C-PSY-03 Biopsychology

Aryabhatta College

Dr. Halley Singh Thokchom

 Neuroendocrine system: Structure, functions and abnormalities of major glands
 Thyroid
 Adrenal
 Gonads
 Pituitary
 Pancreas
 Pineal
 The neuroendocrine system (NES) of Vertebrates can be defined as a set of cells organized in single
organs and diffuse elements, sharing co-production of amine hormone/transmitters, peptide
hormone/transmitters and specific markers of neural determination.
 In this perspective, the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis (H-P axis), the autonomic nervous system
(ANS) and the diffuse neuroendocrine or APUD system contribute to the NES.
 Gland: an organ in the human or animal body that secretes particular chemical substances for use in
the body or for discharge into the surroundings
 Exocrine glands (e.g., sweat glands) release their chemicals into ducts, which carry them to their targets,
mostly on the surface of the body
 Endocrine glands (ductless glands) release their chemicals, which are called hormones, directly into the
circulatory system
 By convention, only the organs whose primary function appears to be the release of hormones are
referred to as endocrine glands
 However, other organs (e.g., the stomach, liver, and intestine) and body fat also release hormones into
general circulation, and they are thus, strictly speaking, also part of the endocrine system.
 Once released by an endocrine gland, a hormone travels via the circulatory system until it reaches
the targets on which it normally exerts its effect (e.g., other endocrine glands or sites in the nervous
system)
 The endocrine system is a network of glands that
produce and release hormones that help control
many important body functions, especially the
body's ability to change calories into energy that
powers cells and organs
 Endocrine disorders are typically grouped into
three categories:
 1) endocrine gland hypo-secretion (leading to
hormone deficiency),
 2) endocrine gland hyper-secretion (leading to
hormone excess),
 3) tumours of endocrine glands
 Pineal Gland (py nee ul) A gland attached to the
dorsal tectum; produces melatonin and plays a role in
circadian and seasonal rhythms.
 In cold blooded animals such as lizard, it is a primitive
visual receptor, a “third eye”
 secretes a hormone called melatonin
 named because it has the ability in certain animals
(primarily fish, reptiles, and amphibians) to turn the skin
temporarily dark
 In mammals, melatonin controls seasonal rhythms
 Also known to govern the activity of the reproductive
system, in response to the light-dark cycle of each
day or the changes in daylight for each season
 Melatonin also supresses or inhibits the activity of the
gonads and therefore affects sexual behaviour Pineal Gland, Located on the Dorsal
 Sexual activity increases by day and reduces by night Surface of the Midbrain
 Sexual activity increases by summer and reduces by Hyper-secretion causes delayed sexual
winter development in children
Hypo-secretion causes precocious puberty in
children
 aka Hypophysis
 frequently referred to as the master gland because most
of its hormones are tropic hormones
 Tropic hormones are hormones whose primary function is to
influence the release of hormones from other glands (tropic
means able to stimulate or change something)
 pituitary gland is really two glands, the posterior
pituitary and the anterior pituitary, which fuse during the
course of embryological development
 The posterior pituitary develops from a small outgrowth
of hypothalamic tissue that eventually comes to dangle A midline view of the posterior and
from the hypothalamus
anterior pituitary and surrounding
 The anterior pituitary begins as part of the same structures.
embryonic tissue that eventually develops into the roof of
the mouth
 It is the anterior pituitary that releases tropic hormones;
thus, it is the anterior pituitary in particular, rather than
the pituitary in general, that qualifies as the master gland
 aka neurohypophysis
 Releases two main hormones
 Oxytocin
 Vasopressin

 These two hormones have the following overlapping effects

 Constrict blood vessels in the smaller arteries thereby increasing blood
pressor (a pressor effect)
 Stimulate the contraction of other smooth muscles besides arterial walls,
particularly the uterus
 Stimulate the ejection of milk by mammary glands The neural connections
 Stimulate the kidneys to reabsorb water from urine (an antidiuretic between the hypothalamus
effect) and the pituitary. All neural
input to the pituitary goes to
 Hyper-secretion causes Syndrome of inappropriate hypersecretion
the posterior pituitary; the
of ADH (SIADH) anterior pituitary has no
 Hypo-secretion causes diabetes insipidus neural connections.
 aka adenohypophysis
 Regulates the output of three “target” endocrine glands with secretion of 7 hormones
 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone
 composed of multiple parts
 Pars distalis: This is the distal part that comprises the majority of the anterior pituitary; it is
where most pituitary hormone production occurs.
 Pars tuberalis: This is the tubular part that forms a sheath that extends up from the pars
distalis and wraps around the pituitary stalk. Its function is poorly understood.
 Pars intermedia: This is the intermediate part that sits between the pars distalis and the
posterior pituitary and is often very small in humans.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or Corticotropin , is a polypeptide whose target is the
adrenal gland. The effects of ACTH are upon secretion of glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoids,
and sex corticoids.
 Beta-endorphin is a polypeptide that effects the opioid receptor, whose effects include the
inhibition of the perception of pain.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that affects the thyroid gland and the
secretion of thyroid hormones.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that targets the gonads and effects the
growth of the reproductive system.
 Luteinizing hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that targets the gonads to effect sex-hormone
production.
 Growth hormone (GH) or Somatotropin or Somatotrophic Hormone (SH) is a polypeptide
hormone that targets the liver and adipose tissue and promotes growth through lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism.
 Hyper-secretion before maturity causes pituitary giants of normal body proportions (people
who may be 8 to 9 feet tall)
 Hyper-secretion after maturity causes Acromegaly

 Hypo-secretion inhibits growth in children and causes pituitary dwarf (or midget) (with normal
intelligence and normal body proportions)
 Prolactin (Lactogenic Hormone) is a polypeptide hormone whose target is the ovaries
and mammary glands. Prolactin influences the secretion of estrogen/progesterone and
milk production.
 a large ductless gland in the neck that secretes hormones
regulating growth and development through the rate of
metabolism.
 Lies on both sides of the trachea (windpipe), just below the
larynx (voice box)
 Produces thyroxin (manufactured in the gland by the
combination of iodine and amino acid tyrosine)
 raises metabolic rate of the cells of the body, hence is important
for normal body functioning
 Functioning can be determined by assessing Basal Metabolic
Rate (BMR)
 Hyper-thyroidism causes increased BMR (hyperactivity,
nervousness, increased apetite but cannot gain weight)
 Hypo-thyroidism in children causes cretinism (condition of
severely stunted physical and mental growth)
 Hypo-thyroidism in adult causes myxedema (puffy, bloated
appearance)
 Named for their location atop the kidneys (renal=kidney)
 Consist of two parts that bear little relation to each other
 Adrenal medulla
 Core of adrenal gland
 Derived from neural tissue
 Innervated by the autonomic nervous system
 Adrenal cortex
 Covering of the adrenal gland
 Derived from the same type of tissue as the gonads
 Bears a functional relationship to them
 Most important hormones produced by the
adrenal cortex are steroids called (corticoids)
 Steroids regulate sodium (retention) and
potassium (loss) balance of the body (through the
kidneys)
 Produces both a male sex hormone (androgen)
and a female sex hormone (estrogen)
 Hyper-secretion is rare in man
 Most observable feature in children (sexual
precocity) and masculinity in woman
 Hypo-secretion results in Addison’s disease (a
rare disorder)
 Excessive elimination of Na and Cl and excessive
retention of K by the kidneys
 Excitability of nerves and muscles are reduced
 Abdominal pain, weakness and weight loss
 Secretes Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) when
stimulated by Sympathetic nerves of ANS (a feature of arousal of body response to
stress)
 Norepinephrine raises blood pressure by vasoconstriction (constricting the arteries)
 Predominates in states of Rage (e.g. pale appearance during anger)
 Epinephrine raises blood pressure by accelerating the heart rate
 Predominates in states of Fear (e.g. pounding heart during fear)

 Hyper-secretion is not a known gland abnormality, rather a feature of stressful

conditions
 Hypo-secretion causes animal the inability to tolerate environmental stress
 Prolonged stress causes adrenal gland enlargement
 Lies in the curve of the gut between the stomach and the small intestine
 Has both exocrine (digestive gland that discharges into the small intestine) and endocrine
functions
 Embedded in islets are two endocrine cells, alpha and beta cell
 Alpha cells
 Almost 25% of the total endocrine cells in the pancreas
 Produces a hormone called Glucagon
 Glucagon in released for a brief period by the alpha cells in response to low blood glucose
 Stimulates insulin output by beta cells

 Beta cells
 Produces a hormone called Insulin, in response to high level of glucose in blood
 Insulin inhibits the liver in either making or releasing blood glucose
 Further lowers blood glucose by increasing its use by the muscles and other tissues of the body
 Insulin output in increased by norepinephrine and epinephrine from adrenal medulla, thereby
increasing stress and alarm reaction
 Hyper-secretion of insulin is rare in man and is cured by removal of islet tissues
 Hyper-secretion (oversupply of insulin or overdose of insulin in a diabetic) causes hypoglycaemia (low
blood glucose level), because all the stored blood glucose is utilized
 Can result in insulin shock convulsions and death

 Hypo-secretion causes diabetes-mellitus

 Without sufficient insulin, blood glucose is neither used by the muscles and other tissues, nor stored as
glycogen by the liver
 Results in an increase in glucose level in blood and urine
 Consequently, kidneys excrete more water than usual to cleanse the body of excess glucose, thereby
resulting in dehydration, diabetic coma and death.
 Gonad is an organ that produces gametes; a
testis or ovary.
 Reproductive organs of male and female
have dual roles.
 Maturation of reproductive organs and
development of secondary sexual
characteristics
 Growth and development of germ tissue (or
germ cells): sperm or ova in both sexes
 Also, orderly sequence of reproductive events in
the female
  Male reproductive system
 Is based on a paired testes contained in a sac (scrotum)
 Located outside the body cavity, which lowers the temperature, thus permitting the growth of male
gametes (sperms) in the seminiferous tissues
 Secretions of the gland and the gamete forms semen which is collected in the seminal vesicles, which is
released during copulation
 Male reproductive system releases hormones called androgens secreted by the interstitial tissue
 Secretion of androgen is stimulated by the FSH from the anterior pituitary
 Androgens are derived from progesterone; which is an important female sex hormone.
 Androgens are also secreted in some degrees by the ovaries, adrenal cortex and female placenta
 Removal of gonads is called castration

• Lack of androgen caused by castration

• Before puberty, results in loss of vigor and failure to develop
secondary sexual characteristics (i.e., the person is a
eunuch) ; early injection of hormones can reverse these
effects
• After maturation, abolishes sexual behaviour in animals but
rarely reduces its frequency in men
• Hyper-secretion of androgens (especially testosterone) causes
muscle hypertrophy, contribute to cushing’s syndrome, virilism,
hirsutism, missed periods (in women) etc.
 Female reproductive system
 Includes paired ovaries in the abdomen, containing immature follicles, each of which has an ovum, or egg
cell
 Open ends of the fallopian tube (Oviducts), lie near the ovaries
 When ovulation produces a mature ovum, a fallopian tube carries it to the uterus
 If successfully fertilized by a sperm cell, it develops into an embryo in the wall of the uterus
 Female reproductive cycle averages 28 days and begins at the end of menstruation, with increased output
of FSH by the anterior pituitary gland
 FSH causes increased growth of a follicle in the ovary, which in turn secretes estrogens, promoting growth
of vascular and connective tissues in the wall of the uterus

• Estrogen also stimulates LH secretion by the anterior pituitary gland

• Dual influence of pituitary LH and FSH stimulates follicles to release
the ovum (ovulation) on about the 14th day
• Ovum is carried by the fallopian tube to the uterus and buries itself in
the wall of the uterus on about the 17th day
• Meanwhile, pituitary LH and prolactin stimulates the follicles to
become an enlarged curpus luteum and secrete progesterone, thus
stopping the output of FSH by the pituitary
• This prevents further follicles from maturing and producing eggs –
status quo is maintained
 If pregnancy occurs, a placenta develops in the wall of the uterus and secretes progesterone
and chorionic hormone, thus maintaining the status quo for pregnancy, stopping ovulation
and further fertilization
 If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and estrogen and progesterone
production are reduced
 The uterus wall sheds, causing menstruation from vascular structures built up there
 Hyper-secretion of estrogen can cause premature sexual development and infertility in
female and feminization (e.g. breast development) in males
 Hypo-secretion of estrogen can cause lack of female secondary sex – characteristics, hot
flashes, libido changes, sleep disorders, depression, changes in skin, moods, infertility and
osteoporosis
 Hyper-secretion of progesterone may cause nausea and vomiting; risk of bone loss, which
can cause osteoporosis
 Hypo-secretion of progesterone can cause lesser or no chance of becoming pregnant
(sterility)