1
Basic Electronics
Course Code: ECE 422
Diode
2
Objectives
After this lesson, the students should be able to:
• Describe a diode and how a pn junction is formed.
• Discuss diffusion across a pn junction.
• Explain the formation of the depletion layer.
• Develop a clear understanding of the basic operation and characteristics of a
diode in the different biasing regions.
• Analyze the VI characteristic curve of a diode.
• Discuss the three diode models and diode specification sheets.
3
Diode
• It was formed when a block of silicon
was doped part of it with trivalent
and other part with a pentavalent
impurity.
• is a device that conducts current
only in one direction.
4
Diode
• When a piece of intrinsic silicon is
doped so that part is n-type and
the other part is p-type, a pn
junction forms at the boundary
between the two regions and a
diode is created as shown in the
figure.
5
Diode
• At the instant of junction formation,
free electrons in the n region near
the pn junction begin to diffuse
across the junction and fall into
holes near the junction in the p
region.
6
Diode
• As electrons leave the n region, a
layer of positive ions was formed.
• When this free electrons combined
with holes in the p region, this create
negative ions.
• These two layers of positive and
negative ions form the depletion
region
7
Diode
• Depletion region is a very thin layer
compared to the p-region and n-
region.
• A point is reached when the total
negative charge repels any further
diffusion of electrons into the p
region and the diffusion stops.
• Depletion region act as barrier .
8
Diode
• Forces between opposite charges
form a field of charges called an
electric field.
• Barrier potential is the amount of
voltage required to move an electron
through the electric field.
• Typical Values of Barrier Potential at
25°C
▪ Silicon = 0.7 V
▪ Germanium = 0.3 V
9
Energy Diagrams of the PN Junction and
Depletion Region
• The valence and conduction bands
in an n-type material are at slightly
lower energy levels than the valence
and conduction bands in a p-type
material.
• This is due to differences in the
atomic characteristics of the
pentavalent and trivalent impurities
10
Energy Diagrams of the PN Junction and
Depletion Region
• As shown in the figure, the junction is
at equilibrium; and the depletion
region is complete because diffusion
has ceased.
• There is an energy gradient across
the depletion region which acts as
an “energy hill” that an n-region
electron must climb to get to the p-
region.
11
Diode biasing
• BIAS – it refers to the use of a DC voltage to establish certain operating
conditions for an electronic device.
• NO APPLIED BIAS (V = 0V) – no external voltage is applied across the two
terminals of the device. I = 0A, therefore the device acts like an isolated
resistor.
12
Diode biasing
• To bias a diode, you apply a dc
voltage across it.
• The resistor limits the forward current
to a value that will not damage the
diode.
13
Diode: Forward Bias
Requirement for forward bias
condition:
1. The negative side (-) is
connected to the n region and
the positive side is connected to
the p region.
2. It must be greater than the barrier
potential.
14
Diode: Forward Bias
• The negative side of the bias-
voltage source “pushes” the free
electrons (which are majority
carriers in the n region) toward
the pn junction.
• Such flow of free electrons is known
as the electron current.
15
Diode: Forward Bias
• The holes in the p region provide the
medium or “pathway” for these valence
electrons to move through the p region.
• As more electrons flow into the
depletion region, the number of
positive ions is reduced.
16
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion
Region
17
The Effect of the Barrier Potential During
Forward Bias
• When forward bias is applied, the free
electrons are provided with enough
energy from the bias-voltage source
to overcome the barrier potential and
effectively “climb the energy hill” and
cross the depletion region.
• The energy per charge that the electrons
require in order to cross the depletion
region is equal to the barrier
potential.
18
Diode: Reverse Bias
• Reverse bias is the condition that
essentially prevents current through the
diode.
• The negative side (-) is connected to the
p region and the positive side is
connected to the n region.
• The limiting resistor is not important in
reverse bias since there is essentially no
current.
19
Diode: Reverse Bias
• Because unlike charges attract, the
positive side of the bias-voltage source
“pulls” the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, away
from the pn junction.
• As the electrons flow toward the positive
side of the voltage source, additional
holes are created at the depletion
region.
20
Diode: Reverse Bias
Reverse Current
• Extremely small current that exists in
reverse bias caused by the minority
carriers in the n and p regions that are
produced by the thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.
• If the external reverse-bias voltage is
increased to a value called the
breakdown voltage, the reverse current
will drastically increase.
21
Diode: Reverse Bias
• The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons so that they
speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to knock
valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band.
• As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough
energy to go through the n region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with
holes
• These multiplication of conduction electrons is known as avalanche resulting in a very
high reverse current that can damage the diode because of excessive heat dissipation.
22
V-I Characteristic of a diode
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
• Point A corresponds to a zero-bias
condition.
• Point B corresponds to where the
forward voltage is less than the barrier
potential of 0.7 V.
• Point C corresponds to where the
forward voltage approximately equals
the barrier potential.
23
V-I Characteristic of a diode
Dynamic Resistance
• the resistance of the forward-biased
diode is not constant over the entire
curve.
• the resistance changes as you move
along the V-I curve, it is called
dynamic or ac resistance
• r’d = ∆ VF/∆IF
24
V-I Characteristic of a diode
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
• There is very little reverse current (usually 𝜇A
or nA) until the reverse voltage across the
diode reaches approximately the
breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of
the curve.
• After this point, the reverse voltage
remains at approximately VBR, but IR
increases very rapidly, resulting in
overheating and possible damage if
current is not limited to a safe level.
25
V-I Characteristic of a diode
The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve Temperature Effects
26
Shockley’s Equation
• Shockley's diode equation is used to model the voltage-current (V-I)
characteristic of a semiconductor diode.
• It describes the relationship between the current flowing through the
diode and the voltage across it.
• The equation is particularly useful in understanding the behavior of diodes
under various operating conditions and for designing circuits involving
diodes.
27
Shockley’s Equation
where:
Is is the reverse saturation current
VD is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n is an ideality factor; it has a range between 1 and 2 depending
on a wide variety of factors
while, the thermal voltage is determined by
28
Thermal Voltage
where:
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K
TK is the absolute temperature in kelvin = 273 + the temperature in °C
q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 x10-19 C
29
Example:
At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components in an
enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT.
30
Characteristics of Silicon
Diode
31
Reverse saturation current (Is)
• Also known as reverse current.
• The current that exists under reverse-bias condition
• It is seldom more than a few microamperes and typically in nA, except for
high power devices.
• The direction of IS is against the arrow of the diode symbol
32
Reverse saturation current (Is)
The actual reverse current of a commercially available diode will normally be measurably
larger than that appearing in the reverse saturation current in Shockley’s equation. This is
due to:
1. Leakage currents
2. Generation of carriers in the depletion region.
3. Higher doping levels
4. Sensitivity to the intrinsic level of carriers
5. Direct relationship with the junction area
6. Temperature sensitivity
33
Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown
• contribute to the sharp change in the
characteristic of a diode.
• It occurs because there is a strong
electric field in the region of the junction
that can disrupt the bonding forces
within the atom and “generate” carriers.
34
Zener Breakdown
• The sharp change in the characteristic
at any level is called the Zener region
• Diodes employing this unique portion of
the characteristic of a p–n junction are
called Zener diodes.
35
Resistance Level
DC or Static Resistance
• Typically, the dc resistance of a
diode in the active (most utilized)
will range from about 10 to 80
ohms.
• The resistance of the diode at the
operating point can be found
simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID
as shown in Figure.
36
Example:
• Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode
a) ID 2 mA (low level)
b) ID 20 mA (high level)
c) VD 10 V (reverse-biased)
37
Resistance Level
AC or Dynamic Resistance
• With no applied varying signal, the
point of operation would be the Q-
point
• The designation Q-point is derived
from the word quiescent, which
means “still or unvarying.”
38
Resistance Level
AC or Dynamic Resistance
• The derivative of a function at a
point is equal to the slope of the
tangent line drawn at that point.
39
Resistance Level
Average AC resistance
• The average ac resistance is, by definition, the
resistance determined by a straight line drawn
between the two intersections established by the
maximum and minimum values of input voltage.
40
41
Bias Connection
42
Diode Approximation
Ideal Diode Model
43
Diode Approximation
Practical Diode Model
44
Diode Approximation
The Complete Diode Model/ Piecewise-Linear Model
45
Transition Capacitance
• Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive.
• For the diode at high frequencies, it is the stray capacitance levels that have
the greatest effect.
• The barriers, or depletion region capacitance is determined by:
• where C(0) is the capacitance under no-bias conditions and VR is the
applied reverse bias potential. The power n is 1⁄2 or 1⁄3 depending on the
manufacturing process for the diode.
46
Diffusion Capacitance
• As the charge carriers move across
the junction, they create a region
of excess charge near the junction.
• This excess charge builds up a Where:
potential difference across the • TT is the minority carrier lifetime
junction, which in turn creates a (the time it would take for a
capacitance-like effect. This minority carrier such as a hole to
recombine with an electron in
capacitance is known as diffusion
the n-type material)
capacitance.
47
Reverse Recovery Time
• Denoted by trr
• Most commercially available diodes
has trr in the range of a few ns to 1 μs
however, units are available with a trr
of only a few hundred ps (10-12 s)
48
Diode Specification Sheets
It includes:
1. The forward voltage VF (at a specified current and temperature)
2. The maximum forward current IF (at a specified temperature)
3. The reverse Saturation current IR (at a specified voltage and temperature)
4. The reverse voltage rating [PIV or PRV or V(BR), where BR comes from the
term “breakdown” (at a specified temperature)]
49
Diode Specification Sheets
It includes:
5. The maximum power dissipation level at particular temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range
50
Diode Specification Sheets
Depending on the type of diode being considered, additional data may
also be provided:
1. Frequency range
2. Noise Level
3. Switching time
4. Thermal resistance levels
5. Peak repetitive values
51
Electrical characteristics
of a high voltage, low
leakage diode
52
Thermal Characteristic
of a diode
53
That’s all for today!
Do you have question or clarification?
