion, for children’s and adolescents’ powers to
interpret and infer often go astray and thus must be carefully guided. Visual material by itself may even be a
hindrance; a scattering of pretty pictures through a history text, for example, does not necessarily produce a
better understanding of history. Similar difficulties are inherent in fieldwork—geographical, biological,
archaeological, and geological. What is observed rarely gives the whole story and, in the case of
archaeological and geological fieldwork, provides an incomplete picture of the past. Teachers must fill in the
gaps or somehow lead their students to do so.

Reading and writing media:

Reading and writing have formed the staple of traditional education. Both assume sophisticated language
attainments and the capacity to think formally and respond to another mind, for a textbook is essentially a
mode of communication between a remote teacher and a reader. The material in a textbook is a sample of a
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subject area, simplified to a level suitable for the reader. Because the sampling in both the text and the
exercise might be haphazard, and there can be no feedback to the writer, the teacher has to take on the
writer’s responsibilities.

Computer-based instruction:
Computers have great usefulness in the classroom. They can give instruction to students, call for
responses, feedback the results, and modify students’ further learning accordingly. Computers can also be
used to measure each student’s attainments, compare them with past performances, and then advise teachers
on what parts of the curriculum they should follow next.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL?

Instructional materials, also known as teaching/learning materials (TLM) are any collection of
materials including animate and inanimate objects and human and non-human resources that a teacher may
use in teaching and learning situations to help achieve desired learning objectives. Instructional materials
may aid the students in concretizing a learning experience so as to make learning more exciting, interesting
and interactive. They are tools used in instructional activities, which include active learning and assessment.
The term encompasses all the materials and physical means an instructor might use to implement instruction
and facilitate student’s achievement of instructional objectives. Instructional materials can be classified by
type, including print, visual, audiovisual among others:
 Print – textbooks, pamphlets, handouts, study guides, manuals.
 Audio – cassettes, microphone, podcast
 Visual – charts, real objects, photographs, transparencies
 Audiovisual – slides, tapes, films, filmstrips, television, video, multimedia.
 Electronic interactive – computers, graphing calculators, tablets.

Role of Instruction Materials: According to Cunningsworth

 Resource for presentation materials (spoken or written);
 A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction;
 A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation;
 A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities;
 A syllabus, and;
 A support for less experienced teachers.

Basic Principles of Material’s Development: In selecting instructional materials, we should consider the following
principles:
 Instructional materials should support the educational philosophy, goals and objectives of the school
and the objectives of the curriculum in which the materials will be used.
 Instructional materials should be appropriate for the age, emotional and social development, and ability
of the students for whom the materials are selected.
 Instructional materials should be diverse with respect to levels of difficulty, reader appeal and should
present a variety of points of view.
 Instructional materials should meet high standards of quality in factual content and presentation.
 Instructional materials should have aesthetic, cultural, literary or social value.
 Instructional materials should foster respect for men, women, the disabled, and minority groups and
should portray a variety of roles and lifestyles open to people in today’s world.
 Instructional materials should be designed to motivate students to examine their own attitudes and
behaviors and to comprehend their own duties, responsibilities, rights and privileges as participating
citizens in a pluralistic society.
 Instructional materials should encourage students to utilize higher order thinking skills and to become
informed decision-makers, to exercise freedom of thought and to make independent judgments through
examination and evaluation of relevant information, evidence and differing viewpoints.

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 Instructional materials should be selected taking into account instructional materials already available
in the locality in order to replace materials worn, obsolete and no longer appropriate.

Uses and Importance of Instructional Materials:

 Make lessons interesting.
 Make learning easy.
 Help learning (i.e., what have been learnt) to remain in the minds of the learners for a longer time.
 Help the facilitator to deliver his/her lesson successfully and easily.
 Enable the facilitator to express intended concepts of learning effectively.
 Ensuring things and ideas are usually familiar to the students.

Benefits of Instructional Materials: (According to Onyejemezi, Cohen et.al,)

 Enhance the learning ability of the students.
 Acquire meaningful experiences and ideas
 The lesson and topic can give clearer understanding.
 The lessons become interesting.
 Can improve quality of learning and teacher.
 Helps determine the weakness and strengths of the learner.
 Good learning outcomes.
 Teachers can incorporate various learning experiences through creating a structure of lesson.

Factors Affecting Materials Preparation:

1. Understanding the operational functionality. Since educational communication and technology is a
fairly new area of importance in education, it is lightly technical field and to understand how it can affect
the instructional delivery, one first has to understand the operational functionality of the resource ideas.
2. Teacher’s Knowledge. This has a great impact on the effective application of teaching aids or
instructional materials, this is because the teacher needs to understand the sequential presentation of the
instructional gadgets so as to suit the interests of the learners and its appropriateness with the
instructional tasks.
3. Student’s Population. Part of the application of the teaching aids or instructional material process is the
target population for whom the materials are to be used and the setting or vicinity where the learning
should take place.
4. Time. It is also a serious problem or factor that delay the effective use of instructional materials
ineffective instructional delivery in the class, because in most cases, time that is allotted for a subject on
the timetable might not be enough for the teachers to present his contents alongside with effective use of
the materials which will affect the wholesome delivery of the content.
5. Lack of supply or materials. This factor seems to be the handicap why most educational institutions are
unable to acquire relevant teaching equipment and materials.
6. Lack of funds. There are sophisticated teaching aids or instructional materials that can make learning
easier and faster such as computer-aided program but lack of funds has effects on its importation and use
in schools.
7. Poor handling of materials. Materials available for the effective instructional delivery are poorly
manhandled by both the teacher and some school authority.
8. Non-availability of resource room. Schools are affected by non-availability of resource room for the
proper keeping of both locally manufactured and the commercially purchased teaching aids thereby
limiting its use as the time needed.
9. Sufficiency of printed and audio-visual materials. Another pressed issue about teaching aids or
instructional materials for use is that the materials are grossly lacking in schools.
10. Poor condition. The few institutions indicated the availability of these materials but were rather in poor
condition.
11. Understanding. It requires matching the materials to the learner’s abilities and prior knowledge.
12. Structuring or clarifying. It involves the materials so that it is clear to the students.
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13. Elaborating. It ensures that students learn better through a variety of ways.

SELECTING AND CHOOSING RELEVANT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Too often social studies lessons have been described as boring, uninteresting and unchallenging. This
negative and uninspiring state can be turned around through the identification, collection, preparation and
utilization of instructional materials and resources

Present day social studies teachers are encouraged and in fact required to use modern teaching aids to
teach social studies in order to make classroom more lively, understandable and comprehensively to all
learners. Social Studies has been conceptualized and taught in a variety of ways.

Social studies instructional materials and resources in critical perception seems to portray those
educationally relevant and irrelevant human, non-human materials, places and events and experiences that
the learner is exposed to teaching- learning situation and interaction with the larger society. For instance, the
use of field trips or visitation of historical sites may expose the learner to acquisition of unintended behavior.
Also, the mixture of complex social attitude and conflicting values in the modern society, calls for teachers
use of value clarification in the application of social studies instructional material and resources. The proper
use of instructional resources, requires teacher appropriate guide of instruction. Opined that professionally
trained social studies teachers with professionally exposure and orientation in the demands of social studies
instructions in the demands of social studies instructional materials usage and development are instructive in
the effective implementation of socials studies curriculum.

Categories of Instructional Materials

The following categories of instructional material and resources by Ofoegbu (2009) are:
1. Resources/Materials, which offer content: for example, charts, graphs, audio recordings, tools and
implements, print materials of all kinds, globes, maps, painting, and resources in the community.
2. Resources/Materials for presenting content such as audio and video recorders, bulletin boards, flannel
board, slide projectors, computers, television. Another grouping of instructional materials by Ofoegbu
(2009) includes:
a. Human resources: which consist of individuals who provide various services in the teaching and
learning process. They include: professionals and non-professionals.
b. Non-human resources: which include physical facilities and instructional materials, which serve as
tools and devices through which stimuli can be passed or obtained.
3. Projected and electronic media sub-divided into software and hardware. This group of materials
requires the use of electronic devices.
4. Software materials consist of audiotapes, video tapes, transparencies, slides, filmstrips. Hardware
materials are: audio tape recorders, video tape recorders, Slide projector, film projector, overhead
projector etc.

Social Studies’ Teaching Resource in the 21st Century:

Some instructional resources are best suitable and effective for school children base on their age and
stage developmental. They are often curious and want to use their (primary stage) sense of touch, vision and
smell. Thus, materials such as pictures, charts, tools, drawings, maps, physical features, models, posters and
so on, will be very appropriate to transmit instruction to them. At the secondary school level, use of printed
materials such as newspapers, textbooks, photographs, audio-visual materials, globe, and many others will
be appropriate for their age, content for learning and the objectives of teaching the content. Thus, the
following are the break-down of instructional materials to be used in teaching of social studies in schools:

Internet. With the recent development of our country and the world at large, the internet is one of the
best, fastest and up-to-date source of conveying information be it in a real-life picture form or in text
(written) form. Social studies teachers can make use of the internet to search for the most recent information
from all over the world and even make students search for information themselves from the internet when
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available at their schools. This will help enrich the teacher’s knowledge as well as the students’ knowledge
of the most recent changes and activities of not only their environments and country but also the world at
large.

Textbooks. Textbooks are reading materials that are basic material for the social-studies class. The
textbook is in such a way that it organizes the subject matter in a meaningful and logical way. It provides the
starting point of learning. It develops the skill of identifying needed information on a variety of issues,
persons and processes. It also stimulates thinking and interest of pupils.

Graphics or two-dimensional materials. Charts are used graphically to illustrate various steps in the
introduction process. Chart such as flip charts, strip charts, time and sequence charts etc. and graphs such as
pictorial graphs, simple bar graphs, maps, atlases, cartoons, comics, posters billboards are all two
dimensional materials in which they represent information in order to give out a vivid visual impression of
the information been conveyed to the learner and to simplify complex ideas and concepts. These materials
are ideal for school students considering their age, development abilities and capabilities.
Improvised Materials. The National Teachers Institute (2006), defined improvisation as the making of
substitute from local materials when the real or original equipment is not available. In other words,
improvisation is the act of designing and producing instructional materials from locally available resources
by the teacher and utilizing such materials to facilitate effective instruction in the classroom. Improvised
materials might include motivation models of an airplane, wall clock, or bird using cardboard sheets, sticks,
carton etc. Improvised teaching materials facilitate teaching and learning activities in social studies class. It
helps to make the lesson real to the students; it creates opportunity for the students to participate in the
provision of teaching materials and help develop their skills of creativity and manipulation.

Maps and charts. Charts are visual aids that can be seen but not heard. Maps are made to represent and
present different data according to the needs of prospective users. World map, which is designed to provide
opportunity for a number of students to study geographical locations and data. Atlas outline maps that
teachers can reproduce by duplicating or tracing it.

Library. Library is a good source of getting information of every kind. A library is normally a building
or a room containing a collection of books and periodicals for use by the public or the members of an
institution. (Concise Oxford English Dictionary) A social studies teacher can make the best out of the library
by perhaps organizing study trips to the library to mobilize learners to assist in the collection of some
materials and participate in making the materials that can be kept at the library for use.

Community resources. Community resources are those persons, places and institutions which desirable
enrich social studies teaching and learning, deepen the social studies content and widen the horizon of
learners. The community has both human and non-human resources. The human resources are persons with
vast knowledge and skills, which can be utilized to enrich the classroom learning experiences. Professionals
and non-professionals like Doctors, lawyers, professors, Non-human resources include places such as
government agencies, physical features, transportation facilities, and historical sites etc.

Utilization of Some Common Instructional Materials:

According to Ololobou, (2010) social studies teachers need to exhibit skill and understanding in the use
of some instructional materials for maximum results.

Print Materials: These are also referred to as reading materials. In the class, they can be used to
provoke general class discussions or raise issues for in depth class analysis. The class textbook is a basic
material for the social studies class. However, the nature of social studies requires broad and current
knowledge. Therefore, the teacher needs to expose the learners to other print materials such as encyclopedia,
new magazines, pamphlets, poems, supplementary readers. In using them, teacher should not turn the class
into a reading session even though developing reading skills is important. These materials should be used to:
o Provide organized subject matter for learners to study.

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 o Develop the skill of identifying needed information on a variety of issues person and processes.
o Solve identified group problems to suggest rational solutions.
o Stimulate thinking and interest

The following recommendations are very important for all social studies teachers to effectively transmit
social studies in the 21st century:
1. The use of most of these resources especially the electrically operated materials requires skills to
operate and maintain the equipment. Mass training of social studies teachers in this area will be quite
beneficial.
2. There is the need for governments at all levels to set-aside certain percentage of their annual spending
on education for the procurement and maintenance of instructional materials.
3. School authorities should encourage social studies teachers with adequate financial and moral support
to improvise instructional materials using available local resources.
4. Adequate time should be allocated to social studies teachers to enable them effectively utilize arrays
of community resources available to promote effective teaching and learning in the 21st century.

END OF PRELIM DISCUSSION

EDUCATIONAL MODELS
The educational model conceptualizes child development as a process that results from children
learning the skills and behaviors that characterize higher levels of developmental functioning. As a result,
the educational model conceptualizes early intervention as a process that primarily involves adults
systematically teaching children the developmental skills and concepts that characterize advanced levels of
functioning. From this perspective, the role of the adult (i.e., teacher, therapist, and parent) is to (1) identify
the specific skills and competencies that children need in order to attain desired outcomes and (2) directly
teach these skills and behaviors to children through the use of didactic strategies such as such as modeling,
shaping, prompting, and extrinsic reinforcement. While there is considerable variability in the way adults
carry out didactic instruction in interventions based upon the educational model, particularly in terms of
whether it occurs in isolated instructional settings or as part of children's daily routines, or in the context of
child-initiated versus adult-selected activities, still the fundamental mechanism of learning and
developmental change is one in which the adult plays a direct role in teaching targeted skills and behaviors
to children.

MODELS FOR FACILITATING PUPIL LEARNING

Learning Goals:
Learning goals are the intended purposes and desired achievements of a particular course, which
generally identify the knowledge, skills, and capacities a student in that class should achieve. Why set
learning goals?
• In a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses about teaching and learning, educational researcher John Hattie
(2011, p. 130) concludes that "having clear intentions and success criteria (goals)" is one of the key
strategies that "works best" in improving student achievement in higher education.
• Being transparent about how and why students are learning in particular ways has been found to
increase students' confidence, sense of belonging, and retention -- with key benefits for first-generation,
low-income and underrepresented students (Winkelmes, Bernacki, Butler, Zochowski, Golanics and
Weavil, 2016).

Bloom’s Taxonomy:
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for their
students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational
psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the
following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons, and
assessments of your course:
1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.
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2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and
to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based
on criteria and standards through
checking and critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together
to form a coherent or functional
whole; reorganizing elements into a
new pattern or structure through
generating, planning, or producing.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom’s is

hierarchical, meaning that learning at the
higher levels is dependent on having
attained prerequisite knowledge and skills
at lower levels.

How Bloom’s works with learning objectives? Fortunately, there are “verb tables” to help identify which
action verbs align with each level in Bloom’s Taxonomy. Some of these verbs on the table are associated
with multiple Bloom’s Taxonomy levels. These “multilevel-verbs” are actions that could apply to different
activities. For example, you could have an objective that states “At the end of this lesson, students will be
able to explain the difference between colonialism and imperialism.” This would be an understanding level
objective. However, if you wanted the students to be able to “…explain the shift in the course of
colonization throughout various European colony.” This would be an analyzing level verb.

Learning Activities:
When planning learning activities, one should consider the types of activities that students will need to
engage in, and to demonstrate the intended learning outcome/s. The activities should provide experiences
that will enable students to engage, practice and gain feedback on specific outcome/s. Also, how much time
the activities would take. Identify strategies to check on understanding, and build in time for explanation,
discussion or to reflect on learning.
Some questions to think about when designing the learning activities:
• What would motivate your students to do these activities?
• What do students need to hear, read, or see to understand the topic?
• How can I engage students in the topic?
• What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students explore the
topic?
• What will students need to do to practice and demonstrate knowledge of the topic?

Diana Laurillard (2012) classified learning activities into six types: acquisition, inquiry discussion,
practice, collaboration and production.
Learning through acquisition is where students explore ideas provided by their
teachers. For example:
Acquisition • listening to a lecture or podcast
• reading from books or websites, or
• watching demos or videos.
Inquiry Student learning through investigation explore, compare, and critique texts,
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 documents, and resources they find that reflect the concepts and ideas being taught.
Inquiry can include visiting spaces, online research, data analysis, comparing and
contrasting texts.
Learning through discussion requires the learner to articulate their ideas and questions
and respond to the ideas and questions from their teachers and/or from their peers.
Discussion
Discussion can include: in-class discussions, group discussions, online asynchronous
forums, polling, think-pair-share activities.
Learning through practice requires learners to respond to tasks set by teachers and
adapt their actions to the task goal, and use the feedback provided to improve their
next action.
Practice
Depending on the context students can engage with feedback from self-reflection,
peers, teachers, or from the activity itself. Practice can include: problem sets, quizzes,
role-plays, and games.
Students work together to understand and respond to a problem as a group.
Collaboration is about the process of working together. Students negotiate their ideas
and practice. Collaborative learning is most effective when students challenge each
Collaboration
other and provide peer feedback to develop the best output they can. Collaboration
can include: small group work, project work, collaborative problem solving, jig-saw
grouping.
Learning through production is when students must produce an output set by the
teacher. Production motivates the learner not through the response from the teacher
Production but in the production of a public output. Production can include: blogging, developing
models or artefacts, video or audio performance, e-portfolios, concept mapping and
writing.

MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH SUBJECT MATTER/DISCIPLINE

Lecture:
A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular
subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information,
history, background, theories, and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's sermon, or even a business
person’s sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of
the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content.

“Lecturing is not simply a matter of standing in front of a class and reciting what you know. The
classroom lecture is a special form of communication in which voice, gesture, movement, facial expression,
and eye contact can either complement or detract from the content. No matter what your topic, your delivery
and manner of speaking immeasurably influence your students’ attentiveness and learning.”

In lecture, a teacher must consider the following:

1. Visual Message – The slides and other visual aids you use can either complement or confuse your
verbal message, depending on how you design them. Consider how photos and other images might
function as metaphors that make your points more memorable.
2. Physical Presence – While some instructors are naturally gifted public speakers, we can all be more
aware of and leverage our physical presence to better communicate to our audiences.
3. Verbal Message – Whether you prepare typed lecture notes or just improvise in the classroom, the
words you say are an integral part of your lecture.
4. Students’ Notes – Students can often spend more mental energy taking notes during class than thinking
about your content. Consider ways you can make it easier for your students to take notes so they can
focus more on engaging with your material.
5. What Students Think – In the classic book Classroom Assessment Techniques, “teaching without
learning is just talking.” How can you help your students mentally grapple with your material during
class?

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6. What Students Say & Do – Keep in mind that even in a so-called lecture class, you don’t have to
lecture the whole time. Consider small-group and whole-class activities that might enhance your students
learning.

Purpose of Lecture include:

1. To provide structural knowledge 3. To arouse student’s interest in a subject.
2. To motivate and guide in hunting 4. To clarify difficult concepts
knowledge

Discussion-Questioning Method:
A discussion-questioning method is a framework for creating prompts that encourage inquiry,
challenge students to think bigger and connect the classroom to real world ideas and events. In this
framework, thought-provoking questions is equal to better discussion like:
 Moral or Ethical dilemmas – provide students with a problem or situation and ask them to explore one
or more of the moral and ethical concerns.
 Assess  Diagnose  Act
Assessment – What is the issue or problem at hand?
Diagnosis – What is the root cause of this issue or problem?
Action – How can we solve this issue?
 Compare and Contrast – ask your students to make connections and identify differences between ideas
that can be found in class texts, articles, images, videos, and more, etc.
 Interpretative  Evaluative – Begin with questions about the intentions or goals of the author, creator,
character, etc. Then ask students to evaluate the veracity of these intentions and finally effectiveness of
the methods used.
 Conceptual Changes – Introduce students with new concept or idea, then ask them to search online to
find a common misconception about this topic and explain it in their response.
 Personal exploration – Let students explore a new idea on their own terms. Exploring what it means to
them as individuals. This creative freedom helps them find their authentic voice.

Viewing-Listening Method:
Communication means interaction and therefore both production and comprehension. Oral
comprehension (listening and viewing) is very important for effective communication and often regarded as
a very challenging skill. Listening (and viewing) is a key step in communication. There are five essential
viewing-listening skills:
1. Predicting Content. Predicting is an important reading strategy. It allows the students to use
information to the text, such as titles, headings, pictures, and diagrams to anticipate what will happen in
the story.
2. Listening for Gist. It is when the learner tries to understand what is happening, even he or she can’t
understand every phrase or sentence. The learner is trying to pick up key words, intonation, and other
clues so as to make a guess at a meaning.
3. Detecting signposts. Just like the traffic lights on the road, there are signposts in language that help us
what we’re listening to. These words, which link ideas, helps us to understand what the speaker is
talking about and where they are taking us.
4. Listening for details. Students listen for groups of words and phrases at sentence level. Listening for
specific information – Students listen for particular information at word level.
5. Inferring meaning. when you infer, you listen closely to someone and guess at things they mean but
haven’t actually said.

Inquiry Method:
Inquiry method of teaching is a student-centered method of education focusing on asking questions. It
focuses on student’s investigation and learning. There are four steps of Inquiry-based learning:
1. Students develop questions that they are hungry to answer.
2. Research the topic using time in class.
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 3. Have students presents what they have learned.
4. Ask students to reflect on what worked about the process and what didn’t.

MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC COMPETENCIES

Instructional System Design (ISD):
Instructional design, also known as instructional system design (ISD), is the creation of learning
experiences and materials in a manner that results in the acquisition and application of knowledge and skills.
The discipline follows a system of assessing needs, designing a process, developing materials and evaluating
their effectiveness. An instructional designer applies this systematic methodology (rooted in instructional
theories and models) to design and develop content, experiences, and other solutions to support the
acquisition of new knowledge or skills. Instructional designers ought to begin by conducting a needs
assessment to determine the needs of the learning event, including: what the learner should know and be
able to do as a result of the training or learning solution, and what the learners already know and can do.

The most common instructional system design model is the ADDIE Model. The ADDIE model or some
derivative of it provides designers with the necessary structure for designing any curriculum, regardless of
the instructional design methods employed. Anything from lecture to Web-based training starts from the
same fundamentals—the ADDIE model, which was created by Florida State University for the military in
the 1970s. In the ADDIE model, the analysis phase is the input for the system; design, development, and
evaluation are the process; and the implementation phase is the output. These elements overlap somewhat,
depending on the project, and because the system is dynamic, there will be some sharing of duties. ADDIE
model stands for:
 Analysis. It is the data-gathering element of instructional design. Here instructional designers assemble
all the information they can possibly gather about the project before they consider anything else.
Decisions about every aspect of the project must eventually be made. The information that instructional
designers gather at this stage will be put to use throughout the system, so it is necessary that they have
every scrap of data to ensure the design will be successful.
 Design. The design phase is the blueprinting stage of instructional systems during which instructional
designers create the blueprint for a project with all the specifications necessary to complete the project.
During this stage, instructional designers write the objectives, construct course content, and complete the
design plan.
 Development. Materials production and pilot testing are the hallmarks of the development phase. At this
stage, most non-designers begin to see progress. Everything from lecture notes to virtual reality is
brought from design to deliverable. Before instructional designers move from development to
implementation, it is wise for them to do pilot testing to ensure that deliverables do not have to be
redeveloped.
 Implementation. The most familiar of the elements is implementation. At implementation, the design
plan meets the learner, and the content is delivered. The evaluation process that most designers and
learners are familiar with takes place in this element. Evaluation is used to gauge the degree to which
learners meet objectives and facilitators or technologies deliver the project.
 Evaluation. The evaluation phase doesn’t deserve to be listed last in the ADDIE model because it takes
place in every element and surrounds the instructional design process. Evaluation is a constant guard at
the gate of failure. The advantages of using an instructional system are numerous, the most important
being the ability to design projects quickly and efficiently. Nothing is left to chance or ignored when a
designer stays within the framework of the ADDIE or other instructional design models. One possible
disadvantage is the necessity of a designer to be familiar with the ISD process.

Programmed Instruction:
Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matter to students through a graded
sequence of controlled steps with corresponding activities. Students work through the programmed material
at their own speed independently and assess their own comprehension after each step through exam

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questions or filling in a diagram. This method consists of a network of tests and statements which direct the
student accordingly depending on their pattern of errors.

There are two main systems of programmed instruction. One was by Norman Crowder, a psychologist
with the U.S. Air Force. He had been asked to investigate the training of aircraft maintenance men.
Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the
alternatives. Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover
mistakes which students were likely to make. Crowder's system, which he called "intrinsic programming",
was better known as "branching programming" on account of its multiple-choice alternatives.

Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the behaviorist B.F.
Skinner. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods His scheme of
programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of reinforcement" in typical
behaviorist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example
of his ideas in action.

Drill and Practice:

The term drill and practice are defined as a method of instruction characterized by systematic repetition
of concepts, examples, and practice problems. Drill and practice are a disciplined and repetitious exercise,
used as a mean of teaching and perfecting a skill or procedure. As an instructional strategy, it promotes the
acquisition of knowledge or skill through systematic training by multiple repetitions, rehearse, practice, and
engages in a rehearsal in order to learn or become proficient. Similar to memorization, drill and practice
involves repetition of specific skills, such as spelling or multiplication. To develop or maintain one’s
specific skills, the subskills built through drill and practice should become the building blocks for more
meaningful learning.

MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH HUMAN TRAITS AND PROCESSES

Role Playing/Dramatization:
Role-play is a technique that allows students to explore realistic situations by interacting with other
people in a managed way in order to develop experience and trial different strategies in a supported
environment. Depending on the intention of the activity, participants might be playing a role similar to their
own (or their likely one in the future) or could play the opposite part of the conversation or interaction. Both
options provide the possibility of significant learning, with the former allowing experience to be gained and
the latter encouraging the student to develop an understanding of the situation from the ‘opposite’ point of
view. On the other hand, dramatization is a method of teaching which involves non-verbal communication,
and is centered on activities that will arouse the interest of the learners.

Simulation:
Simulated teaching (simulation) is the technique of learning and training, which develops the ability in
an individual regarding problem solving behavior. It has been defined as a role playing strongly in which
learner performs the role in an artificially created environment. The word ‘Simulated’ means to imitate
exactly. Interest is aroused in the pupils through ‘Role Playing’ while teaching. This skill is used by teachers
and pupils in the classroom by playing some role without any preliminary training i.e. extempore or without
any rehearsal. So, it can be safely concluded that simulation is a form of Role playing wherein pupil-
teachers display this skill spontaneously.

Simulation in teaching has recently entered the field of education. It is used at different levels of
instruction. The teacher is trained practically and also imparted theoretical learning. The pupil teacher needs
to be trained in simulated situations before sending him to the school for teaching practice. He has to play
the role of teaching in artificially created environment. After that he should be sent to the school. In this way
the teacher will be able to teach in an excellent manner. Simulated play is an area in which specific
communication skill is developed or educational process is carried on in artificially created situations.

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Simulation skill which is a form of role playing is used in the subject of history science and literature.
Imitation is done or some role in play with the help of various teachers.

MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH SOCIAL FUNCTIONS

Community Activities:
Community-based learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community
engagement with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience with a greater emphasis on
reciprocal learning and reflection.

“Community-Based Learning (CBL) is a pedagogical approach that is based on the premise that the most
profound learning often comes from experience that is supported by guidance, context-providing,
foundational knowledge, and intellectual analysis. The opportunity for students to bring thoughtful
knowledge and ideas based on personal observation and social interaction to a course’s themes and scholarly
arguments brings depth to the learning experience for individuals and to the content of the course. The
communities of which we are a part can benefit from the resources of our faculty and students, while the
courses can be educationally transformative in powerful ways.”

Group Investigations:
Group Investigation is a cooperative learning method to integrate interaction and communication in the
classroom with the process of academic inquiry. The students are taught to work together with their friends.
They work together to achieve the goal or the success which has always been desired by them. This structure
is complex but students are involved in multifaceted learning tasks that demand greater autonomy and group
self-direction. There are 6 main stages:

STAGE 1: GROUPING
1. Present topic and use several key questions to define the scope of inquiry. Students may scan a variety of
resources to activate their prior learning and stimulate inquiry.
2. Clarify the topic: Develop a list of questions that the students would like to investigate. You may guide
this or have the entire class brainstorm together.
3. Classify questions to create sub-topics.
4. Form investigation groups: Students select subtopics of interest and form cooperative groups. Ensure
that the groups have a good mix of contributors.

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 STAGE 2: PLANNING
1. Clarify the task: Each group explores its subtopic and formulates a research problem. Focus questions
are developed to outline the scope of inquiry.
2. Develop an action plan: The group decides:
a. Aspects to investigate.
b. Deadlines for reporting back.
c. Resources needed.
d. Assign or have students select jobs and responsibilities.

STAGE 3: INVESTIGATING
1. Prepare a daily plan: Group members complete an action plan for each investigation day.
2. Research sub-topic: Gather data from resources.
3. Analyze and evaluate data: Assess the relevance of the data related to the question.
4. Apply the data: Members share their data to solve the group problem.

STAGE 4: ORGANIZING
1. Select a reporting method: Determine the presentation format. It may be a presentation, poster, etc.
2. Plan the report: Members discuss individual roles for the presentation and complete a presentation plan.
3. Construct the report: Individual assignments are complete to form the report.

STAGE 5: PRESENTING
1. Present the reports.
2. Respond to the report: Other groups may seek clarification or give feedback.

STAGE 6: EVALUATING
1. Establish the criteria: Establish the criteria in advance and use a rubric.
2. Clarify the components: This may include:
a. Teacher and student evaluations. c. Weighting of the process and the product.
b. Formative and summative evaluation. d. Ratio of individual to group marks.
3. Check for understanding: Be sure that the students understand at the beginning how they will be
evaluated. Students may complete a self-evaluation and add it to their portfolios. Teachers may also
require an individual report or testing of the material after the final presentation.

Jurisprudential:
Jurisprudential is an inquiry model approaches teach issue by dividing a class into the issue of
viewpoints (favor or against) through the use of information-acquisition strategies and classmate
interactions. Students present their views to a class-selected board of arbiters. It is the board responsibility to
listen to the student’s arguments in a public hearing and render a decision on the issue.
MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH INTERESTS AND NEEDS
Independent Learning and Self-Instruction:
Independent learning is a method or learning process where learners have ownership and control of
their learning – they learn by their own actions and direct, regulate, and assess their own learning. The
independent learner is able to set goals, make choices, and decisions about how to meet his learning needs,
take responsibility for constructing and carrying out his own learning, monitor his progress toward achieving
his learning goals, and self-assess the learning outcomes.

Students exploring for themselves is at the very core of learning. Making discoveries from a task the
teacher sets that they are genuinely interested in and find challenging, and the feeling they gain from self-
direction, is wonderfully rewarding for learners as well as an incredible life tool. In the report, ‘What is
Independent Learning and What are the Benefits for Students?’ (2008), it was found that the benefits of
independent learning for students include:
o Improved academic performance

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 o Increased motivation and confidence
o Increased chances to be creative and intellectually creative
o Fostered social inclusion and countered alienation from peers
o Increased opportunities for completing differentiated tasks, set by the teacher

The purpose of independent learning are as follows:

1. Provide students with opportunities to self-monitor. Self-monitoring depends on the two processes of
establishing goals and receiving feedback from others and from oneself. You can encourage your
students to self-monitor by helping them develop their use of self and peer assessment to see whether the
strategies they were using were effective for achieving learning goals.
2. Use questioning as scaffolding to independent learning. The aim here is a gradual, step-by-step
transfer of responsibility from the teacher to the student. The teacher must develop effective classroom
discourse, asking higher order, open-ended questions, responding flexibly to students’ responses to
promote thinking, problem-solving skills and deeper understanding.
3. Offer models of behavior. Encourage your students to model your behavior. For example, by showing
them how categorizing information can make it easier to remember.
4. Develop communication that includes language focused on learning. This helps students to become
more aware of the steps involved in learning, to understand their own individual learning style and helps
them share their thinking.
5. Provide written and/or oral feedback on classwork and homework. This can be a good way to
improve students’ confidence in working independently. Limit use of attainment grades and scores and
consider giving grades for level of effort.
6. Encourage collaboration. Give your students regular opportunities to complete quality, small group
tasks and encourage them to learn from each other and develop their own ideas, rather than always
looking to you for answers.
7. Give pupils choices and encourage your students to set their own learning goals. So that they can
reflect on their own interests and preferences and take ownership of their learning, this will make your
students feel empowered and in control of their own learning.
8. Involve pupils again in lesson planning. Asking your students for their input will help them feel that
they have a responsibility for and involvement in their own learning, increasing motivation and helping
you better plan your practice.
9. Encourage your pupils to be reflective. Suggesting your students keep a ‘learning diary’ can enable
them to keep track of their learning and monitor their progress. Hopefully their confidence will increase
as they look back and become aware of how far they've come throughout the school year.

Self-Instruction, on the other hand, involve the use of self-statements to direct or self-regulate behavior.
Put simply, children quite literally learn to “talk themselves through” a task or activity. Self-instruction
techniques grew from Vygotsky’s observation that children used overt verbalizations to help regulate
behavior. Self-talk (often termed “private speech”) is used by children to self-regulate and guide behavior
and is a part of the normal developmental process. Self-instruction techniques mimic the manner in which
language is normally used to self-regulate behavior. Graham et al. (1992) identified six basic forms of self-
instruction:
1. Problem definition—defining the nature and demands of a task.
2. Focusing attention/planning—attending to task and generating plans.
3. Strategy related—engaging and using a strategy.
4. Self-evaluation—error detection and correction.
5. Coping—dealing with difficulties/failures.
6. Self-reinforcement—rewarding oneself.

Synectics:
Synectics, also known as ‘reasoning by analogy’ is an exciting formative assessment strategy because
children are actively involved in a process of comparing, enquiring, questioning and connecting and all the
time providing you with valuable insights into their thinking. Synectics is a Greek word which means the
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joining together of different ideas. Synectics is an instructional model designed to activate students’
creativity and help them see old ideas in new ways through employing various forms of metaphoric thinking
to activate “generative thinking.”

The model was originally designed to increase creative expression, empathy and insight and help
‘creativity groups’ in industrial and other organizations to develop quality products and solve problems. It is
a creative connection making process and can be used in any subject across the curriculum.
There are four steps in synetics model:
1) Direct Analogy – Teacher identifies the concept to be explored by creating a direct analogy (e.g.
“Learning is a circus.”) and invites students to think of characteristics for each.
2) Personal Analogy – Although some students may find this step challenging at first, this is where student
creativity is ignited and birthed by “becoming” the conceptual object and analog. (e.g. “Learning – I feel
shunned and very unappreciated at times.” Circus– “I feel excited because I’m the life of the party!”)
Group sharing and class dialogue is also a benefit!
3) Analog Contrast –Students compare and contrast the analog and conceptual objects. Again, other
opportunity for students to express their various creative and different thoughts. (e.g. “Learning is not
like a circus because it’s not always entertaining and exciting!”)
4) New Analogy – Students have the pleasure of creating their own analogy or a group analogy. Being the
last step of the module, students are likely to be excited about presenting their new idea to the
classroom! (e.g. “Learning is like a box of chocolates.”)

END OF MIDTERM DISCUSSION

DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Studies for practices in all fields are carried out on the basis of certain theoretical concepts and
principles. Similarly, in the field of education, development and implementation of curricula, materials,
teaching-learning processes are realized based on the theoretical grounds. These theoretical grounds are
psychological principles, ideals, values and needs of the community, and principles envisaged by the
educational philosophy. These rules and principles should be considered in planning, organizing and
conducting educational activities; and educational activities should be carried out in accordance with them.

In the study, “meaningful learning theory”, one of the descriptive theories which enlighten teaching-
learning processes, and “information processing theory”, one of the prescriptive theories are analyzed; and
in relation to these theories, instructional designs are developed for in-class activities of the social studies
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course. These instructional designs are compared with each other; and proposals are offered as a result of
this comparison.

David Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory

Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory
experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational,
and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning
is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a
substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences;
forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers: “These
organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction,
generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is
selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede,
this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the
organization strength of cognitive structure.”

There are two types of subsumption theory:

1. Correlative Subsumption. The new material is an extension of the already grasped knowledge.
2. Derivative Subsumption. The new material derives from the existing structure, and can be linked to
other concepts or lead to new interpretations.

Principles of Subsumption Theory:

1. Learners should be presented with the most general concepts first, and then their analysis.
2. The instructional materials should include new, as well as previously acquired information. Comparisons
between new and old concepts are crucial.
3. Existing cognitive structures should not be developed, but merely reorganized within the learners’
memory.
4. The role of the instructor is to bridge the gap between what’s already known and what is about to be
learned.

Advanced Organizers –that should always be given prior instruction- can be divided into the following
four:
1. Expository Organizers that provide a description of new knowledge.
2. Narrative Organizers that present the new information in a story format.
3. Skimming Organizers that flick through the information.
4. Graphic Organizers that include pictographs, descriptive or conceptual patterns and concept maps.

Advanced Organizers are valuable tools that mentally help learners learn and retain knowledge, enabling
them to combine new with already known information. This leads to the so called “meaningful learning”,
which is the complete opposite of the “parrot-like” technique of memorization. Thus, this tool prepares the
cognitive structure of learners for the learning session which is about to occur, through schemas and
conceptual patterns, so that new information can be seamlessly subsumed into the existing cognitive
structures. If instructors provide a brief description or a preview of the information which is about to be
learned, learners will be able to start with the big picture of things and then link new ideas, theories, and
concepts to existing mental maps of the related field. Today, Ausubel’s theory is not particularly popular,
because many educators believe that it promotes a fairly passive role for learners, who mainly receive verbal
instruction that doesn’t require any struggle and engagement on their behalf.

Robert Gagne’s Nine Steps of Instruction:

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 Gagne’s book, The Conditions of Learning, first published in 1965, identified the mental conditions for
learning. These were based on the information processing model of the mental events that occur when adults
are presented with various stimuli. Gagne created a nine-step process called the events of instruction,
which correlate to and address the conditions of learning. Keeping these stages in mind as you plan for a
class session or online module can give your lesson plans a strong foundation.

The following information includes an explanation of each of the nine events as well as examples of how
an instructor may apply the Nine Events of Instruction in the development and instruction of a course:
1. Gain attention: Obtain students’ attention so that they will watch and listen while the instructor
presents the learning content.
 Utilize ice breaker activities, current news and events, case studies, YouTube videos, and so on. The
objective is to quickly grab student attention and interest in the topic.
 Utilize tools such as clickers and surveys to ask leading questions prior to lecture, survey opinion, or
gain a response to a controversial question.
 In online and hybrid courses, use the discussion board for current news and events, to discuss a
controversial topic, or to comment on media.
2. Inform learners of objectives: Allow students to organize their thoughts and prioritize their attention
regarding what they are about to learn and do.
 Include learning objectives in lecture slides, the syllabus, and in instructions for activities, projects,
papers, and so on.
 In online and hybrid courses, include learning objectives in introductory course materials, module
pages, lecture slides, and the syllabus, as well as in instructions for activities, projects, papers, and
so on.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning: Encourage students to build on previous knowledge or skills.
 Recall events from previous lectures, integrate results of activities into the current topic, and/or
relate previous information to the current topic.
 In online and hybrid courses, provide discussion board forums as part of “gaining attention” with a
focus on relating the previous topic to the current topic.
4. Present the content: Show and explain the material you want students to learn.
 Utilize a variety of methods including lecture, readings, activities, projects, multimedia, and others.
 Present or post content via a learning management system to allow students to access the materials
outside of course meeting times.
 In face to face courses, integrate the use of clickers to keep student attention during content
presentation.
 In online and hybrid courses, integrate the use of interactive tools like discussion boards, wikis,
blogs, and polls.
5. Provide “learning guidance”: Provide students with instructions on how to learn, such as guided
activities or common pitfalls. With learning guidance, the rate of learning increases because students
are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly
understood concepts.
 Include detailed information such as rubrics for projects and activities. Provide expectations,
instructions, and timelines.
6. Elicit performance (practice): Allow students to apply knowledge and skills learned.
 Encourage students to apply what they are learning in group or individual projects and activities,
written assignments, lab practices, and so on.
 Scaffold high-stakes assessments with smaller activities so students can practice and receive feedback
before turning in something for a larger grade.
7. Provide feedback: Give students feedback on individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated
problems rather than having little idea of where problems and inconsistencies in learning are occurring.
 Provide detailed feedback on assignments showing students what was done correctly, what must be
improved, and include explanations. Utilize rubrics when possible. Give formative feedback on
smaller assignments as well as summative feedback on larger assessments.

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  Utilize tools such as Turnitin or change tracking in a word processor to quickly give feedback to
large audiences.
 Provide feedback to discussion boards in online courses.
 Utilize peer-evaluation and self-evaluation or self-assessment methods.
8. Assess performance: Help students identify content areas they have not mastered.
 Utilize a variety of assessment methods including exams/quizzes, written assignments, projects, and
so on. Utilize rubrics when grading activities that are not standard exam and quiz questions.
 Ensure that students have practiced and received feedback prior to high-stakes assessments.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job: Prepare students to apply information to personal
contexts. This increases retention by personalizing information.
 Provide opportunities for students to relate course work to their personal experiences when designing
essays and projects.
 Provide opportunities for discussion in small groups or using a discussion board.
 Allow students to reflect on what they have learned and how they will use that knowledge or those
skills in the future.
 Have students create a reference for their future selves that summarizes what they have learned.

John Keller’s ARCS Motivational Model:

John Keller, an American educational psychologist, introduced the ARCS motivational model of
instructional design in 1979. He argued that existing models emphasized external stimuli too heavily and
that more attention needed to be given to what motivated learners.
The ARCS model looks at four components of motivation.
• Attention: Instructors or e-Learning can attract learners’ attention by using elements of novelty or
surprise, by posing a question or presenting a challenge, or by offering up a problem for learners to
solve. Presenting material in a variety of formats and offering learners different modalities of learning,
such as games, text, video, discussions, etc. aids in sustaining their attention.
• Relevance: Establishing relevance is accomplished by explaining, in accessible language, how the new
skill or information will help learners solve a problem that they’ve experienced, meet their needs, or
enable them to enhance or apply skills they already possess. Modeling a desired behavior or using a
desired skill is another way to establish relevance.
• Confidence: The confidence component of motivation refers to imbuing learners with confidence that
they can apply the new skills or knowledge. The design aspects of this include creating scaffolding that
guides learners from fundamental knowledge to more complex information or skills, establishing clear
goals, and providing guidance and feedback that helps them to progress without becoming overwhelmed.
• Satisfaction: Learners gain satisfaction from learning when they are able to apply their new skills, solve
problems, and earn feedback and rewards that are meaningful to them. These rewards can range from a
sense of accomplishment to earning a badge or certificate to reinforcement from managers.

“Motivational design refers to the process of arranging resources and procedures to bring about changes
in motivation,” Motivational design is systematic and aims for replicable principles and processes. This is a
departure from what Keller terms “charismatic” approaches to motivating learners, which rely on a
presenter’s prowess as a presenter or success in the topic area.

What Motivates Learners:

Dirksen, an instructional design consultant who has studied behavior change, differentiates between
motivation to learn something and motivation to apply that learning. At the end of training, it’s likely that
many of the learners will know what to do, but actually changing learners’ behavior is a steeper challenge.
Two strategies that Dirksen suggests in Design for How People Learn are:
• The Technology Acceptance Model, which states that learners have to perceive information or a
behavior change as both useful to them and something that they can easily implement. These echo the
relevance and confidence elements of ARCS.

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• The Diffusions of Innovation model, which posits that, when considering change, a learner examines
whether that change or innovation is better than what it’s replacing, is easy to use, and is compatible
with the learner’s experience and values.

Both of these strategies, as well as the ARCS model, emphasize that the learner’s perception of how easy
or difficult the change, the new skill, or the new behavior will be to implement is a significant factor in
motivation. What Dirksen describes as “self-efficacy” is key: does the learner believe that he will succeed?

Charles Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory:

The Elaboration Theory was introduced by Charles Reigeluth, an American educational theorist in 1979.
The Elaboration Theory supports that the content organization should be presented in increasing order of
difficulty. The Elaboration Theory relies upon the idea that instruction should be offered to learners in
increasing order of difficulty. For example, if the instructor wants to teach the learner a more complex
process or idea, he/she should begin by providing the learner with the most basic version of the process, and
then gradually present lessons that work up to the desired result. Throughout each of the lessons the learner
should receive a summary of the previous lessons, so that he/she can fully grasp each step of the process.

The goal of the Elaboration Theory is to allow learners to build necessary skill sets by completing each
lesson, and to fully understand the concepts that are being taught during the learning process. The main steps
involved in the Elaboration Theory are as follows:
1. The learners will begin the lesson with a “broad scope” picture of the problem or task. This will allow
them to see all of the steps or parts of the problem, so that they can understand the relationship between
these components.
2. The learners will then be encouraged to focus on the first step in the process, or a simplified version of
one of the problems/components that they had previously viewed while examining the “broad scope”
picture.
3. After the learners have examined and learned each of the steps or mastered the components, they are
then asked to look at the larger picture (which is the whole problem or task) once again.

There are two sequencing types: topical or spiral. Topical sequencing involves lessons that are taught
until the learners have mastered the content, and then they will move onto the next topic. On the other hand,
spiral sequencing involves the mastery of a particular topic gradually, wherein they take a look at the
fundamentals of each topic, before going back to learn more about each individual subject or step.

The Elaboration Theory involves a variety of fundamental strategies or tools that enable the learners to
actively engage in the learning process and grasp all of the concepts, which can be applied to virtually any
instructional design plan:
• Organizing the Structure of the Coursework. The course must be organized in such a way that each
lesson elaborates upon the previous lesson in the sequence. This can be done in one of three ways:
conceptually, theoretically, or procedurally.
• The simple to complex theory. Each lesson must go from simple to more complex, allowing the
learners to build upon knowledge that they collected from the previous step in the process.
• Sequences within the lesson itself. The lesson must begin with a general overview, followed by a more
detailed look. This can also be applied to abstract concepts, which are then viewed as more concrete or
real-world based steps.
• Summaries of the content. The instructor should encourage the learners to summarize what they have
already learned and provide them with an overview of all previously learned steps at the end of each
lesson.
• Cognitive strategies. Learners acquire the knowledge better, when they use cognitive strategies either
consciously or unconsciously. For example, the use of diagrams makes an impact on how the learner
processes and interacts with the learning material (imbedded strategy). In addition, the instructor may
lead the learner to a previously acquired cognitive strategy (detached strategy) by posing specific
questions.
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• Learner Control. The learners are encouraged to have complete control over how the instruction is
carried out and the content being learned.
• Analogies or Metaphors. These allow the learners to relate the content to real world scenarios or
knowledge that they have already collected.

Constructivism as a Tool in Social Studies:

Constructivism sees learning as a dynamic and social process in which the prior understanding and the
social setting of students are taken into account. The constructivist view of learning argues that students do
not come to the Social Science classroom empty-headed but arrive with lots of strongly formed ideas. In
constructivist approach, pupils should no longer be passive recipients of knowledge supplied by teachers and
teachers should no longer be purveyors of knowledge and classroom managers. From this perspective,
learning is a process of acquiring new knowledge, which is active and complex. This is the result of an
active interaction of key cognitive processes. It is also an active interaction between teachers and learners,
and learners try to make sense of what is taught by trying to fit these with their own experience.
Constructivist learning is based on students’ active participation where they construct their own knowledge
by testing ideas and approaches based on their prior knowledge and experience; they apply these to new
situations and integrate the new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs.

Project-Based Learning in Social Studies:

In project-based learning or PBL, the project is what drives the learning of important content and
skills. The project engages students and creates an authentic “need to know,” which motivates them to learn
what’s needed for it. All of the instruction and activities to follow are for the purpose of completing the
project. Many people hear “project-based learning” and think it simply means “doing a project.” It might be
building a model of an Egyptian pyramid, or making a poster about a historic event, or dressing up as
typical-Filipino in Barong Tagalog or Filipiniana during Buwan-ng-Wika event. It could be a bit more
rigorous than that, for example a written report on some topic connected to the unit. These “projects” are
typically done at home, following directions given by the teacher. There are many possible ways to design
projects in social studies. Here are some of the classic types:
• A debate, speech, panel discussion, social media campaign, or multimedia presentation on a current
event or controversial issue—the more local and personally relevant to students, the better.
• A museum exhibit about a historical time, place, person, event, or development.
• A proposal for a monument or memorial that explains a historical event or development.
• A simulation, role-play, or game that recreates a situation when people in the past, or in the present
day, must solve a problem, make a decision, advise a leader, or take some sort of action.
• A podcast, guided tour, field guide, signage, or annotated digital map about local history.
• A civic-action-taking or service-learning project to address a problem, benefit the community or the
wider world.
• A piece of writing that addresses an issue or proposes a solution to a real-world problem, sent to
someone in government, academia, a business, or a nonprofit organization.

END OF PRE-FINAL DISCUSSION

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