Chapter 1 Planning in Sports

Meaning and Objectives of Planning

Planning is a process of setting objectives and deciding how to accomplish them. Planning in
sports is required because there is a definite time frame for achieving the objectives and the
resiilts are also known very clearly and in definite terms.
Objectives of planning are given below.

1. Timely achievements of targets.

2. Improving the percentage of success.
3. Finding out the causes of failure.
4. Deciding the appropriate time duration of a programme.
5. Distribution of work according to the ability of the people involved.
6. Remaining within the budget while achieving the required targets.

Various Committees and their Responsibilities

1. Committee for Publicity Its main duty is to advertise the sports events.
2. Transport Committee Its main responsibility is to make necessary
arrangements for transportation.
3. Grounds and Equipment Committee This committee is responsible for
making the grounds or laying out the track and field. , .
4. Refreshments and Entertainment Committee This committee takes the
charge of supplying refreshments and drinks to the guests, officials, competitors
etc.
5. Reception Committee The members of this committee are responsible to
welcome the chief guests at the opening and closing ceremonies. .
6. Committee on Entries and Programmes This committee sends entry forms to
the various institutions early. It also arranges seats for guests and spectators. It
sometimes also prepares fixtures of teams participating in the competition.
7. Committee for Officials This committee selects various officials such as
referees, judges, umpires etc.
8. Announcement Committee This committee is responsible for making all the
announcements during the period of sports events,
9. First Aid Committee This committee provides first aid to the victim or
affected sportsman/athlete.

For successful organisation of the sports meet, committees are formed under three heads
These are Pre-meet committees like publicity, ground and equipment, reception committee
During meet committees like refreshment, transport committee and Post-meet committees
like award committee.

Tournaments
A tournament is a competition held among various teams in a particular activity according to
a fixed schedule where a winner is decided.
There are various methods for organising a tournament which depends upon various factors
such as
  The number of participating teams Facilities of ground, equipment and number
of officials available
 Days in which the tournament is to be completed

Importance of Tournaments

1. Development of Sports Skills Various skills of sports are developed in

tournaments.
2. Helpful in Selection of Players Good players can be selected easily by
observing their performance in the tournament.
3. Development of National and International Integration It not only develops the
integration of national and international level but also gives sense of unity and
brotherhood.
4. Development of Social Qualities Social traits such as respect, brotherhood,
discipline, sympathy, tolerance etc are developed among participants through
tournaments.

Types of Tournament

1. Knock-out or Elimination tournament

2. League or Round Robin tournament
3. Combination tournament
4. Challenge tournament

1. Knock-out or Elimination Tournaments

A single elimination tournament (also called an Olympic system tournament) or a knock-out
tournament is a type of elimination tournament where the loser of each bracket is
immediately eliminated from the tournament. In such tournaments, if the number of
competitors or competing teams are not a multiple of 2 (i.e. 4, 8, 16,..) then some teams may
be given a ‘bye’ and some teams are given ‘seeding’.
Seeding is a procedure by which good teams are placed in fixtures in such a way that
stronger teams do not meet each other at the very start of a tournament.
Note We will cover in detail the first three tournaments because these three tournaments are
included in syllabus.
Bye is a privilege given to a team which is decided generally by seeding it or by draw of lots.
Advantages of Knock-out Tournaments

1. Minimum number of officials are required in organising tournaments.

2. Owing to less number of matches so it takes less time to complete the
tournaments.
3. It helps in enhancing the standard of sports.

Disadvantages of Knock-out Tournaments

1. Good teams can get eliminated because of their poor performance even in first
round.
2. There are maximum chances of weak teams to enter into the final round.

2. League or Round Robin Tournaments

A league tournament, also called as round robin tournament, is a type of tournament in which
each contestant meets all other contestants in turn. In this type of tournament, there has to be
sufficient time to complete the tournament.
There are two types of league tournaments
 1. Single league
2. Double league

In a single league round robin schedule, each participant plays with every other participant
once. If each participant plays with others twicely, this is frequently called a round robin
double league tournament.

1. Single League Number of matches =N(N−1)2 (N = Number of teams)

2. Double League Number of matches = N (N-1) (N = Number of teams)

Fixture
Any tournament whether it is knock-out or league, is arranged according to a set procedure
which is known as fixture. For knock-out tournament, the procedure to draw fixture is
through bye and seeding. For league tournaments, the procedure to draw fixture is through
staircase and cyclic method.

Fixture is the process of arranging the teams in systematic order in various groups for
competition in a physical activity. In other words, it is the set-up of various teams for
competitive matches where they play in a systematic order as per the fixture schedule. The
success of a tournament depends upon planning of suitable fixture. Tournaments are played
in various forms of fixtures.

Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

In a knock-out tournament, the fixtures are drawn by the following methods
1. Seeding Method
Seeding is a procedure by which good teams are placed in fixtures in such a way that stronger
teams do not meet each other at the very start of a tournament. It is done to overcoine the
drawbacks of a single knock-out tournament. Seeding can be done only if the standards of the
teams are known before the start of the tournament. The draw may result between the strong
competitors at early level competition, so they are ‘seeded’ to prefvent this.

Thus, the top competitors will not meet until the quarter final, semi final or final round.
Seeding is used to ensure that-players or teams of recognised outstanding abilltytlo not
confront each other in the early rounds. It represents the tournament committee’s subjective
rating of the various players, and chances of winning the tournament.

Special Seeding
It is a method of seeding in which the players or teams directly participate in the quarter final
or semi-final matches thus avoiding their participation in the initial rounds.

2. Bye Method
Bye means the avoiding of playing a match in the first round of the tournament. It is a
privilege given to a team which is decided generally by seeding it or by draw of lots. Some
teams may get bye in first round, by which they get promoted to higher round competition.

This may be given as a reward for their some previous achievements. Byes can be applied
equally to single person competitions and team sports as well as to single game eliminations
and best of series elimination. Byes are given in 1st round only. The number of byes that
should be given in a tournament is decided by finding the difference between the number of
teams and the next power of two.
Example : (N – 1) if 20 teams are participating, then 19 matches (20 – 1) =19 will be played.

Method of Drawing Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

In order to draw fixtures in a knock-out tournament, following things are essential to
calculate

1. Total Number of Matches It means the total number of matches that will be played
during the entire tournament. The number of matches to be played is calculated by
subtracting 1 from total number of teams (N – 1).
Suppose total teams are 11 so matches to be played during the tournament are 10 (11 – 1).

2. Number of Rounds It means the total number of rounds that should be played during the
tournament. Rounds will include the initial rounds, quarter finals, semi finals and finals. If the
number of teams is a power of 2, then number of rounds will exactly be multiple of 2 up to
that number.
Example :

If number of teams is not a power of 2, then number of rounds will be equal to the multiple of
next power of two.
Example :

The next power of 2 after 21 is 32 which is 25.

3. Number of teams in each half All the teams are divided into two halves for the sake of
convenience. If the number of teams is even, then the number of teams in upper and lower
half will be equal i.e Total teams 20 then apply the formulae N2
Number of teams in upper half
N2=202=10
Number of teams in lower half
N2=202=10
If the number of tearms is odd ,then applyN+12 for upper half and N−12
Example : Total teams = 15
Number of teams in upper half
N+12=15+12=8
Number of teams in lower half
N−12=15−12=8
4. Number of byes Teams getting the byes do not play in the initial round. They are given by
subtracting the number of teams by the next power of 2.
Example 1 : Total number of teams =19
Next power of two after 19 = 32
Power of two – 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32
therefore number of byes will be 32 – 19 =13

Example 2 : Total number of teams =12

Next power of two after 12 = 16
therefore number of byes 16 – 12 = 4
Hence, 13 teams in example 1 and 4 teams in example 2 will not play the match in 1st round.

5. Number of byes in upper and lower half

For calculating how many teams in upper and lower half will get byes, the method is as
follows
Number of byes in upper half = Nb−12
Number of byes in lower half= Nb+12
Total number of byes = 13
Number of byes in upper half= 13−12=6
Number of byes in lower half= 13+12=7
6. Method of fixing byes The number of the teams are placed in upper and lower half
according to the draw of lots or using other methods. Then following procedure is adopted for
fixing the byes.
The last team of lower half gets first bye.
The first team of upper half gets second bye.
The first team of lower half gets third bye.
The last team of upper half gets fourth bye.
The second last team of lower half gets fifth bye.
Like this the order continues.

7. Method of Seeding It is done to prevent the strong teams from competing with each other
in the initial round. Therefore the strong teams are placed in the position where they will get
bye i.e. placing the strong teams on the last position of lower half or first position of upper
half.
Example : Total no. of teams = 6
Next power of two after 6 = 8
No. of byes 8 – 6 =2
Seeding = Last of lower half and first of upper half.
Number of matches 6 – 1 = 5
Examples
Example 1 A fixture of 19 teams on knock-out basis.

Total matches = N – 1 = 19 – 1 = 18
Number of teams in upper half
N+12=19+12=202=10 teams
Number of teams in lower half
N−12=19−12=182=9 teams
Total number of byes
= Next power of two – Total number of teams = 32 – 19=13 byes
Number of byes in upper half
Totalnumberofbyes−12

i.e[Nb−12]=13−12=122=6byes
Number of byes in lower half
=Totalnumberofbyes+12
[Nb+12]=13+12=142=7byes
Example 2 A fixture of 12 teams where 4 teams getting special seeding.
Total number of teams =12
Number of teams m upper half = N2=122=6
Number of teams in lower half = N2= 6
Teams setting special seeding = 4
Number of matches = 12 – 1 = 11
Fixture

Team number 1,2, 11 and 12 do not play the match initially as they get special seeding.

 Winner of each bracket enters the next round while losers are eliminated. For
example, Team 3 and 4 play match number 1. If 3 wins, then 4 is eliminated
from the tournament.
 If the number of teams/ players is odd, then number of teams in upper half and
lower half each is N+12
 Teams getting special seeding do not play initial rounds just like byes

Fixtures in League Tournaments

The three methods used for drawing up fixtures are

1. Staircase method
2. Cyclic method
3. Tabular method

Note We will cover in detail the first two methods because these two methods are included in
syllabus.

1. Staircase Method
In this method, the fixtures are made like a staircase. It is arranged in sequential form, there is
no bye, no problem of odd or even and therefore it is easiest to arrange. An example will
illustrate this method.
Example : Draw up a fixture of 9 teams on Round Robin basis using staircase method.
The number of teams = 9
Thus, number of matches
N(N−1)2=9(9−1)2=9×82=36matches
The fixture is given below

2. Cyclic Method
In this method, if the number of teams is even (i.e. 4, 6, 8, ….), team 1 is fixed on the top
right side and the other teams move in clockwise direction down one side of a rectangle and
up on the other side. In such a case, the number of rounds will be N-1 if there are N teams
participating. However, if the number of teams is odd (i.e. 3, 5, 7,….), a ‘bye’ is fixed at the
top and all teams follow it in sequence. In such a case, the number of rounds will be N.

Example 1 Fixture of 6 teams on cyclic method.

Total number of teams = 6
Total number of matches = N(N−1)2=6(6−1)2=15
Total number of rounds = N – 1 = 5

Example 2 Fixture of 5 teams on cyclic method.

Total number of teams = 5
Total number of matches = N(N−1)2=5(5−1)2=10
Total number of rounds = 5

Deciding the Winner

The method to decide the winner in the tournaments is by calculating the percentage of
matches won.
percentage=MatchesWonMatchesPlayed×100
1.5 Intramurals
The word intramural is derived from the Latin words intra and muros, which means ‘within
walls’. The teams compete within the walls of the institution e.g. inter-class or inter-house
tournament within an institution.
The objectives of intramurals are as follows
  To provide incentive, motivation and opportunity to learn various skills.
 To develop sportsman spirit among students.
 To help in recreation of the students.
 To improve-social interaction among the students.

Intramural competitions are conducted by the intramural committee of the institution.

Significance of intramurals are as follows

 It improves the sense of citizenship and adult living. ,

 It helps in selection of teams for participation in extramural tournaments.
 It brings out the hidden talent of the students.
 It develops leadership qualities in students.
 It creates recreational atmosphere among the teachers and students.

1.6 Extramurals
This encloses the activities which are performed outside the walls of the institution or school.
It means that students of two or more schools participate in such competitions.
The objectives of extramurals are

 To improve the standard of sports.

 To provide experience to students.
 To develop sportsmanship and fraternity.
 To broaden the base of sports.
 To provide the knowledge of new rules and advanced techniques.

Significance of extramurals are as follows

 They provide recreational opportunities for the campus community. ..

 They give positive experiences, regardless of race, nationality, age and gender.
 They provide an opportunity to develop motor skills which will be beneficial
throughout life.
 They develop important values and skills such as self-esteem, social skills,
sportsmanship and self-motivation.
 They give an opportunityfor relaxation from strenuous school work and the
rapid pace of modern living.

1.7 Specific Sports Programmes

Specific sports programmes are those which are not usually related to competitions. The
programmes have various objectives like creating awareness, creating a sense of integration
among people and raising funds for charitable organisations. Some of these programmes are
Sports day. Run for fun, Health run, Run for specific cause. Run for unity and Run for
awareness.
Chapter 2 Sports and Nutrition
April 22, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 2 Sports and Nutrition is part of Physical
Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical
Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 2 Sports and Nutrition.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 2

Sports and Nutrition
Balanced Diet and Nutrition
A balanced diet is that which contains the proper amount of each nutrient. A balanced diet
consists of all essential food constituents i.e. protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and
minerals in correct proportion. Nutrition is the science that deals with food and its uses by the
body. Food supplies the energy for every action our body undertakes, from eating bananas to
running a race. Food also provides material that our body needs to build and repair its tissues
and to regulate the functions of its organs and systems. The chemicals in food which our
body needs and are essential for the growth and replacement of tissues are called nutrients.

Macro and Micro Nutrients Macro Nutrients

The macro nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in all activities that we do. The elements of
carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are organic compounds
which are important for our digestive process. They require less water in diet. There primary
function is to provide energy to the body, especially to the brain and nervous system. There
are two main types of carbohydrates i.e. simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates.

Proteins
Proteins are the basic constituents of our cells. They are large molecules, so they cannot get
directly into our blood. So, they turned into amino acid by our digestive system. There are 23
amino acid and only 9 are available in diet. Proteins form tissues, repair the broken tissues,
regulate balance of water and oxygen etc. They are body building foods. Foods rich in
proteins are eggs, meat, fish and dairy products as well as pulses, nuts and cereals

Fats
Fats contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. These are the most concentrated source of energy
in food. Fats have a very high energy content. Foods rich in fats are butter, oil, sausage,
cheese, fish, chocolate, olives and nuts. If we permanently take too little exercise, we become
overweight or even ill. Many fats are unhealthy such as trans-fats in deep fried foods.
Micro Nutrients
Micro nutrients are vitamins, minerals and secondary plant compounds.

Vitamins
Vitamins are compounds of carbon which are essential for the normal growth and working of
the body. They are required in very small quantities. Many of them can be stored in the body
for months or even years but others need to be freshly absorbed every day. There are two
groups of vitamins i.e. fat soluble and water soluble

Fat Soluble Vitamins The vitamins that are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and
are soluble in fats such as vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K. The fat soluble
vitamins are explained below

 Vitamin A This is essential for normal growth of the body. Deficiency of vitamin A
leads to night blindness and also affects the kidneys, nervous system and digestive
system. Sources are milk, curd, ghee, egg yolk, fish, tomato, papaya, green vegetables,
orange, spinach, carrot and pumpkin.
 Vitamin D This is essential for the formation of healthy teeth and bones. The presence
of this vitamin in the body enables it to absorb calcium and phosphorus. Its deficiency
causes rickets, softness of bones and teeth diseases. Sources are egg yolk, fish,
sunlight, vegetables, cod liver oil, milk, cream and butter.
 Vitamin E This is essential in increasing the fertility among men and women as well as
proper functioning of adrenal and sex glands. Its deficiency causes weakness in
muscles and heart. Sources are green vegetables, sprouts, coconut oil, dry
and fresh fruits, milk, meat, butter and maize.
 Vitamin K This is helpful in the clotting of blood. Its deficiency causes anaemia and
blood does not clot easily.
Sources are cauliflower, spinach, cabbage, tomato, potato, wheat, egg and meat.

Water Soluble Vitamins The vitamins that are composed of nitrogen, sulphur and are
soluble in water such as vitamin B complex, vitamin C.

 Vitamin B Complex There are 12 vitamins in this group, some of them are Bj, B2, B3,
B6 and B12. They are necessary for growth, proper functioning of heart, liver, kidney
and maintains smooth skin. Its deficiency causes Beri-Beri disease. Pellagra and also
decreases immunity.

Sources are wheat, milk, nuts, peas, egg yolk and sprouts.

 Vitamin B, (Thiamin) Vitamin Bt or Thiamin, helps to release energy from foods,

promotes normal appetite, and is important in maintaining proper nervous system
function.
 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Riboflavin or Vitamin B2, helps to release energy from
foods, promotes good vision, and healthy skin. It also helps to convert the amino acid
tryptophan (which makes up protein) into niacin.
 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Vitamin B3 or niacin works with other B-complex vitamins to
metabolise food and provides energy for the body. Vitamin B3 is involved in energy
production, normal enzyme function, digestion, promoting normal appetite, healthy
skin and nerves.
 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Vitamin B6 is a key factor in protein and glucose
metabolism as well as in the formation of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a component
 of red blood cells-it carries oxygen. Vitamin B is also involved in keeping the lymph
nodes and thymus gland healthy.
 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Vitamin B12 is also known as Cobalamin, aids in the
building of genetic material, production of normal red blood cells, and maintenance of
the nervous system.
 Vitamin C Vitamin C is also called Ascorbic acid, which is a water-soluble vitamin
and cannot be stored in the body. Most plants and animals can produce their own
vitamin C but humans cannot. Vitamin C is needed for proper growth, development,
and to heal wounds. It is used to make the collagen tissue for healthy teeth, gums,
blood vessels and bones. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy.

Minerals
Minerals contain elements needed by our body in small quantities. But these are essential for
proper growth and functioning of the body. A shortage of minerals can have severe effects on
health. For example, a long-term shortage of foods containing iodine in people leads to
thyroid gland diseases. Some of the important minerals are mentioned below

1. Iron It is important for the formation of haemoglobin. Its deficiency leads to anaemia
and sources are meat, eggs and dry fruits.
2. Calcium It is needed for the formation of strong bones, teeth and also for clotting of
blood and muscle contraction. Its deficiency causes rickets, asthma and sources are
milk, egg yolk, cheese and orange.
3. Phosphorus It is required for development of strong bones and teeth and also for
making energy. Its sources are egg, fish, meat and unpolished rice.
4. Potassium It is important for growth and keeping cells and blood healthy. Its
deficiency weakens the muscles of the body and sources are carrot, beet root, onion,
tomato, orange and mango.
5. Sodium It is needed for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Its sources are
milk and milk products, meat and eggs.
6. Iodine It is essential for proper thyroid function. Its deficiency causes goitre and
sources are seafood and salt.
7. Fluorine It is important to make the enamel (polish) of the teeth hard and prevents
dental caries.
8. Copper It is helpful in red blood cells,connective tissue and nerve fibre formation and
functioning.
9. Zinc It is required for insulin production and also for functioning of male prostate,
digestion and metabolism.

Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Components of Diet

Food components whether they are nutritive (providing calories) or non-nutritive (not
providing calories) are needed to a multitude of food and beverages. They not only provide a
sweet flavour to foods, they are also used to preserve foods (in jams or jellies), provide body
bulk and texture (in ice-cream and baked goods), enhance other flavours (like salty) and aid
in fermentation (in’breads and pickles).

The nutritive components of diet are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals.
Non-nutritive components do not contribute to the energy, calories or nutrition of the body.
Some non-nutritive components are essential for the body while others harm the body. Colour
compounds, flavour compounds, food addictives, plant compound, water, roughage or fibre
are some non-nutritive components of diet.
Eating for Weight Control
This means eating the right amount of food that contains all the essential nutrients required
by the body in proper quantities. Eating too much can lead to obesity and too less can lead to
underweight. Therefore eating the right amount will lead to healthy weight.

A Healthy Weight
The most accurate assessment of your ideal weight takes into account the composition of
your body, how much of your weight is lean body mass (muscles and bones) and how much
is body fat. For optimum health, body fat should be no more than 20% of total weight for
men and 30% for women. A person is maintaining healthy weight or not, can be checked with
the help of BMI

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of body fat calculated on the basis of height and
weight. This method applies to both adult men and women. To calculate BMI, take the
weight in kilograms and divide it by height taken in metres. Then divide the number once
again by height. For example, BMI is to be calculated by using the body mass index formula,
for
Height = 1.70 m, weight = 70 kg
BMI calculation = Bodyweightinkg(Heightinmetres)2
70(1.70)2=701.70×1.70=24.22
Once the BMI number is determined, the following table is used for determining whether the
person is of normal weight, overweight, underweight or obese.

BMI Weight status

Below 18.5 Underweight
18.5-24.9 Normal
25.0-29.9 Overweight
30.0 and above Obese

From the table, the score 24.22 shows normal weight status.

The Pitfalls of Dieting

People use various techniques of weight loss such as taking diet pills, fasting, reducing
calories consumption, exercise etc. There are some dangers pitfalls of dieting that need to be
checked for reducing weight in a healthy way.
The pitfalls of dieting are mentioned below

1. Eating too Little In dieting people take just 1500-1800 calories per day. But this is not
sufficient to meet the daily requirements. This may result in massive weight loss and
other related health problems.
2. More Drinking than Eating In order to reduce calorie consumption, more drinks are
taken like sweetened juices, sodas, tea and coffee with sugar. These increase the
weight.
3. Skipping Meals Not taking breakfast, lunch, dinner or proper meals reduces the
metabolic rate. Then the body starts conserving energy, the next time it gets food. This
also results in more intake of calories in next meal.
 4. Intake of Labelled Foods By taking foods that are labelled as Tow fat, Tow sugar,
Tow calories’ may not produce proper results. For example, drinking more tea with
sugarfree results in more intake of tea and hence greater calorie consumption.
5. Not Performing Exercises No exercises reduce the level of metabolism drastically
and there is no burning of calories. In that case dieting will not be effective.

Food Intolerance
Food intolerance is the intolerance of certain elements in some foods that cannot be properly
processed by our digestive system. It is pretty common to have an adverse reaction to a
certain food, but in most cases it is an intolerance rather than a true allergy. Although
intolerance and allergy may have similar symptoms, a food allergy can be more serious and it
usually comes on suddenly. Features of food intolerance are as follows

 Usually comes on gradually.

 May only happen when you eat a lot of a particular food.
 May only happen if you eat the food often.

Myths about Foods

Various food myths are prevailing in India as well as over the world. What, when and how
often to eat are questions confusing many people. People believe in these myths because the
myths seem credible. However, now that we have advanced scientific knowledge, we can
dispel these myths. The most common food related myths which are still prevalent in
contemporary society are

 Potatoes make us fat.

 Fat-free products help in reducing weight.
 Avoid eggs because they increase the cholesterol level.
 Drinking water while eating makes us fat.
 Don’t consume milk immediately after eating fish.
 Starve yourself if you want to lose weight.
 Exercising makes you eat more.

Sports Nutrition
Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition, that deals with the nutrition requirement
of sportspersons. Sports nutrition plays an important role to attain excellence in sports. The
appropriate proportion of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins and fibres are
essential for the proper nutrition of a sportsperson. As a result of the higher amount of
physical activities in sports, athletes require more nutrients to keep the energy level adequate.
During a sports training session, an athlete tends to lose a lot of fluids and electrolytes. Fluid
loss negatively affects the sports performance of an athlete if not replaced in time. Thus, it is
vital to drink enough water and electrolytes after a training session.

Effects of Diet on Performance

A proper diet is the intake of appropriate types and adequate amounts of foods and drinks to
supply nutrition and energy for the maintenance of body cells, tissues and organs and to
support normal growth and development. For a sportsperson athlete, it is essential to take a
balanced diet as a lot of physical activity and endurance is needed in sports. The quality of
sports diet depends on the correct proportion of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, salts
etc, which constitute the main nutrients of diet.
Factors Affecting Diet
Several factors that affect our diet are

 Age, Sex and Body Surface Area Diet differs from age to age. Youngsters need
different types of food both in quality as well as quantity as compared to older people
who need diet in less quantity and with lesser fats.
 Types and Duration of Activity Diet also depends on types of activities that we do
and their duration.
 Eating Habits and Social Customs Eating habits and social customs also affect the
diet of an individual.
 Climate Factors Food varies in different climates, like the diet is different in summers
as compared to winters
 Health Status and Growth If you are in a good state of health then you will have
good diet, whereas an unhealthy individual cannot have a similar diet, .

Pre, During and Post-Competition Fluid and Meal Intake

Nowadays sportsmen and women follow a controlled diet, particularly on the day of
competition. Although diet doesn’t turn poor . athletes into great ones, a proper diet makes
the difference between performing poorly and tapping your full potential.

The Pre-Competition Meal

The goal prior to a competition or a training session is to maximise carbohydrate stores in the
muscles and liver and to top up blood glucose stores. This helps in

 sustaining energy
 boosting
 performance
 hydrating the body
 preserving muscle mass and
 speeding recovery after competition.

Nutrition Requirement during Competition

What you eat or drink during competition, or a training session is important under specific
circumstances. Light meals are recommended and carbohydrates should be consumed in gel
form. Sports drinks may be useful since they have electrolytes that help speed hydration and
recovery. Many endurance athletes prefer to drink water and eat fruit and other foods to
supply their energy even on really long runs. If you are exercising intensely for longer than
two hours, especially in the heat, do not rely on water alone. This will decrease your
performance and your recovery. Use commercial carbohydrate drinks 15-20 minutes before
the start of the competition.

The Post-Competition Meal

Post-workout nutrition can help you

 recover
 re-hydrate
 refuel
 build muscle and
 improve future performance.
Ideally, a large, high-carbohydrate meal should be eaten within two hours of the finish of
competition. Bananas and dried fruits are good immediately following a match, as are
sandwiches and high-carbohydrate drinks. A main meal severed hours later might consist of
bread, pasta, potatoes and rice as well as other simple sugars like cakes, sweets and proteins.
Consume carbohydrates within 15 minutes after the competition is over. Then within 1-2
hours consume 100-200 gm carbohydrates and 20 gm proteins.

Food Supplements for Children

Food supplements, also known as dietary supplements, are nutrients that are added to your
diet. They provide vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, enzymes and other beneficial
substances. Taking a balanced diet regularly will not require the need of taking food
supplements. Food supplements are taken by children when they feel that their diet is not
proper.

Advantages of various food supplements are

 Supplements can contribute to improve muscular strength, endurance and overall

physical performance.
 Food supplements can also prevent a variety of diseases and health conditions.
 Protein supplements available as powders, shakes or bars, provide high quality protein
to your diet and boost your protein intake.

Disadvantages of various food supplements are

 Vitamin A toxicity, for example, can cause liver damage, blurred vision, headaches,
bone pain and swelling, drowsiness and nausea.
 Supplements can also interact with medications which can cause unwanted side effects
and decrease the efficacy of the medicine.
 Fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in your fat tissue if you regularly take in more
than you need.

Precautions which can be taken for food supplements are

 For optimal benefit, consult your doctor about the right dietary supplements for you.
Find out more about the supplement ingredients before you purchase the product.
 Avoid dietary supplements with megadoses of any ingredient, particularly vitamin A,
vitamin D and iron. A megadose is one that exceeds the recommended dietary intake.
Although megadoses can be beneficial for the treatment of certain health conditions,
they can also cause toxicity symptoms.
 Finally, stop taking any supplement if you experience an unpleasant side effect and
never combine supplements with medication or other supplements without your
doctor’s recommendations.
Chapter 3 Yoga and Lifestyle
April 22, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 3 Yoga and Lifestyle is part of Physical
Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical
Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 3 Yoga and Lifestyle.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 3

Yoga and Lifestyle
Asana as Preventive Measures
Asana refer to the many positions in which a person sits or stands to do yoga. It is a Sanskrit
word which means a ‘physical posture’. Various types of physical postures or asanas means
bending and stretching the body. This stimulates blood circulation, balance the nervous
system, benefits the various systems running in our body like digestive system, nervous
system, cardiovascular system, muscles, joints etc. Asanas are beneficial for the mind, psyche
and chakras (energy centres) thus preventing from many types of lifestyle diseases. Asanas
also help in receiving stress, treating anxiety and make a person mentally rejuvenated.

Obesity
The excess weight or deposition of excess fats on body is called obesity. It leads to various
diseases like diabetes, heart diseases, hypertension, lowered pulmonary functions, lowers life
expectancy. Obesity is a condition where your Body Mass Index (BMI) is higher than 30.

There are various reasons of obesity such as lack of proper exercise, eating habits,
psychological factors, endocrine glands problems, familial tendency. Males are at high risk
during age 29 to 35 and females are at risk during the age 45 to 49. The risk increases with
age. Various asanas can be practised effectively to reduce the weight, control obesity and
achieve normal healthy condition of body and mind. The major asanas to control obesity are
Vajrasana, Hastasana, Trikonasana and Ardha Matsyendrasana.

Their procedures, benefits and contraindications are listed below

Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]
Procedure

 It is done in sitting posture.

 Stand on the knees with the lower legs , together and stretched backwards,, the two .
big toes crossing each other.
 Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the thighs on
the calf muscles.
 Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
 Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.

Benefits
  Vajrasana modifies the blood flow in the lower pelvic region. It increases the.
efficiency of the digestive system.
 It helps to prevent acidity and ulcers by improving the digestion.
 It is a good meditative pose for those suffering from sciatica and severe lower back
problems.
 Supta Vajrasana strengthens the muscles in back, neck and chest regions. It expands the
chest and is good for lung problems.

Contraindications

 Vajrasana should not be practised by those suffering from severe knee pain.
 This asana should be avoided by recent surgery patients of legs or waist.
 If feel any pain in the ankles during Vajrasana, release the pose and massage the ankle
with the hands.

Hastasana
Procedure

 Hastasana is done in a standing posture. Start with standing in Tadasana and twist the
arms in a way that the palms are positioned away from the torso along with thumbs
facing backward. Inhale and along with it brush away your arms out and towards the
roof.
 Bring the arms parallel to one another and then without bending the shoulders push the
palms , tightly together.
 Expand the elbows completely and reach upwards. Then slightly slant your head
backwards and look at the thumbs.
 The shoulder blades need to be slithered down the spine
 Exhale along with tilting the torso towards the front from the joints of the hip into
standing in a forward bending position.

Benefits

 It stretches the complete body and provides a good massage to the arms, spine, upper
and lower back, ankles, hands, shoulders, calf muscles and thighs.
 It stretches the Organs of the stomach, and as a result enhances the digestive system
and increases the capacity of the lungs.
 This asana helps in enhancing the blood circulation of the body.
 It helps in enhancing the body postures.
 It helps in alleviating nervousness and melancholy along with providing asenSe of
Achievement.
 It helps in tightening the abdomen and helps in easing sciatica.

Contraindications
In case of shoulder or neck injuries, experiencing dizziness’ While staring’upwards and in
case of any other medical concerns.

Trikonasana [Triangle Pose]

Procedure

 This is done in a standing posture.

 Stand erect with feet about 3 feet apart with knees straight.
  Raise both the hands till they are in line with each other, parallel to the ground. Inhale
when you are raising the hands.
 Now bend towards the right and slightly bend the knees and touch the right foot with
the hands. Look up at the left hand. Exhale when you are bending down to touch the
foot. Keep the eyes open throughout the practice.
 Return to the standing position.
 Repeat this with the left hand touching the left foot.
 Practise as many rounds as is comfortable.

Beneits

 Strengthens the legs, knees, ankles, arms and chest.

 Stretches and opens the lower back region, groin area, hamstrings, calves, shoulders,
chest and spine.
 Increases mental and physical equilibrium.
 Helps improve digestion.
 Reduces anxiety, stress, back pain and sciatica Contraindications.
 Avoid doing this if suffering from migraine, diarrhoea, neck and back injuries.
 Those with high blood pressure may do this pose but without raising their hand
overhead, as this may further raise the blood pressure.

Ardha Matsyendrasana
(Half Spinal Twist Pose]
Procedure

 This is done in a sitting posture.

 Sit with legs straight and stretched in front of you.
 Bend the right leg, lift it and place it on the left side of the stretched left foot.
 Bend the left leg and bring close to the body. Place it under the right buttocks.
 Take the left arm around the right leg and grab the toes of the right leg with the left
hand.
 Now turn towards the right and simultaneously move the right hand behind the back.
Twist the back and the neck as far right as possible. Exhale while twisting the back and
neck.
 Breathe normally and slowly in this position.
 Repeat with the other leg.

Benefits

 It is one of the best poses to improve the flexibility of the spine.

 It stimulates the liver and kidneys.
 It stretches the shoulders, hips and neck.
 It energises the spine.
 It stimulates the digestive fire in the belly.
 It relieves menstrual discomfort, fatigue, sciatica and backache.
 It is therapeutic for asthma and infertility.

Contraindications

 Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation due to the strong twist in the abdomen.
 People with heart, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this asana.
 Avoid those who are having peptic ulcer or hernia.
  Those with severe spinal problems should avoid.
 Those with mild slipped disc can benefit but in severe cases it should be avoided.

Diabetes
Diabetes is a better known lifestyle disease. It has become an epidemic worldwide. Yoga
helps a lot to control and prevent this disease. Different asanas help to stimulate the
production of insuline that helps in controlling diabetes. The asanas to control diabetes are

Bhujangasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying posture.

 Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
 Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder level
and palms on floor.
 Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor take five
breaths at least.
 Exhale slowly come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.

Benefits

 It improves the blood circulation and energises the heart.

 It decreases menstrual irregularities in females.
 It strengthens muscles of chest, shoulders, arms and abdomen.
 It is effective in uterine disorder.
 It improves the function of reproductive organ.
 It improves the function of liver, kidney, pancreas and gall bladder.
 It helps to lose weight.
 It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
 It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
 It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.

Contraindications

 Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

 Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
 Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.

Contraindications

 Avoid during pregnancy.

 People having a hernia problem and backache should not do this asana.
 Avoid those who are suffering from ulcer, heart problem or any surgeries like spine and
brain.

Paschimottanasana
Procedure

 This is done in sitting posture.

 Sit on the floor with the outstretched legs.
  Inhale and lengthen the abdomen then lift the chest.
 Exhale bend forwards from the hips. Keep the shoulders open and the head up.
 Reach forwards and hold the big toes in a lock with the middle and index fingers.
 Inhale, lengthen the torso, bring the sternum forward.
 Exhale, bring the chest and abdomen down to the thighs and the elbows out to the
sides.
 Stay in this position for 5 deep breaths and relax the muscles while exhale.
 Focus on stretching the hamstrings rather than getting the head to the knees.

Benefits

 It stretches hamstrings, spine, shoulders and hip joints.

 It massages the pancreas and improves
 It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
 It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
 It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.

Contraindications

 Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

 Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
 Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.

Pawanmuktasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying position.

 Lie flat on the back and keep the legs, straight, relax breathe .deeply and regularly.
 Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till the
thigh touches to stomach.
 Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
 Place the nose tip between the knees.
 Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i,e. Shavasana.
 This is very beneficial for stomach as The results are very impressive.

Benefits

 It cures acidity, indigestion and constipation.

 It is helpful for those suffering from. gastrointestinal problems, arthritis, pain, heart
problems and waist pain.
 It strengthens back muscle and cures back pain.
 It is very beneficial for reproductive organs and for menstruation disorder.

Contraindications

 Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip disc
and ulcer should avoid.
 During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.
digestion.
Ardha Matsyendrasana
Procedure

 This is done in sitting posture.

 Sit straight with stretching the legs in front of you then fold the left leg properly.
 Place the ankle near the hip.
 Place the right leg towards the outside of the left knee on the ground.
 Keep straight the left hand, while taking it near the outside of the right knee and hold
the right toe.
 Fold the right hand behind the back and look backwards.
 The same should be repeated in the alternate position from the other side also.

Benefits

 It increases the flexibility and function of vertebrae of the spine.

 It helps to cure constipation and indigestion.
 It increases oxygen supply to the lungs.
 It is beneficial for slipped disc patients.
 It is helpful in treatment of diabetes, constipation, cervical, urinary, spinal problems.

Contraindications

 Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation cycle.

 People with cardiac problem, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this asana.
 People having peptic ulcer or hernia should avoid.
 Avoid those who are having severe spinal problems and mild slipped disc.

Asthma
Asthma is a universal chronic airway inflammatory disease of the air passage caused by
excessive air sensitiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease can be managed, controlled
and cured by performing various asanas that help in curing asthma.
The asanas to control asthma are

Sukasana
Procedure

 This is done in a sitting position.

 Sit cross legged on the floor or any other flat surface.
 Bring one foot over the opposite knee. Place both the palms on your knees and close
your eyes.
 Breathe slowly and concentrate on the breathing pattern.
 Continue breathing in the same way for 5 minutes.

Benefits

 It helps to make the back stronger and elongate the knees and ankles.
 It is beneficial for opening the muscles of groin, hips and the outer thighs.
 It relieves from physical and mental tiredness and eliminates worries from the person’s
mind.
  It can relive from backache as well as pain.
 It is a good posture to sit for a long time.

Contraindications

 In case of severe knee and back injury, it is required to sit over the folded blanket or
take the assistance of the bolster or pillow.
 If face difficulties in this pose then try placing the blanket or bolster under the thighs.

Chakrasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying posture.

 Lie down properly and look upward.
 Bring the feet closer to the hips and bend knees upward; keep a distance of about one
foot between the feet.
 Bring up the hands near to the ears and put the palms on the ground as the fingers
facing on the shoulders.
 Gradually, lift up the body in air by balancing on feet and rotate the head backward
along with hands slowly.
 Reach the final position by stretching the whole body to forming a position look like a
semi-circle.
 Now maintain this position as longer as possible. To reach the normal position, slowly
lower down the body to touch the ground and release the hands and feet.

Benefits

 It helps to strengthen liver, pancreas, kidneys and heart.

 It is good for infertility, asthma and osteoporosis.
 It strengthens arms, shoulders, hands, wrists and legs buttocks, abdomen and spine.
 It stretches the chest and lungs.
 It helps to stimulate the thyroid and pituitary glands.
 It helps to increase energy and counteracts depression.

Contraindications

 Those who are suffering from diarrhoea, heart problems and hernia should avoid this.
 Avoid during pregnancy.
 Avoid those who have wrist, ankles and spine pain.
 Hypertension or hypotension person should avoid this asana.

Gomukhasana [Cow Face Pose)

Procedure

 This is a sitting asana.

 Sit erect and stretch both legs together in front, hands by the side, palm resting on the
ground, fingers of the hands together.
 Fold right leg at the knee and place it on the ground by the side of the left buttock.
 Bringing the left leg from above the right leg, place it on the ground by the side of the
right buttock.
 Now place the palms on the knee one above the other and sit erect.
  After some time return to the original position.
 Change the position of the legs i.e. by placing the right knee above and the left knee
down and repeat this as much as you can.

Benefits

 It helps to stretch and strengthen the muscles of the ankles, hips and thighs, shoulders,
triceps, inner armpits and chest.
 It is helpful in the treatment of sciatica.
 It enhances the workings of the kidneys by stimulating it, thus helping those suffering
from diabetes.
 Regular practice can reduce stress and anxiety.

Contraindications

 Those who are suffering from shoulder, knee or backpain should avoid this.
 People suffering from any kind of knee injury/problem avoid this.

Parvatasana (Mountain Pose)

Procedure

 it down on the floor in a cross legged position or Sukhasana and Padmasana (lotus
ppse).
 Bring the hands in the front and interlock the fingers.
 Breathe out and move the hands over the head. Keep the fingers interlocked and hands
stretched upwards.
 Pull the torso in upward direction and stretch.
 Hold this position for a little longer and breathe
normally.
 Bring down the hands as in original position. Unlock the hands and keep them aside
and stretch the legs in the front and relax.

Benefits

 It helps to improve the blood circulation around the body.

 It reduces mental fatigue and improves the memory.
 It reduces muscle pain, especially in back and neck regions.
 It helps to reduce the problems of carpal tunnel syndrome, rheumatic stiffness.
 It helps in stimulating the synthesis of growth hormone.

Contraindications

 Don’t bend the elbow or overstrain the knees.

 Avoid any forward movement.
 Avoid hunching of the back during sitting position.
 People with hunch back, stiff shoulder should avoid.

Bhujangasana
Procedure
  This is done in lying posture.
 Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
 Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder level
and palms on floor.
 Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor and take five
breaths at least.
 Exhale slowly and come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.
 It is equally effective in all the cases.

Benefits

 It gives a good stretch to the lungs, shoulders, chest and abdomen.

 It is helpful in stress release.
 It is known to open up the lungs and the heart i.e. it helps protect from diseases of
bronchiatis.
 It relieves sciatica and asthma.

Contraindications

 Avoid if suffering from hernia, back injuries, carpal tunnel syndrome.

 Avoid during pregnancy.
 Avoid if undergone recent abdominal surgeries.

Paschimottasana
Procedure

 This is done in sitting position.

 Sit straight with the legs together by stretching in front. Keep the head neck and spine
erect.
 Place the palms on the respective knees.
 Now bend the head and trunk slowly forward and catch the toes with the thumb, index
and middle fingers without bending knees.
 Take a deep breath and exhale slowly.
 Bend the arm and try to touch the elbow on the floor.
 After few seconds slowly return to your starting position.
 Breathe normally.

Benefits

 It relieves stress and relaxes the mind.

 It removes anxiety, anger and irritability.
 It stretches the spine and brings flexibility.
 It helps to remove constipation and digestive disorder.
 It is useful for increasing height.
 It is helpful for women after childbirth.

Contraindications

 Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

 Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
 Ulcer patients also avoid this practice.
Matsyanasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying position.

 Sit and fold both the legs together.
 Slowly lie down on the back and hold the elbows.
 Place the palms next to ears, towards the shoulder blade.
 Raise the trunk and head then press palms and waist and place the crown of the head
on the floor.
 Place both the hands on the thighs then relax the elbow on the floor and try to hold the
toe with the fingers.
 Crown of head and lower body on the floor making an arc shape on the back. Maintain
this pose at least 50 or 100 counts.
 Now carefully release the fingers from the toes, push the palms on the floor then raise
the head and the shoulder blades and take rest. Straighten the legs and take a position
of Savasana.

Benefits

 It reduces headache caused by stiffness of the neck.

 It refreshes back muscles and the spinal cord.
 It cures asthma and respiratory disorders.
 It will be helpful to take deep sleep or normal sleep and get emancipate from insomnia
due to work stress.

Contraindications

 Avoid those who are suffering from high or low blood pressure.
 Avoid those who are suffering from migraine.,
 Avoid those who are suffering from ‘ serious lower-back or neck injury.

Hypertension
Blood pressure is the force of blood in the arteries. When this pressure becomes – abnormally
high then it is called hypertension or high blood pressure. Stress is a major factor that causes
hypertension. Yoga can be a very beneficial therapy for controlling blood pressure. The
gentle, soothing practice of asanas settles both mind and body and reduces stress which
causes hypertension. There are different types of asanas for the treatment of hypertension.

Tadasana [Mountain Pose]

Procedure

 This is a standing asana.

 Stand straight with the feet together.
 Slowly lift the toes and place them back on the floor.
 Pull up the kneecaps and squeeze the thighs.
 Inhale and lift up from the waist.
 Breathe and hold for 4 to 8 breaths.
 Exhale and drop the shoulders down.

Benefits
  It improves body posture and reduces flat feet problem.
 Knees, thighs and ankles become stronger.
 Buttocks and abdomen get toned.
 It helps to alleviate sciatica.
 It also makes spine more agile.
 It helps to increase height and improve balance.
 It regulates digestive, nervous and respiratory systems

Contraindications

 Avoid during headaches.

 Avoid during insomnia.
 Avoid during low blood pressure.

Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]

 It is done in sitting posture.

 Stand on the knees with the lower legs together and stretched backwards, the two big
toes crossing each other.
 Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the thighs on
the calf muscles.
 Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
 Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.

Benefits

 It enhances blood circulation.

 It helps to improve digestion.
 Food gets digested well if one sits in Vajjasana after taking meals.
 It relieves excessive gas trouble or pain.
 Nerves of legs and thighs are strengthened.
 It helps to make knee and ankle joints flexible.
 It prevents from certain rheumatic diseases.

Contraindications

 Avoid if acute trouble or stiffness in foot, ankle and knees.

 Avoid during slip disc conditions.

Pawanmuktasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying position.

 Lie flat on the back and keep the legs straight, relax, breathe deeply and regularly.
 Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till the
thigh touches to stomach.
 Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
 Place the nose tip between the knees.
 Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i.e. Shavasana.
 This is very beneficial for stomach abs. The results are very impressive.
Benefits

 It helps to strengthen the back.

 It massages the abdominal muscles.
 It helps in digestion.
 It reduces belly fat.

Contraindications

 Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip disc
and ulcer should avoid.
 During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.

Ardha Chakrasana Procedure

 This is a standing asana.

 Stand straight and arms alongside the body.
 Balance the weight equally on both feet.
 Breathing in, extend the arms overhead, palms facing each other.
 Bend backwards, push the pelvis forward, keeping the arms in line with the ears,
elbows and knees straight, head up and lifting the chest towards the ceiling.
 Breathing out, bring the arms down and relax.

Benefits

 It stretches the front upper torso.

 It tones the arms and shoulder muscles.

Contraindications

 Avoid during headache.

 Avoid during serious back injury.

Bhujangasana
Procedure

 This is done in lying posture.

 Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
 Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder level
and palms on floor.
 Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor and take five
breaths at least.
 Exhale slowly and come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.

Benefits

 It increases immunity.
 It strengthens the back muscles and spinal cord.
 It helps to cure lumbago and lower back pain problems.
 It helps to cure kidney related diseases.
  It gives fast cure for disorders of ovaries in women.

Contraindications

 Avoid during pregnancy.

 People having a hernia problem and backache should not do this asana.
 Avoid those who are suffering from ulcer, heart problem or any surgeries like spine and
brain.
Chapter 4 Physical Education and
Sports for CWSN
April 22, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 4 Physical Education and Sports for
CWSN – Children with Special Needs : Divyangs is part of Physical Education Class 12
Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical Education Class 12 Notes
Class 12
Chapter 4 Physical Education and Sports for CWSN – Children with

Notes Chapter 4 Physical Education and Sports

for CWSN – Children with Special Needs :
Divyangs
4.1 Concept of Disability and Disorder
Disability and disorder are two separate terms that stand for different types of physical and
mental conditions.

Concept of Disability
The term disability means any kind of impairment or permanent reduction in physical or
mental capacity. The reduction can be related to any kind of physical loss, mental illness,
intellectual impairment or reduction in the use of sense organs. This may be present from
birth or occur during a person’s lifetime. This affects a person’s participation in different
areas of life and reduces the full use of body structures and functions.
Definition – “A disability is defined as a condition or function judged to be significantly
impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group,”

Concept of Disorder
Disorder is any ailment that disturbs the health of a person, hinders a person’s performance
and diminishes his/her efficiency. Disorder grows inside a person, they are small in the
beginning but may become serious and grow into a disability. There are many kinds of
disorders like mental disorder, neurological disorder, hyper activity disorder, eating disorder,
addiction disorder, attention disorder etc.
Definition – “Disorder can be defined as a blip in the usual functioning of a person.”

4.2 Types of Disability, Its Causes and Nature

Disability is conceptualised as being a multidimensional experience as it may affect the
organs and body parts which hampers a person’s life in many ways.

Types of Disability
There are three types of disabilities which are as follows
[i] Cognitive Disability
The nature of this disability is mental since cognitive domain is related to using mental
abilities and achieving results from it.
It is related to impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour. Intellectual
functioning means person’s ability to plan, comprehend and reason while adaptive behaviour
refers to applying social and practical skills in everyday life. Children suffering from
dyslexia, learning difficulties, speech disorders, problem in solving math calculations, short
span of attention and short of memory are said to have cognitive disability.
Causes of cognitive disability are as follows

 Cognitive impairment may be present at birth and may be genetic or chromosomal or

result from complications of pregnancy.
 Chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome.
 Genetic abnormalities such as phenylketonuria, Hunter syndrome etc.
 Prenatal drug and infections and exposure to alcohol.
 Lack of oxygen during labour pain or birth.

[ii] Intellectual Disability

The nature of this disability is also mental since the intellectual domain is related to using the
capacity of the mind. It is a disability characterised by significant limitations in both
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour. This is characterised by low intelligence
quotient score (under 70) and significant problems in the ways learners adapt to new
situations. It is different from cognitive because cognitive is a broad concept while
intellectual disability is specific in nature.
Causes of intellectual disability are as follows

1. Genetic Conditions These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome.
2. Problems during Pregnancy This can interfere with fetal brain development.
3. Alcohol or Drug Use may also cause intellectual disability.
4. Problems during Childbirth Like if a baby is deprived of oxygen during childbirth or
born extremely premature.
5. Illness or Injury Infection like meningitis, whooping cough or measles can lead to
intellectual disability. Extreme malnutrition, infections in the brain, exposure to toxic
substances such as lead, and severe neglect or abuse can also cause it.

[iii] Physical Disability

The nature of this disability is physical since it relates to physical functioning of the body
parts including sense organs.
This refers to the limitation on a person’s physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina.
This includes upper or lower limb loss, poor manual dexterity, visual impairment, hearing
loss or disability in coordination with different organs of the body. Apart from these,
respiratory disorders, epilepsy and sleep disorders are also considered physical disability.
Causes of physical disability are as follows

 Illnesses like cancer, heart attack or diabetes cause the majority of long-term
disabilities.
 Back pain, injuries and arthritis are also significant causes.
 Lifestyle choices and personal behaviour that lead to obesity are also becoming major
contributing factors.
 Musculoskeletal disorders also cause disabilities. Examples include spine/joint
disorders, fibromytis etc.
  Genetic causes like gene inheritance can cause this disability.

4.3 Types of Disorder, Its Causes and Nature

A disorder is referred to as a disturbance in physical or mental health or functions that causes
dysfunction. Some types of disorder are discussed below

ADHD
[Attention Deficit’ Hyperactivity Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to . behavioural changes or disorders. About 10% of
school going kids suffer from ADHD,
Boys are more suspectible to this disorder than girls. The common symptoms of this disorder
are hyperactivity, trouble focusing on a task, very short span of attention and missing
details. . Children with ADHD may understand what’s expected of them but have trouble
following the instructions required to complete the task. ‘ Young children mostly act in this
way when they are excited or anxious but the difference with ADHD is that these symptoms
are present over a longer period of time and take place in different settings. The ADHD
disorder affects a child’s academic performance as well as social behaviour. Causes of
ADHD are .

1. Genes and Heredity Genetic inheritance and abnormalities in genes may cause this
disorder.
2. Brain Injury and Epilepsy Children who have had traumatic brain injuries or who have
epilepsy can often have ADHD-like symptoms.
3. Environmental Causes Prenatal exposure to smoke, exposure to high levels of lead as a
toddler and preschooler is possible contributor.

SPD [Sensory Processing Disorder]

This is a condition in which the brain has trouble in receiving and responding to information
that comes in through the senses. The SPD is related to mental nature. There the sensory
inputs are not organised by the brain in an appropriate manner.
The common symptoms are showing heightened reactivity to sound, touch or movement.
Under-reactive in certain situations example not noticing when name is called, lethargic,
disinterested, poor motor skills, lack of attention, impulsive behaviours etc. The SPD
interferes with the children’s normal everyday functioning. They also have delayed
communication and social skills. SPD also impacts on a person’s ability to interact with
different environments. Causes of SPD are as follows

 Genetic or hereditary factors such as having a family history of autism, SPD.

 Have been understimulated during critical periods of neurological development.
 Have been exposed to variety of environmental toxins.
 Have food allergies.
 Having developmental delays and other , neurological disorders.

ASD [Autism Spectrum Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness which then changes the behaviour. It is
a complex .developmental disorder that affects normal brain development. The symptoms of
ASD are difficulty in communication and interaction with people. They also have repetitive
behaviour patterns like flicking a light switch repeatedly, smelling everything, flipping
objects etc.
Children with ASD also have sensory sensitivities such as not using eye contact, confused by
language, repeating a word etc. Here the brain does not function in the typical’way due to
which they face developmental challenges.. Children and adults with ASD do not acquire
good social skills and face many behavioural problems. They often stare at a particular
person or object, like a few foods, get over excited by certain sounds etc.
Causes of ASD are as follows

1. ASD can be the result of heredity factors, genetic differences and genetic mutations.
2. It can also cause through abnormal mechanisms of brain development and other
neurobiological factors.
3. Environmental factors related to exposure to drugs, toxins like lead, insecticides,
hydrocarbons and dietary factors may cause ASD.

ODD [Oppositional Defiant Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to social behaviours. This behaviour disorder usually
takes place in early teens. Apart from teens, ODD also affects young children especially
boys. In children it begins from the age of 8 years. About 2-16% of children are affected by
ODD. The main symptoms of ODD are similar patterns of anger, irritable mood, saying
hateful things, flaring up at trivial matters, seeking revenge etc.

Here children in their early teens try to defy authority every now and then, they express their
defiance by arguing, disobeying, talking back to parents, teachers and other adults. Though
this type of behaviour is normally seen among all the teenagers but the difference in ODD is
that the behaviour lasts more than 6 months and is excessive in comparison to other children
of the same age. This kind of behaviour often disrupts the child’s normal daily activities and
hampers academic performance.
Causes of ODD are as follows

1. Genetics A child’s natural disposition or temperament and possible neurobiological

differences in the way nerves and the brain function may cause ODD.
2. Environment Problems with parenting that may involve a lack of supervision,
inconsistent or harsh discipline, or abuse or neglect also cause ODD.

OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness. This usually takes place in people of
middle ages. Males and females both are equally affected by OCD. About 15-20% of the
people experience OCD in mild forms. The symptoms of this disorder are people doing
repetative behaviours, performing routine tasks over an over again or having certain thoughts
repeatedly.

Some examples of this type of disorder are frequent or excessive hand washing, counting to
things repeatedly, checking if a door is locked again and again. These activities occur to such
a degree that it affects a person’s life negatively. The OCD can become serious and may
cause other problems related to mental illness.
Causes of OCD are as follows

1. Familial Disorder The disorder may run in the family, therefore close relatives of
people with OCD are likely to develop it.
 2. Behavioural Causes The behavioural theory suggests that people with OCD associate
certain objects or situations with fear and learn to avoid those things or learn to
perform rituals in order to help reduce the fear or the stress related to that situation.
3. Cognitive Causes This happens when people misinterpret their thoughts like the feeling
of dirty hands even when they are cleaned many times.
4. Environmental Causes This means stressful situation present in the environment such
as within the family or society that triggers OCD in people.

4.4 Disability Etiquettes

Disability etiquettes is a set of guidelines to deal with the people facing physical or mental
disabilities. It was started as a clinical play on existing rule sheets, written for non-disabled
audiences that were seen as demeaning by civil rights activists in 1970s. The term serves to
communicate people with disabilities more respectfully in all types of situations. It refers to
educate people regarding disabilities. It involves treating people with disabilities with respect
and care, and try to bring them into a normal life.

Disability Etiquettes in General

 Always respect the dignity of a disabled person, individuality and desire for
independence.
 Treat a person with disability in the same manner and with the same respect and
courtesy as with others.
 Speak directly to the person rather than through the friend, attendant or sign-language
interpreter who may also be present.
 Never speak about the person as if they are invisible, can’t understand what is being
said. .
 Don’t put people with a disability on a pedestal or talk to them in demeaning terms.

Disability Etiquette Guidelines

[i] ill Persons with Speech Difficulties

1. Give attention to the person who has difficulty

in speaking.
2. Keep manner to encourage rather than correcting.
3. Give extra time for the conversation and be patient.
4. If you have difficulty in understanding, don’t pretend that you do. Repeat as much as
you do understand.

[ii] Person with Hearing Loss

 Get the person’s attention with a wave of the hand, or a tap on the shoulder.
Speak clearly and slowly, but without exaggerating your lip movements or shouting.
 Many persons with hearing loss read lips. Place yourself facing the light source and
keep hands, cigarettes and food away from your mouth when talking in order to
provide a clear view of your face.
 When an interpreter accompanies a person, direct your remarks to the person rather
than to the interpreter.
 Look directly at the person and speak expressively.
 Use sign language if you and the person are both familiar with it.
[iii] Persons with Vision Loss

 When enter the room, indicate who is there. Let the person know when leaving the
room.
 When talking to a person with a visual impairment, begin to identifying yourself by
name and that you are speaking to them.
 When offering your assistance, do not grab the person’s cane or arm.
 If you are walking with a person who is blind, offer your arm for him/her to hold.
 Walk at the norma! pace. It is helpful to speak casually and naturally about the
environment, objects and buildings you are passing as you walk.
 Not all visually impaired people read Braille. Ask the person what alternative format
they prefer.

(iv) Persons with Cognitive / Language Impairments

 Use a calm voice and be comfortable. Use simple and short sentences.
 Do not argue with the person.
 Treat each person as an individual with talents and abilities deserving of respect and
dignity.
 Give extra time for the person to process what: you are saying and to respond. Look for
signs of stress and/Or confusion:

The rules of etiquettes and good manners to deal with people with disabilities are generally
the same as the rules for good etiquettes in society. These guidelines address.specific issues
which frequently arise for people with disabilities; Since everyone is different, these
guidelines only hold true for most individuals most of the time.

4.5 Advantage of Physical Activity for Children with Special Needs

Physical Activity
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, physical activity
generally refers to movement that enhances health.
It means the movement of the body that uses energy. Walking, running, dancing, swimming,
yoga and gardening are a few examples of physical activity. For health benefits, physical
activity should be moderate or vigorous intensity.
Exercise is a type of physical activity that’s planned and structured. Lifting weights, taking an
aerobics class and playing on a sports team are examples of exercise.

Advantage of Physical Activity for Children with Special Needs

Regular physical activity is good for everyone but it’s particularly important for children with
special needs. These are most important for their growth and development. There are
numbers of advantages of physical activities.
These are as follows

 It strengthens the heart muscle thereby improving cardiovascular efficiency, lung

efficiency and exercise endurance. This helps in controlling repetative behaviours
among disabled children.
 Besides improving fitness, physical activity develops social relationships with other
children, teammates and teachers.
 This brings positive changes in the social behaviour of these children.
  It helps to improve energy level in the body. Regular physical activity often makes
children more energetic, allows them to become active.
 It regulates blood pressure, cholesterol level and diabetes. Physical activity reduces
stress level.
 It helps to control weight. The children with disabilities are not physically active or
may have deficit of calories, which takes fat away and lowers weight and regular
exercises help in regulating weight.
 Physical activities help in improving muscle strength, coordination and flexibility
among disabled children.
 This also improves motor skills, brings better balance and body awareness which is
lacking in these children.
 Physical exercise finds an outlet to channelise the physical energy which helps these
children to cope with stress, anxiety and depression.
 Physical activity enhances the metabolism of brain in the children. It leads to cognitive
improvement in children with special needs allowing them to acquire new skills, learn
new things and focus on specific goals.
 Physical activity decreases anxiety, reduces depression, and improves mood and
outlook in children. In addition, their
 quality of sleep is also improved.

4.6 Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Need
The various strategies or ways by which physical activities can be made accessible for
children with special needs are as follows

1. Inclusive Classrooms It means development of education laws in such a way that

children with special needs get education within the normal classrooms along with
other children so that they are well accepted in society.
2. Assistive Technology It refers to creating devices, tools or equipments that help
children with special needs to participate in learning activities like bigger balls, balls
with bells, balls attached to strings to bring it back to the students etc.
3. Adaptive Physical Education Depending on student’s disability, a separate, adaptive
class or modifications within a game, changing the rules of the game or sport to some
extent can help the students in a big way.
4. Creating Specific Environment Students with special needs can be provided with
specific play area with special requirements as needed by them. Loud music, glaring
lights often cannot be tolerated by these children, so a lot of natural lighting should be
there.
5. Positive Behaviour In physical education classes, teachers should show positive
behaviour and healthy interactions and prevent negative behaviours. The method is to
“Prevent, Teach, Reinforce”. This means class material taught through positive
interactions, lesson reinforced by referring back to behavioural expectations and
evaluating progress.
6. Focus on Creative Games Instead of competitive games and physical activities, the
strategy is to develop creative games. This helps in team building and cooperation and
prevents unnecessary competition and boosts the confidence of these children.
7. Accomodations and Modification Since the individual needs of the children with
special needs ard different^ it is essential for . the teachers to modify the teaching
strategies in order to accommodate the children with disabilities. Therefore constant
modification and accommodation is required.
8. Professional Courses Developing more professional courses and teacher certification
programs for teaching physical education to children with special needs is essential to
popularise the adaptive physical education programme.
Chapter 5 Children and Sports
Motor Development
Motor development only happens when the child is biologically and mentally ready for it.
Motor development refers to the development of movement and various motor abilities from
birth till death. It is the ability to move around and manipulate his/her environment. There are
four stages of motor development in children

1. Infanthood (0-2 years)

2. Early childhood (2-6 years)
3. Middle childhood (7-12 years)
4. Later childhood (12 years and later)

The first stage is marked by extremely rapid growth and development, as is the second stage.
By the age of 2 years, this development has begun to level out somewhat. The final stage
does not have any marked new development; rather it is characterised by the mastering and
development of the skills achieved in the first two stages. Before the stages of childhood,
there is the age of infancy that is from 0-2 years.

Types of Motor Development

There are two types of motor development/skills

1. Gross Motor Development This development uses the larger muscles of the
skeleton or groups of larger muscles to maintain posture and balance for
activities such as throwing a ball, walking, running and hopping.
2. Fine Motor Development This development uses the smaller muscles of the
hand, feet and face for more precise activities such as eating, speaking, playing
with toys and eventually writing.

Factors that Influence Motor Development

The development and quality of a child’s motor skills are influenced by many factors. These
include

1. Tone It refers to the ongoing contraction and state of the muscle at rest. Tone
can be normal, hypotonic or hypertonic.
2. Strength It refers to the force of a muscle contraction purposefully exerted
against resistance to carry out an activity.
3. Endurance This is the ability to maintain the exertion required for an activity.
4. Motor Planning It is the complex and often intuitive ability to know how to
carry out the steps needed to complete a physical, activity.
5. Sensory Integration It is the ability to accurately interpret sensory input from
the environment and to produce an appropriate motor response.

Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development

The motor development in children takes place in various stages of growth. The infanthood
or infancy is followed by the childhood, stage that is divided into three stages : the early,
middle and later childhood.
Infanthood (0-12 Months)

 Turns head.
 Moves arms and legs.
 Reaches and grasps objects.
 Rolls back from side to side.
 Crawls, stands and walks.

Childhood (2-12 Years)

2-5 Years (Early Childhood)

 Basic locomotor.
 Ball-handling.
 Eye-hand coordination.
 Running, jumping, hopping, skipping grasping.
 Games with-simple rules.

6-10 Years (Middle Childhood)

 Fine motor skills.

 Fine eye-hand coordination.
 Growth is relatively slow.
 Cognitive activities.
 Movement precision.
 Balancing and coordination.
 Catching, throwing; kicking.
 Planned activities games.

11-12 Years (Late Childhood)

 Motor skills perfected.

 Onset of puberty.
 Beginning of sexual maturation.
 Competition.
 Planned activities, that involve a .lot of movements.

Weight Trainin
Weight training refers to the physical exercise which involves lifting weights to improve the”
performance of the muscles. Weight training-for children carries with it a variety of
advantages.

 It builds muscle strength and strong bones.

 It reduces excess, body weight.
 It boosts confidence.
 It makes a child more competitive.

Disadvantages of weight training are as follows

  Serious injuries have come from situations with home gym equipment when
there was no supervision.
 Another disadvantage is the risk of non-flexibility. This happens when proper
exercise to. increase flexibility is not done along with weight training. If weight
training is combined with flexibility exercises then this problem will not occur.

Concept of Correct Posture

Correct posture is one in which the body is so balanced as to produce least fatigue. It means
that correct posture is the position of the body held without any sense of effort. The body
weight should be equally distributed over both the legs and feet so as to produce least fatigue.
Correct posture may also be defined as that assumed position which enables the body to
perform or function effectively.
These are stated below
1. Correct Posture of Standing In standing position, both the heels of the feet should meet
each other. The whole body should be erect, knees straight, chin inside, chest forward, belly
backward and pressed inside with equal body weight on both feet. In this position, the
complete body should be balanced.

2. Correct Posture of Sitting When we sit in a chair, our hips should be in a straight line and
erect. Legs should touch the ground and should not be in hanging position. Thighs should be
in horizontal position. The backbone should be erect with the upper region of the backbone
straight against the back of the chair. While we read, the book should be on the table but the
book should not be too away or too near the eyes. The approximate distance between book
and eyes should be at least 30 cms. For writing, a table with slight inclination towards the
outside is appropriate.

Advantages of Correct Posture

Advantages of correct posture are as follows

1. Improves Physical Appearance A good posture helps in creating a good

impression and improves the physical appearance. This in turn helps in building
an impressive personality.
2. Have more Energy Good posture ensures greater energy as the mind and body
work in coordination with each other. More energy means more capacity to
work and perform tasks.
3. Increases Flexibility Good posture ensures proper alignment of the body as
well as balanced approach. This increases the flexibility of the body as bones
and muscles remain well toned.
4. Reduces Muscle Tension Good posture does not put excess pressure on a
particular muscle. Therefore the muscles remain in their normal position.
Neither it brings stiffness to any part of the body so there is no tightening of the
muscles.
5. Increases Confidence An upright and relaxed posture increases strength and
power of a person. This helps the individual to sit or stand upright which brings
in confidence.

Causes of Bad Posture

Poor posture is the posture that results from certain muscles tightening up or shortening.
There are different factors which can impact on posture. Some common causes for bad
posture are given below

1. Pain or Past Injuries In order to avoid the pain in the body such as back pain
or simply to avoid pain from past injuries, people try to overcome the pain by
holding the body in a different position. When this posture is continued for a
long time, it can become a daily habit. Hence holding yourself differently can
be due to some pain or muscle injury in any part of your body.
2. Low Nutrition Low nutrition and lack of vitamins and calcium in the diet can
affect the bones and muscles by not providing adequate strength and flexibility
to hold your body in a correct posture.
3. Hereditary Reasons Having a family history of bent back or flat foot, may cause
bad posture. The genes may be responsible for poor posture.
4. Overweight and Obesity Extra body weight can also be the reason for poor
posture. Obese and overweight people tend to collect excess fat around their
stomach and hips. This puts strain on the skeletal system as well as muscles
thereby resulting in poor posture.
5. Habit Sometimes, the way you walk or . the way you hold things can be the
reason of bad posture. For instance, if you always walk with your head down or
slump your shoulders, this can cause your posture to pull out from proper
alignment. Sometimes, carrying weight on only one side of the body can
contribute to imbalanced or poor posture. This is especially true for children
who carry heavy bags to school on one side of their body, as the bones are soft
at this age. .
6. Type of Job People who have desk jobs often push their neck and head forward
and hunch their shoulders. All these factors contribute to our inability to keep
our spines straight and results in – poor posture.
7. Lifestyle and Fashion Clothing and shoes especially affect posture. Women
who walk in pencil heels are more prone to cause problems to their posture.
Besides high heeled shoes, wearing boots, tight fitting clothes, low waist jeans
and wide belts can cause bad posture. This changes your centre of gravity,
which ultimately causes your posture to suffer.

Common Postural Deformities

This refers to the deformation in the skeletal structure or where the body parts are not aligned
that results in some kind of postural deformities. People having postural deformities cannot
perform their work efficiently. Some common postural deformities are Knock Knee, Flat
Foot, Round Shoulders, Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow Legs and Scoliosis.
1. Knock Knee
Knock knee is a postural deformity in which both the knees touch or overlap’each other in the
normal standing position. Due to this deformity, an individual usually faces difficulty during
walking.

Causes

 Weakness of muscles and ligaments.

 Overweight body.
 Lack of balanced diet.
 Lack of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.
Precautions

 Balanced diet should be taken.

 Do not force the babies to walk at early age.

Corrective Measures

 Horse riding is to be done regularly, as it is one of the best exercise’s for

correcting this problem.
 Keep a pillow between your knees whenever possible.
 Perform Padmasana and Gomukhasana.
 Take nutritious meals.

2. Flat Foot
It is a deformity of the feet. In this deformity, there is no arch in the foot and the foot is
completely flat. The individual faces problems in standings walking, jumping and running; –

Causes

 Heaviness of the body.

 Standing for a long time,
 Use of poor quality footwear not having an arch.
 Faulty posture.

Precautions

 Wear shoes of proper shape and size.

 High heeled shoes or walking barefoot for long durations should be avoided.

Corrective Measures

 Walk on heels and toes.

 Pick up marbles with toes.
 Perform Vajrasana.
 Walk on wooden staircase.

3. Round Shoulders
It is a postural deformity in which the shoulders become round as they are drawn forward, the
head is extended and the chin points forward.

Causes

 Poor posture in work, particularly in a desk job.

 Faulty furniture.
 Wrong habit of standing and sitting.
 Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
Precautions

 Do not sit, stand or walk in bent position.

 Avoid tight fitting clothes.

Corrective Measures

 Stand in correct posture.

 Keep the finger tips on your shoulders and encircle your elbows in clockwise
and anti-clockwise direction.
 Perform Chakrasana and Dhanurasana for some time.
 Hold the horizontal bar for some time.

4. Lordosis
It is the inward curvature of the spine or a deformity of spinal curvature. It is an increased
forward curve in the lumbar region. It creates problems in standing and walking.

Causes

 Habitual over-eating.
 Improper environment.
 Diseases affecting vertebrae.
 Improper development of muscles.
 Lack of exercise.

Precautions

 Take a balanced diet.

 Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
 Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
 Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.

Corrective Measures

 Perform Halasana and Paschimottasana.

 Do sit-ups slowly.
 Stand to attention and touch the feet with the hands repeatedly.
 Lie on your back and lift feet vertically.

5. Kyphosis
It is a deformity of the spinal curvature in which there is an increase of exaggeration of a
backward curve or a decrease of a forward curve. It is also called as round upper back.

Causes

 Malnutrition, illness.
 Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
  Habit of bending while walking.
 Wearing light and shapeless clothes.

Precautions

 Take a balanced diet.

 Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
 Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
 Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.

Corrective Measures

 Bend head backwards in standing position.

 Perform Chakrasana and Bhujangasana.
 Hold arms at shoulder level and bending elbows.

6. Bow Legs
It is a deformity just the reverse of the knock knee position. In fact, if there is a wide gap
between the knees, the deformity can be observed easily when an individual walks or runs.

Causes

 Putting extra weight on leg muscles.

 Lack of balanced diet and deficiency of calcium and phosphorus.
 Improper way of walking.
 Forcing babies to walk at a very early age.

Precautions

 Balanced diet should be taken.

 Do not force the babies to walk at early age.

Corrective Measures

 Never stand for a long time.

 Use vitamin D supplement and a proper balanced diet.
 Walk by bending the toes inward or on the inner edge of the feet.
 Proper massage should be given to the child if this problem is observed early in
life.

7. Scoliosis
It is a postural deformity of spinal curvature in which there is one ldrge lateral curve
extending through the whole length of the spine, or there may be two curves. This type of
deformity is also called curve.

Causes
  Short leg of one side.
 One side flat foot.
 Carrying heavy loads on one shoulder.
 Heredity defects.
 One side paralysis of spinal muscles.

Precautions

 Take a balanced diet.

 Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
 Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
 Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.

Corrective Measures

 Perform Trikonasana with proper technique.

 Avoid walking with a heavy weight.
 Lie down in prone position, i.e. on the chest. Right arm should be upward and
left atm at side. After that move right arm towards,the left overhead. Press
down with left hand and then slide the left hip up.
 Stand erect, lift left heel and left hip, extend right arm in an arch and press left
hand against the ribs.

Note This problem can be controlled by an expert doctor.

Chapter 6 Women and Sports
April 22, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 6 Women and Sports is part of Physical
Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical
Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Women and Sports.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 6

Women and Sports
Sports Participation of Women in India
The participation of women in sports in India is very small. Gender inequality is strongly
evident in every field of life including sports. The problem is more socio-psychological than
anything else. The Government of India instituted the National Sports Festival for Women
with the objective to promote women’s sports. However, this programme could not bring any
noticeable improvement in women’s participation in sports. Surveys have shown that women
don’t participate in sports due to

1. Time Constraints Women find less time for sports due to their domestic duties.
2. Social Constraints The attitude of society towards participation of women in sports is
negative.
3. Lack of Sports Infrastructure Specialised coaching centers, training programmes,
equipment that are suitable for women athletes are not present adequately.
4. Absence of Skill There are very few female coaches available to develop the skills of
women. Sociological constraints limit the success of male coaches with female
athletes.
5. Concerns for Personal Safety Women are more afraid to venture in a ‘male’ field
(perceived) as they are concerned more about safety from harassment or exploitation.

Methods to Increase Women’s Participation in Sports

There are various ways in which women’s participation can be increased

Coaching Programmes
Women should be encouraged and provided with the opportunity to undertake leadership
positions within organisations. They should be provided with good technical instruction.
They must be given positive, encouraging, and instructive feedback. They should have a
strong voice in programmes and all concerned should maintain a flexible approach to
participation to ensure their needs are heard and met.

Safety
Exercising in groups can make physical activity safer for women and girls. Community sports
facilities should be provided with separate location for women.
Facilities
Changing facilities must he provided that take, into account women’s and girl’s hygiene
needs. Adequate provision for childcare should be made so that women without any
hesitation can bring their children to the participation and training venues. We must ensure
that all areas are easily accessible to girls and their parents.

Price/Affordability
Participation fee in sports should be reduced or abolished for women. Concessions for
travelling and boarding should be provided to women.

Special Considerations Associated with Physiology

Special care should be taken by sportswomen because of the problems associated with their
physiology. Problems faced by women during their life are

Menarche
Menarche is a girl’s first menstrual period. It can happen as early as age 9 or up to age 15.
During this time, girls feel tense and emotional. So special attention should be given to them
at this time. As a sportsperson, a young woman has to take special care of herself at that time.

Menstrual Dysfunction
Due to participation of women in physical fitness and competitive endurance sports, the
incidence of menstrual dysfunction has increased. Long distance . running and other sports
may lead to alterations in androgen, estrogen and progesterone hormones, which in some
women may directly or indirectly result in amenorrhea (absence of menstrual periods) or
infertility.

Female Athlete Triad

The ‘female athlete triad’ is a syndrome of three related conditions generally seen in teenage
or adult female athletes who aren’t meeting their energy requirements, which ultimately
leaves them undernourished. This also affects their performance severely.
The three components of the female athlete triad include

1. Osteoporosis It is a condition in which bones become weak and brittle. It occurs when
the body loses too much bone, makes too little bones or both.
2. Amenorrhiea It is the absence of menstruation periods’that can-happen for many
reasons. Main causes are
genetic abnormalities, excessive exercise and extreme physical or psychological stress.
3. Eating Disorders It refers to either eating in excessive amounts or eating in very little
amounts. This disorder is related to mental illness and affects a – person’s physical and.
mental health. A female athlete can have one, two, or all three parts of the triad.

Psychological Aspects of Women Athletes

Psychological aspects of Women athletes are discussed below

1. Stress All women athletes undergo various degrees of stress-due to increased

competition and. male domination. But women are able-to handle stress in a better way
as they are more open and have a large social circle.
2. Aggression Women may experience aggression that may reduce then- performance in
sports. But they are able to mange the aggression and also are less aggressive in nature.
 3. Sensitive Women are more sensitive to the reaction of the people towards them.
Therefore positive reinforcements by parents, coach, friends can enhance their
performance.
4. Eager to Learn Women are more eager to learn the new skills and techniques.
Therefore coaching is easier in case of women athletes.
5. Coping Women are able to handle and manage their emotional and interpersonal
problems in a more efficient way. This helps women athletes to make strategies for
better performance.

Sociological Aspects of Sports Participation

The sociological aspects that prevent women athletes in sports participation are as follows

1. Social Stigma The social outlook is that girls are feeble, weak as compared to men and
therefore they should not participate in sports.
2. Safety Issues Girls have to face certain safety issues such as late night training, going
to and coming from sports venues, coaching centers etc. Due to this, they find it
difficult to pursue sports.
3. Lack of Proper Facilities Women have to face lack of specific facilities such as
separate changing rooms, rest rooms etc. This leaves very few opportunities for
women.
4. Lack of Role Models In the absence of women’s greater participation in sports, there
are no role models. Due to this, girls do not get encouragement from parents or
coaches.
5. Less Media Coverage Women sports tournaments do not get wide coverage as men’s
sports. Electronic and print media do not give proper attention on women tournaments.
Therefore women do not get encouragement to participate in sports.
Chapter 7 Test and Measurement in
Sports
April 23, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 7 Test and Measurement in Sports is part
of Physical Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT
Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 7 Test and Measurement in Sports.

Class 12 Notes Chapter 7 Test and Measurement

in Sports
Computation of Fat Percentage
The fat percentage or the amount of fat a person carries and whether he/she is normal,
underweight or overweight can be calculated through computation of fat percentage. This can
be done by BMI Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of body fat calculated on the basis of
height and weight. To calculate BMI, take the weight in kilograms and divide it by square of
height taken in metres.
BMI=BodyweightinKg(Heightinmeters)2
With the help of BMI, it is determind whether a person in normal, underweight overweight.
BMI Weight Status
Below 18.5 Underweight
18.5-24.9 Normal
25.0-29.9 Overweight
30.0 and above Obese
Slaughter-Lohman Children Skinfold
This is a standard skinfold test for measuring body fat in children under the age group of 6-17
years. The digital skinfold caliper is used to measure the triceps and calf region and then the
measurement is inserted into a formula.

Slaughter-Lohman Children Skinfold Formula

For Triceps, measure vertically on back of arm midway between top of shoulder point and
elbow.
For Calf, measure the inside of the right lower leg at the place where there is greatest calf
girth.
Formula for males (6 to 17 years):
% body fat = (0.735 x sum of skinfold + 1.0)
Formula for females (6 to 17 years):
% body fat = (0.610 x sum of skinfold + 5.1)
Sum of skinfolds = Triceps + Calf

Measurement of Muscular Strength

Muscular strength refers to the amount of force the muscle or group of muscles can exert
against resistance for short duration like in anaerobic activities. Muscular strength can be
measured by Kraus Weber Test.

Kraus Weber Test

Kraus Weber Test originated in a posture clinic and was developed as a diagnosis and
treatment of low back pain. Soon, it became familiar as Kraus Weber test of minimum
muscular fitness. The test consists of six items which indicate the level of muscular strength
and flexibility of key muscle groups.
Note The tests are done without the subject wearing shoes. The six test items of the Kraus
Weber muscular strength test are given below

1. Abdominals Plus Psoas (hip flexing) Muscles

2. Abdominals Minus Psoas
3. Psoas or P
4. Upper Back or UB
5. Lower Back or LB
6. Back and Hamstring or BH

Motor Fitness Test-AAHPER

The AAHPER (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation) youth
fitness test was formed in 1965 in the United States, but this was revised in 1976. Now dance
(AAHPERD) is also added. This test was administered on school students of 17 years age.
The students are advised to warm up before they participate in the test. All the students must
be medically fit.
This test has the following six items

1. (a)Pull-Ups (For Boys)

 Purpose To measure arm and shoulder strength.

 Procedure The bar is adjusted according to the height of the boy. The bar is held with
palms facing away. He is then asked to raise his body so that the chin reaches the level
of the bar. One score is awarded for each pull-up. One trial is given before the start of
the test.

(b) Flexed Arm Flang (For Girls)

 Purpose To measure arm and shoulder strength.

 Procedure The bar is adjusted according to the standing height of the girl. The bar is
held with over hand grasp. The girl lifts her body up with the assistance of testing
personnel so that her chin reaches the bar level. The time in seconds she holds the bar
is taken as her score.

2. Flexed Leg Sit-ups

 Purpose To measure abdominal strength and endurance.

 Procedure The youth is asked to lie on the floor on his/ her back keeping knees bent.
The angle of knees should be around 90°. The feet are held by a partner,’ the youth’
puts hands behind the head with fingers interlocked. Then the youth curls up and
 touches the elbows to knees. The score is counted as maximum number of sit-ups in 60
sec.

3. Shuttle Run

 Purpose‘To.measure speed and agility.

 Procedure Two parallel lines are marked 30 feet apart and two wooden-blocks 2 x 2 x
4 inches are kept on one side of a marked line. The youth stands behind the line
opposite to the line where wooden blocks are placed. At the start signal, the youth runs
towards the wooden blocks and picks up one of them, carrying it back to the line from
where the test started. Then places it behind the line, runs back, picks up the second
block and carries back-to the starting line. Two trials are allowed and best score of the
two is noted down.

4. Standing Long Jump

 Purpose To measure power.

 Procedure The youth is asked to stand behind the restraining line with feet apart and
he/she bends the knees and swings arms before jumping. The youth lands on both feet
together. The distance from take off line to the heel is measured in inches. The best of
three trials is recorded as the final score.

5. 50 Yard Dash

 Purpose To measure speed.

 Procedure The youth is asked to run 50 yards from the starting line and the time is
recorded nearest to one-tenths of a second.

6. 600 Yard Run-Walk

 Purpose To measure endurance.

 Procedure The youth is asked to run and/or walk for 600 yards and the time is
recorded in minutes and seconds. This can be run in an open field or the inside track of
an athletic field, by marking the distances appropriately.

General Motor Fitness

General motor fitness is an athlete’s general ability to perform different motor skills without
getting too much fatigued. General motor ability consists of three items designed to test the
motor ability of school and college boys and girls.

Test 1 Standing Broad Jump .

This test measures the explosive leg power. In this test, the student stands behind the
restraining line, with feet several inches apart and the toes pointed straight ahead. The student
should swing the arms forward, extend the knee’s and jump forward as far as possible.

Test 2 Zig – Zag Run

The materials, required are a stop-watch, five traffic cones, floor measuring tape and floor
area of 30 feet by 50 feet. Cones are placed on the floor in a zig – zag manner. The objective
is to measure the agility. The examine or the student stands at the starting point. On the signal
‘go’, he/she runs the course without touching the cones. The student continues to run the
course three times and each time, the time is recorded with the help of a stopwatch. The score
is the time recorded to the nearest tenth of a second. If the cones are moved during the run,
then the trial is retaken.

Test 3 Medicine Ball Put

The material required is medicine ball. The objective is to measure arm and shoulders girdle
explosive strength. The student is required to put a 6 pound medicine ball as far as possible.
Three trials are taken and the best score of the three is recorded. For boys the explosive
strength throw test is for 3 kg medicine ball and for girls it is 1 kg.

Measurement of Cardiovascular Fitness

Cardiovascular fitness is the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen, rich blood to the
working muscle tissues and the ability of the muscles to use oxygen to produce energy for
movements. This type of fitness is required to sustain physical activity and is essential for
performing aerobic activities.

1. Harvard Step Test

This test is also known as Aerobic Fitness test. It was developed by Brouha and others in
1943. It is used to measure the cardiovascular fitness or aerobic fitness by checking the
recovery rate.
Equipment Required Bench 20 inches high, for men and 16 inches for women, stopwatch
and metronome.

2. Rockport Test
This test also known as Rockport One Mile Test or Rockport Fitness Walking Test is used for
testing cardiovascular fitness. It requires minimal equipment. This test consists of walking,
which may be easy for middle-aged and older adults. This test tells us about the aerobic
fitness of an individual.
Equipment Required 400m track, stopwatch and weighing scale.

Computation of Fitness Index

Fitness index is computed using the following formula

Rikli and Jones- Senior Citizen Fitness Test

Rikli and Jones prepared various physical fitness tests for senior citizens in 2001. Senior
citizens can’t do exhaustive workouts however fitness is very important even in old age.

These tests are designed to access the functional fitness of older adults with the help of
simple activities like getting up from a chair, walking, bending and stretching. These tests are
safe, enjoyable and meet scientific standards of reliability and validity. That is why easy tests
prepared for different body parts are given.
These are

1. Chair Stand Test for Lower Body Strength

The Chair Stand Test is similar to a squat test to measure leg strength. This test is part of the
senior fitness test protocol and is designed to test the functional fitness of seniors.

 Purpose This test assesses leg strength and endurance of senior citizens.
 Equipment Required A straight or folding chair without arm rests (seat 17 inches/ 44
cm high) and stopwatch.

2. Arm Curl Test for Upper Body Strength

The Arm Curl Test is a test to measure the upper body strength of senior citizens or old
people.

 Purpose This test measures upper body strength and endurance.

 Equipment Required 5 pound weight for women, 8 pound weight for men, a chair
without arm rests, stopwatch.

3. Chair Sit and Reach Test for Lower Body Flexibility

The Chair Sit and Reach Test is part of-the senior fitness test protocol, and is designed to test
the functional fitness of seniors. It is a variation of the traditional sit and reach . flexibility
test.

 Purpose This test measures lower body. – flexibility.

 Equipment Required Ruler, a chair with straight back or folding chair (17 inch/44 cm
high).

4. Back Scratch Test for Upper Body Flexibility

The shoulder stretch is a simple flexibility test to determine if the hands can be brought
together behind the back particularly the shoulders. This test is part of the fitness programme
as an alternative to the back saver sit and reach test.

 Purpose This test measures upper arm and shoulder girdle flexibility.
 Equipment Required None.

5. Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility

The Eight Foot Up arid Go Test is a coordination and agility test’for the elderly-which is pair
of the senior fitness test protocol.

 Purpose This test measures speed, agility and balance while moving.
 Equipment Required Stopwatch, straight back or folding chair ( seat 17 inches/44
height) cone rriarker, measuring tape, area clear of obstacles.

6. Six Minute Walk test for Aerobic Endurance

The Six Minute Walk Test is a part, of the senior fitness test protocol arid is designed to test
the functional fitness of seniors. It is an adaptation of the Cooper 12 – minutes run for people
who use orthopaedic devices When walking as well as people who have difficulty in
balancing.
  Purpose This test measures aerobic fitness or aerobic endurance.
 Equipment Required Measuring tape to mark out the track distances, stopwatch arid
chairs positioned for testing.

Chapter 8 Physiology and Sports

April 23, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 8 Physiology and Sports is part of Physical
Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical
Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 8 Physiology and Sports.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 8

Physiology and Sports
Physiology
In physiology, we study how our organs, systems, tissues, cells and molecules within cells
work and how their functions are put together to maintain our internarenvironment.
“Physiology is the study of how the human body functions.” Physiology is very essential to
understand how to attain physical fitness in order to enhance the performance in sports

Gender Differences In Physical Physiological Parameters

Physical Parameters Male Female

Height Taller Shorter

Body Mass More Less

Body Fat More Less

Lean Body Mass Less More

 Physical Fitness

Strength Stronger due to greater muscle mass Less muscle mass

Endurance High due to more hemoglobin and VO2 Less

Flexibility Less More

Coordination and Agility Less More

Muscular System

Muscle Mass More Less

Muscle Composition More Less 1

Bones and Ligaments Longer, stronger but poor balance Less stronger
 Attachments but better balance

Cardiovascular System

Cardiac Output Better cardiac output Lower cardiac outp

Heart Size Bigger Shorter

Stroke Volume More Less

V02 Max More Less

Respiratory System

Lung Size Bigger Smaller

Tidal Volume More Less

Respiratory Function Better due to more haemoglobin Lack in certain para

 content and VO2

Physiological Factors Determining Components of Physical Fitness

To understand the physiological factors, the components have to be understood.
The components of physical fitness are as follows

1. Muscular Strength One of the basic requirements for success in all movements is
muscular strength. It may be defined as the maximum force or tension a muscle or a
muscle group can exert against a resistance. The development of strength is specific to
the muscle or muscles involved in a particular activity.
2. Power Power is the ability of the body to release maximum muscle contraction in the
shortest possible time.
3. Speed It is the rapidity with which one repeats successive movements of the same
pattern. It may also be defined as the ability of a person to move quickly through a
short distance.
4. Muscular Endurance It may be defined as the ability of a muscle or muscle group to
perform repeated contractions against a resistance / load or to sustain contraction for an
extended period of time with less discomfort and more rapid recovery.
5. Agility It is the ability of the person to change direction while moving at or near full
speed. More specifically, agility is the ability of a person to change direction or body
position quickly (as fast as he can) and regain body control to proceed with another
movement.
6. Flexibility In general, flexibility is that quality of the muscles, ligaments and tendons
that enables the joints of the body to move easily through a complete range of
movement.
7. Size of the Muscle The size of the muscle determines the strength possessed by an
individual. Males have bigger and larger muscles due to which they have more strength
than females.
8. Body Weight There is a positive correlation between body weight and strength among
international weightlifters. So people who weigh heavier are stronger and have more
strength than people who are lighter.
9. Muscle Composition Muscles consist of two types of fibres i.e. fast twitch fibres
(white fibres) and slow twitch fibres (red fibres).
10. Intensity of the Nerve Impulse A muscle consists of many motor units. The number
of contracting motor units determines the total force.
11. Metabolic Power The metabolic power depends upon the energy supplied through
certain enzymes.
12. Aerobic Capacity The ability of a person to maintain adequate supply of oxygen to
the working muscles influences the endurance.
13. Joint Structure The joint structure of a person determines the range of motions and
hence level the flexibility of an individual.
14. Age and Gender The age of a person as well as the gender determines the level of
flexibility. Flexibility decreases with advancement of age and females are more
flexible than males.

Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

It has been observed that physical exercises affect the various parameters of the
cardiovascular system in many ways. Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system are
 1. Cardiac Output It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. In other
words, it is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Cardiac output increases with
the intensity of the exercises. At rest it is 4 to 6 L/min and during exercises it is 20 to
40 L/min.
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume=mLbloodmin
or Litresmin
2. Heart Rate The number of cardiac contractions in one minute is called heart rate..
Generally normal adult heart rate is 72 beats/min: During exercises the heart rate goes
up.
3. Stroke Volume The amount of-blood pumped into the aorta with every heartbeat is
known as the stroke volume. In an untrained male, it is 70 – 90 mL/beat. In a
trained.male athlete, it may be 100 – 120 mL/beat. The stroke volume increases in
response to the intensity of the exercises.
4. Blood Flow Exercise increases the blood volume caused by a 12% increase in the
plasma volume and a slight increase in the red blood cells volume. With increasing
intensities of exercise, a . greater accumulation of lactic acid and the production of
other metabolic end products (potassium, phosphate) occurs. This increases blood
flovy in the cardiac output, while it decrease in kidneys and abdomen.

Effects of Exercise on Respiratory System

Many parameters of respiratory system get affected due to exercises. Effects of exercise on
respiratory system are

1. Lung Volume With endurance training, lung volume and lung capacity increase. Vital
capacity, which is maximal volume of air forcefully expelled is increased after
endurance training.
2. Breathing Frequency Breathing frequency is the number of breaths per minute. After
training, breathing frequency or respiratory rate is decreased.
3. Maximum Minute Ventilation Minute ventilation is the amount of air which is
inspired or expired in one minute. After training, maximum, as well as minute
ventilation is increased.
4. Tidal Volume Tidal volume, which is the amount of air inspired or expired per breath,
is – also increased as a result of endurance training,
5. Ventilatory Efficiency With physical exercises, particularly endurance training, our
ventilatory efficiency increases.
6. Pulmonary Diffusion Pulmonary diffusion is the exchange of gases taking place in the
alveoli (small air sacs in our lungs).

Effects of Exercise on the Muscular System

The effects of exercise on the muscular system are as follows

1. Increase in Blood Flow The volume of blood flow to muscle tissues increases during
exercise. It can increase by upto 25 times – during specially demanding exercise:
2. Respiration During exercise, muscles repeatedly contract and relax,.using and
requiring energy to do so. The energy comes from the chemical ATP that-is. broken
down during exercise into another chemical called ADP. When there is plenty of
oxygen available in the muscle tissues, the energy for muscle action is prpduced
aerpbically so muscles get more oxygen.
3. Muscle Size Although muscle size (and other physical characteristics such as height) is
largely determined by a person’s genes but muscle size also gets affected by the
intensity of exercises.
 4. Blood Supply (to and through muscles) As a result of frequent exercise over a
sustained period of time, both the quantity of blood vessels and the extent of the
capillary beds increases.
5. Muscle Coordination Frequent exercise and specially use of specific muscles for the
same or similar skilled tasks.
6. Muscle Biochemistry Many beneficial biochemical changes take place in muscle
tissues as a result of regular long-term exercise such as increase in the size and quantity
of mitochondria in the cells, increase in the activity of enzymes.

Long -Term Effects of Exercises

Exercises are good for the overall well-being of a person. The long-term effects of exercises
are as follows

 Increase in Heart Size

 Increase in Heart Rate
 Increase in Stroke Volume
 Decrease in Cholesterol Level
 Increase in Number and Efficiency of Capillaries
 Reduced Risk of Heart Diseases

Physiological Changes Due to Ageing

Some of the physiological changes accompanying the ageing process are

1. Muscle Size and Strength As an individual gets older, there is a decline in muscle
size. It is believed that this decline is due in part to a reduced amount of protein as well
as a decline in the number and size of muscle fibres. As people get old, there is also a
parallel decrease in the muscular strength.
2. Accumulation of Body Fat With advancing age, there is a general trend to increase
the accumulation of body fat. First of all, with advancing age there is a decrease in
one’s ability to release or mobilise stored fatty acids from adipose tissues for energy.
3. Respiratory System There is good evidence to indicate that pulmonary function is
impaired with advancing age. The uptake and exchange of oxygen reduces.
4. Cardiovascular System A number of studies have shown that as individuals get older,
their overall heart size becomes, smaller. The left ventricular cavity may especially
decrease in size as a result of reduced activity and the reduced physical demands of
increased age.
5. Nervous System The nervous system is responsible for reactions and movements. The
brain’s weight, network of the nerves and blood flow decrease with age due to which
the reaction time and movement time also slows down.
6. Bone Density Bone density decreases with increasing age, which means that elderly
people (especially those over 40 years of age) are much more prone to bone injury than
young people whose bones have reached full growth and maturity.

Role of Physical Activity in Maintaining Function Fitness in Aged Population

Regular exercises are good to improve the efficiency of the body. It delays the onset of
fatigue, develops fitness levels and increases endurance. Regular physical activity keeps the
human body livelier, fitter and in better condition for long years before any ageing sets in.
Ageing is not a sudden, dramatic occurrence; rather it is a slow process that prolongs over
several decades. This process can be delayed with regular physical activity.
Chapter 9 Sports Medicine
April 25, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 9 Sports Medicine is part of Physical
Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Physical
Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 9 Sports Medicine.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 9

Sports Medicine
Concept and Definition of Sports Medicine
Sports medicine also known as Sport and Exercise Medicine (SEM) is a branch of medicine
that specialises in the treatment and prevention of injuries related to participation in sports
and/or exercise’. Sports medicine mainly deals with injuries like rotation of deformation of
joints or muscles injuries caused by engaging in physical activities.

Aims and Scope of Sports Medicine

It is clear from the definition of sports medicine that the major aim of sports medicine is
maintaining physical fitness of sportsperson. It also aims at treating and preventing, sports
related injuries and rapid recovery of patients.
There are three specific,aims of sports medicine

1. Scientific Promotion – of Sports and Games

2. Developing Preventive Healthcare
3. Sports Medical Extension Services

The scope of sports medicine is very wide. It is not a single area of specialty. It is an area that
involves healthcare professionals, researchers and educators from a wide variety of
disciplines. Other than the prevention and treatment of sports related injuries, spots medicine
also looks after a diverse area.

First Aid: Aims and Objectives

First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury, with care
provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, and/or promote recovery.
Although there are various roles of first aid but the key aims of first aid are as follows,
sometimes known as the three P’s.

Preserve Life
Main aim of first aid is to preserve life by carrying out emergency first aid procedures. For
example, opening a casualty’s airway or performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
Preserving life should always be the overall aim of all first aiders. This includes first aider’s
own life. We should never put ourselves or others in danger. This is why the first stage in
assessing a casualty is to conduct a risk assessment and check for any dangers. If a situation
is too dangerous to approach, we should stay back and call for professional help.
Prevent Deterioration
The second aim of first aid is to prevent the casualty’s condition from deteriorating any
further. For example, asking a casualty with a broken limb to stay still and padding around
the injury will prevent the fracture from moving and causing further injury or pain. In
addition, this aim includes preventing further injuries. We should attempt to make the area as
safe as possible and removing any dangers. If moving danger is not possible, we should
attempt to remove the patient from the danger or call for specialist help.

Promote Recovery
Finally, we can promote recovery by arranging prompt emergency medical help. In addition,
simple first aid can significantly affect the long-term recovery of injury. For example, quickly
cooling a burn will reduce the risk of long-term scarring and will encourage early healing.

Sports Injuries: Classification, Causes and Prevention

Sports injuries are injuries that occur in athletics activities. They can result from acute
trauma, or from overuse of a particular body part.

Classification
Sports injuries can be classified in various ways. Classification can be based on the time
taken for the tissues to become injured, tissue type affected and the severity of the injury.
Several types of injury are as follows

Soft Tissue Injury [STI]

A Soft Tissue Injury (STI) is the damage of muscles, ligaments and tendons throughout the
body.
Soft tissue injuries fall into two basic categories

1. Acute Injuries This is one of the most common methods of classifying sports injuries.
It is based on the time taken for the tissues to become injured.
2. Overuse Injuries Overuse injuries are not so pervasive and represent a greater
challenge for the sports therapist in diagnosis and management.

Injuries Based on Tissue Type Injured

Sports injuries can be classified according to which tissue has been damaged. This allows
sports therapists to identify soft, hard and special tissue injuries. The injuries to muscles,
ligaments, tendons and skin are soft tissue injuries.

Injuries Based on Severity

Most sports injuries require sports persons to reduce participation or cease it altogether.
Therefore sports injuries can also be classified relating to how long the symptoms present
themselves.

Bone and Joint Injuries

The musculoskeletal system comprises over half the body mass. The most common
musculoskeletal dysfunctions are joint stiffness, joint swelling and joint pains. Bones, being
non-yielding structures are damaged when excessive force is applied directly or indirectly.
Fractures

 A fracture is a break in the continuity of a bone or a separation of a bone into two or

more parts.
 A great amount of soft-tissue damage may accompany this type of injury.

Types of Fracture
Fractures are classified as open and closed. An open fracture is one in which there is a break
in the skin that is contiguous with the fracture. The bone is either protruding from the wound
or exposed through a channel, which can be produced by an arrow, javelin, bullet or other
ways. A closed fracture is not complicated by a break in the skin, but there is usually soft-
tissue damage beneath the intact skin.

Causes of Sports Injuries

Some common causes of sports injuries are

 Anatomical factors
 Individual difference factors
 Age related causes
 Training related causes
 Equipment selection factors
 Impact and contact causes
 Poor techniques

Prevention of Sports Injuries

General preventive measures that can prevent

 sports injuries are

 Warm-Up and cool-down
 Planning a session
 Using protective equipment
 Adherence to the rules
 Regular fitness testing
 Psychological training
 Meeting nutritional requirements

Management of Sports Injuries

Management and’ treatment of a sports injury will depend upon how severe the injury is and
which part of the body is affected. It involves identifying an injury, treatment, providing
sufficient rest to the injured person and then returning to the sport.

Standard Techniques for Injury Treatment

Minor injuries to soft tissue and to bones and joints can be treated with standard TOTAPS,
RICER and No-HARM principles. These are essential elements for assessment and quick
recovery from injuries. Details of each of these practices are

1. TOTAPS stands for Talk, Observe, Touch, Active movement, Passive movement and
Skill test. It is helpful in assessing all non-serious injuries.
 2. RICER stands for Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation and Referral. RICER is used to
manage soft tissue injury to reduce scarring and pain for faster recovery. This is a
technique to be used as a first aid technique immediately after an injury occurs.
3. No-HARM or Avoid Harm stands for No-Heat, No-Alcohol, No-Running and No-
Massage. These are the important precautions that any injured athlete must take for the
first 72 hours after an injury occurs.

Other Techniques for Injury Treatment

Pain Relief
Painkillers such as paracetamol can be used initially to help ease the pain.

Immobilisation
Immobilisation of the injured part can sometimes help to prevent further damage by reducing
movement. It can also reduce pain, muscle swelling and muscle spasm.

Physiotherapy
Some people recovering from a long-term injury may benefit from physiotherapy. This is a
specialist treatment that can involve techniques such as massage, manipulation and exercise
to improve the range of motion, strengthen the surrounding muscles, and return the normal
function of injured area.

Corticosteroid Injections
If one has a severe or persistent inflammation, a corticosteroid injection may be
recommended. Such an injection can help to relieve pain caused by injury, although for some
people the pain relief is minimal or only lasts for a short period of time.

Surgery and Procedures

Most sports injuries don’t require surgery, but very severe injuries such as badly broken
bones may require corrective surgery to fix the bones with wires, plates, screws or rods.

Recovery
Depending on the type of injury one has, it can take a few weeks to a few months or more to
make a full recovery. A sportsperson should not return to his previous level of activity until
he has fully recovered, but he should aim to gently start moving the injured body part as soon
as possible.
Chapter 10 Kinesiology, Biomechanics and
Sports
Axes and Planes
The body performs movements through a plane and around an axis.
Axis An axis is an imaginary line about which the body (or limb) rotates. It can be divided in
three parts

1. Frontal Horizontal Axis Axis of the body that passes horizontally from side to
side at right angles to the sagittal plane.
2. Vertical Axis Axis of the body that passes from head to foot at right angles to
the transverse plane.
3. Sagittal Horizontal Axis Axis of the body that passes from front to rear lying
at right angles to the frontal plane.

Plane A plane is an imaginary flat surface along which a movement takes place. It can be
divided in three parts

1. Sagittal Plane A vertical plane of the body which passes from front to rear
dividing the body into two symmetrical halves.
2. Transverse Plane Any horizontal plane of i the body which is parallel to the
diaphragm also called the’horizontal plane
3. Frontal Plane Plane of the body which passes from side to side at right angles
to . the sagittal plane also called the coronal plane.

Types of Movements
Physical activity is made possible by movements and motions. Every movement takes place,
in one plane and around one axis. They are categorised by movement type as follows

1. Flexion It takes place when the angle decreases between the two bones attached
to a joint.
2. Extension It takes place when the angle between the two bones attached to a
joint increases. Both flexion and extension occur in the sagittal plane about the
frontal axis.
3. Adduction It is a movement laterally toward the middle of the body.
4. Abduction It is a movement laterally away from the middle of the body. Both
adduction and abduction occur in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis.

Major Muscles Involved in Running, Jumping and Throwing

Educating ourselves on the muscles we use while exercising is important. The more we know
about our body, the better we can protect it by treating it with care and avoiding injury.

Running
Running on a regular basis has many benefits, including weight loss, stress relief and
maintaining a strong and healthy body. As it is one of the more physically exerting activities,
it can also cause damage to our body such as a pulled hamstring or dislocation of our knee
caps. With a little knowledge, we can help prevent these injuries with the right equipment and
by properly stretching our muscles before the run.

Primary Muscles Used While Running

Primary muscles will get the most impact from movement and therefor? should receive more
care. Primary muscles while running will include – your quads (quadriceps femoris),
hamstrings, gluteus maximus, iliopsoas, and your calf muscles.

Quads (Quadriceps Femoris)

Quads are muscle groups of four basic muscles located on our front thighs. They are

 The rectus femoris

 The vastus medialis
 The vastus lateralis and
 The vastus intermedius.

Our quads are responsible for moving two of the joints used in running, our knee joint and
our hip joint. They work together to straighten our knees and bend our hips. If we are
interested in strengthening our quad muscles, we should consider doing squats and lunges.
Increasing strength in our muscles apart from running can decrease our risk of injury and
increase our speed.

Hamstrings and Gluteus Maximus

Our hamstrings are made up of four muscle parts on the back of our thighs. These are known
as

 The semitendinosus
 The semimemb ranosus, and
 The biceps femoris (two parts: long head and short head).

These four parts of our hamstrings allow us to flex our knees. The semitendinosus,
semimembranosus and the long head biceps femoris work together to extend the hips. As you
may have noticed, your hamstrings work opposite your quads in how your knees and hips
move, creating a systematic medley that works well for your body.

The gluteus macimus is the largest of the gluteal muscles. You will recognise it easily as it is
the muscle that contributes most to creating the shape of the buttocks, better known as butt or
rear-end. This muscle will help you keep proper erect posture by extending your hips.

Hip Flexors (Iliopsoas)

Our hip flexors (or iliopsoas), like our quads, is comprised of a muscle group of two muscles

 The iliacus
 The psoas major

To our right, the shortest muscle, the iliacus, begins on our pelvic crest (the iliac fossa) and
stretches over to our thigh bone (femur). The larger of the muscles, the psoas major, stretches
from our T-12 spinal vertebiae to our Lj-5 spinal vertebrae and there attaches to the femur.
These two muscles work together to help our hips flex. The iliopsoas are often the culprit
behind severe hip pain. If you experience hip pain while running, you should stop your
routine immediately, and go to see your doctor or a chiropractic specialist. Do not begin
running again until they have determined it to be safe.

Calf Muscles
Our calf muscles are located on the back of our leg, belovv our knee. Though many
anatomists see the calf muscle to be a single muscle (triceps surae), most say that it is a
muscle group, like our quads and hip flexors. This group consists of two main muscles, the

 The gastrocnemius and

 The soleus.

Our calf muscles will allow us to flex our knee and planter flex our ankle. Like our quads, our
calf muscles can be strengthened by doing squats. Other good strength-building exercises
would include calf muscle raises and skipping!

Jumping
Only a small percentage of people has the natural ability to jump high. That is why it is
important to train properly to improve your hops if you are not among that group. Part of this
battle is knowing just what muscles are most important to lift your body off the ground. The
stronger you make them, the more power you will have to jump high.

Quadriceps
The quadriceps rest on the front of the thighs and they have four components the vastus
medialis, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris and vastus intermedius. During a jump, you perform
hip flexion and knee extension, which both activate the quadriceps. Hip flexion takes place
when you move your thigh toward your stomach knee extension takes place when you
straighten your leg. A squat is a specific exercise that can help you gain more strength in the
quads.

Hamstrings
The hamstrings are opposing muscles to the quadriceps and have an opposite function. You
activate your hamstrings through hip extension and knee flexion. Hip extension takes place
when you bend your knee and move your heel toward your butt. Hip extension also causes
you to work the glutes. From an anatomical standpoint, the hamstrings have three parts: the
biceps, femoris, semimembranosus. All parts get activated during the lowering phase and the
explosive phase of a jump. A squat works the hamstrings, but you can place more emphasis
on them by doing a lunge.

Hip Flexors
The hip flexors run from the lower stomach to the top of the thighs. They consist of the psoas
major and iliacus, and because of this, they are often referred to as the iliopsoas. As the name
implies, these muscles get activated when you flex your hip, in similar fashion to the quads.
Although these muscles are small, they are important for explosive motions like sprinting and
jumping. A lying leg raise is a good exercise to strengthen the hip flexors.
Calves
The calves have two parts : the gastrocnemius and soleus. The gastrocnemius has a lateral
head and medial head and it is easily seen on the back of the leg right below the knee. The
soleus sits anterior, or in front of the gastrocnemius. Both parts function to plantar-flex the
foot. This motion occurs when you jump off the ground and point your toes downward.
Jumping rope is a good cardiovascular exercise to train these muscles because of the
repetitive hopping you do on your toes. A tuck jump is a good exercise to work your calves
because it is specific to jumping.

Throwing
Following are the muscles which are used while throwing any thing like ball, football etc. .

Shoulder Muscles
The deltoids are the muscles of your shoulder, which play a crucial role in rotating your aim.
Always warm up adequately by performing arm circles to avoid injuring your rotator cuff,
while performing shoulder exercises.

Triceps
Your triceps are located on the back of your upper arm and aid in the process of extending
your arm at the elbow. This action helps you release the ball with force and push it in the
desired direction. To strengthen your triceps efficiently, perform exercises such as triceps
pushdowns with a rope or pulley and close-grip bench presses.

Latissimus Dorsi
Your latissimus dorsi, often referred to as your lats, are located on either side of your spine.
These large muscles help produce force for throwing and help transfer energy from your legs
to your upper body. Among the best exercises for strengthening your lats are pull ups, seated
cable rows, and bent-over barbell rows.

Abdominals
While many people exercise their abdominal muscles in hopes of attaining a six-pack, this
muscle group is highly functional as well. A strong core facilitates the transfer of power from
your lower body to your upper body, enabling your throws to benefit from the strength of
your legs. Among the best exercises for your abs are hanging leg raises and swiss ball crunch.

Quadriceps
The quadriceps is the major muscle group located on the front of your thigh. This large group
of muscle tissue helps you power the ball toward your intended target as you step into your
throw. Among the most effective exercises for the quadriceps are the barbell step-up, barbell
lunge and barbell squats, which also work your abdominal muscles.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Sir Issac Newton made three laws of motion which are explained below

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion This law is also known as law of inertia. This
law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
 remain in motion at the same speed and in the same direction till any external
force is applied on it to change that state.
2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion This law states that the rate of change in
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force producing it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion This law states that to every action, there is
always an equal apd opposite reaction. This law . describes what happens to a
body when it exerts a force on another body. These three laws are still being
used to this day to describe the kinds of objects and speeds that we encounter in
everyday life.

Application of Laws of Motion in Sports

First Law

1. Softball The ball is hit into the air. Eventually, gravity will act on the ball,
pulling it down to the ground. Then, it will roll until friction between the ball
and the grass stops it.
2. Soccer When a soccer ball is kicked into the air, gravity will pull it back to the
ground. Then, it will continue to roll until friction between the ball and the
grass slows it down.
3. Dance When a dancer leaps, he/she only stays in the air for a short amount of
time because air resistance and gravity works against them.
4. Basketball When a basketball is shot, it takes a parabolic path due to gravity
acting on it. Then it slows down due to air resistance and fluid friction.

Second Law
If a baseball player hits a ball with double the force, the rate at which the ball will accelerate
(speed up) will be doubled. Football players can slow down, stop or reverse the direction of
other players depending upon how much force they can generate and in which direction.

Third Law
A swimmer propels herself through the water because the water offers enough counterforce
to oppose the action of her hands pushing, allowing her to move. An athlete can jump higher
off a solid surface because it opposes his body with as much force as he is able to generate, in
contrast to sand or other unstable surface.

Projectile and Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

A projectile has a single force that acts upon it-the force of gravity. If there were any other
force acting upon an object then that object would not be a projectile. Projectile motion refers
to the motion of an object projected into the air at an angle.

Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

When the human body or an object is projected through space, three forces influence the
course of flight

1. Propelling Force The propelling force produces certain effects depending upon
its point and direction of application. If the application is directly through the
 projectile’s centre of gravity, only linear motion results from the force. As the
propelling force is moved farther from the centre of gravity, rotatory motion of
the object increases at the expense of linear motion.
2. Force of Gravity As soon as contact is broken with a projected object, the force
of gravity begins to diminish the upward velocity of the object. Finally, gravity
overcomes the effects of the upward component of the projectile and the object
begins to descend.
3. Effects of Air Resistance As the speed of an object increases, air resistance has
a greater retarding effect.

Friction
The force acting along two surfaces in contact which opposes the motion of one body over
the other is called the force of friction.
Friction is of two types

1. Static Friction The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to
move over the another surface but the actual motion has yet not started is called
static friction.
2. Dynamic Friction It is the friction between two surfaces that are in relative
motion with respect to each other. It is the opposing force that comes into play
when one body is actually moving over the surface of another body.

Methods of Reducing Friction

1. Polishing By polishing the surfaces in contact, they become smooth and the
force of friction reduces. Many implements like the discus are painted to reduce
friction.
2. Lubrication The lubrication of surfaces makes them slippery and this reduces
the force of friction.
3. Streamlining Friction due to air is reduced by streamlining the shape of the
body. The aroplanes are made with a sharp front to reduce friction.
4. Use of Ball Bearings Ball bearings are used to reduce the force of friction.
Many sports require more friction and other need lesser friction. In athletics, the
shoes are designed to increase friction so that better speed can be generated.
Chapter 11 Psychology and Sports
April 25, 2019 by Kalyan

CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 11 Psychology and Sports and Sports is
part of Physical Education Class 12 Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT
Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 11 Psychology and Sports.

Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 11

Psychology and Sports
Sports Psychology and Its Importance
The word psychology refers to the study of human behaviour and sports psychology denotes
a sub-category of psychology that deals with the behaviour of athletes and teams engaged in
competitive sports Sports psychology is important because it.

1. analyses the behaviour of sportsmen

2. identifies talent for specific sports
3. creates a better learning situation
4. stabilises the performance of athletes for a longer period
5. encourages players to make a comeback in professional sports
6. is important from the research point of view

Understanding Stress and Its Management

Stress
Stress is experienced when individuals feel that they cannot cope with a situation with which
they are presented. If athletes are in a stressful situation then their athletic performance,
whether this be in competition or in training, will be affected.

Management of Stress
There are many aspects of an athlete’s life that can be stressful at certain times. By proper
planning, the level of stress that the athletes and perhaps the coach will encounter can be
reduced This can be done by following the steps given below.

 Aim to exercise regularly

 Eat healthy
 Get enough sleep
 Set realistic goals
 Accept mistakes
 Use imagination
 Take a break
 Use relaxation techniques

Coping Strategies
In psychology, coping is expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal
problems and seeking to master, minimise or tolerate stress or conflict. We are discussing
here only two types of coping strategies.

(i) Problem Focused Coping

Problem focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the
problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently, directly reducing the stress.
Problem focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor Problem focused
strategies include.

 Taking control
 Information seeking
 Evaluation

(ii) Emotion Focused Coping

It is directed towards changing one’s own emotional reaction to a stressor Emotion focused
coping strategies are effective in the management of unchangeable stressors. These coping
mechanisms involve a cognitive reappraisal process that includes self-reflection and taking
control over one’s emotions. Emotion focused strategies include.

 Keeping yourself busy to take your mind off the issue.

 Letting off steam.
 Praying for guidance and strength.
 Distracting yourself (e.g. watching TV, eating).
 Building yourself up to expect the worst.

Personality
The word personality is derived from Latin word persona meaning the mask. In ancient
Greece, the actors used to wear masks to hide their identities while portraying their roles in a
theatrical play. To an ordinary person, the word personality conveys the meaning of one’s
physical appearance, his habits, his ways of dressing, his reputation, his manners and other
similar characteristics.

Definitions of Personality
According to Macionis, “It is the constant pattern of thinking, feeling and actions.”
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The totality of sentiments, attitudes, ideas, habits, skills
and behaviors of an individual is personality.”

Types of Personality
[Sheldon and Jung Classification]
The concept of personality and its types have been formulated by many psychologists. The
personality type on the basis of physical attributes is given by William Herbert Sheldon. It is
as follows

1. Endomorph The endomorph is physically quite round, with wide hips, narrow
shoulders which makes them pear-shaped Lot of fat is spread across the body. They are
sociable, fun-loving, tolerant, even-tempered, good humoured, relaxed and love food.
2. Ectomorph They are quite the opposite of endomorph. They have narrow shoulders
and hips, thin, narrow face, high forehead, thin, narrow chest and very little body fat.
 They are self-conscious, private, introvert, socially anxious, intense, emotionally
restrained and thoughtful.
3. Mesomorph They are somewhere between endomorph and ectomorph. They have
large head, broad shoulders, narrow waist (wedge shaped), muscular body, strong
limbs and little body fat. They are well proportioned. They are adventurous,
courageous, assertive, bold, competitive, with a desire to dominate, take risk, rise to
power.

The personality type on mental basis is formulated by Carl Jung. These are as follows

 Extroverts Have more self-confidence, take more interest in others, are outgoing,
lively and realistic. They are very social and form friends quite easily. Actors, social
and political leaders etc belong to this group.
 Introverts Are too self-conscious, more interested in their own thoughts and ideas,
self-centered, shy, reserved and lovers of solitude. They do not make friends easily
andkeep in’the’ background op social occasions. Philosophers, poets, artists and
scientists belong to this class.
 Ambiverts Doubting whether people can be divided into these two extremes, he put
most of the people in this category and they-have been labelled as ‘ambiverts.’
The.ambiverts are a mixture of both the extremes in a balanced manner. Ambiverts are
neither outgoing nor reserved to themselves. They are able to adjust themselves to any
situation.

Role of Sports in Personality Development

Sports helps an individual much more than in the physical aspects alone. It builds character,
teaches and develops strategic thinking, analytical thinking, leadership skills, goal setting and
risk taking. It teaches individual to develop the following which ultimately develop the
personality of the individual

 Team spirit
 Leadership skill
 Fairplay
 Never give up
 Great leveller
 Focus
 Strength and abilities
 Process and result
 Planning
 Earnestness and sincerity
 Observation and analysis
 Positive attitude

Big Five Theory

The ‘big five’ are the broad categories of five personality traits that are universal. They are as
follows

 Extraversion It is characterised by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness

and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People high in extraversion are
extroverts and low in extraversion are introverts.
 Agreeableness This includes attributes like trust, kindness, affection and other social
behaviours. People high in agreeableness are more cooperative and people low ih this
trait are more competitive and manipulative.
  Conscientiousness Characteristics include high level of thoughtfulness, good impulse
control and goal-directed behaviours. People high on this trait are organised and
mindful of details.
 Neuroticism Characteristics are sadness, moodiness and emotional instability. People
high in this trait experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability and sadness. People low
in this trait are more stable and emotionally , resilient.
 Openness Characteristics are imagination and insight. People high in this trait are
creative, adventurous and have a broad range of interests. People low in this trait are
more traditional and less in abstract thinking.

Motivation and its Types

Motivation is a process through which an individual is inspired m stimulated to act in a
particular fashion or manner towards a particular direction. Motivation is of two types
1. Internal Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation
This motivation is within an individual and guides one to perform better to satisfy one’s own
personal feelings. Internal motivation depends upon basic needs like biological needs (thirst,
hunger), social needs (family, friends etc), psychological needs (interest, attitude, love, self-
esteem) and personal needs (safety, personality, economical etc).

2. External Motivation or Extrinsic Motivation

This motivation depends upon environmental factors. External motivation has great impact
on an individual’s performance. It is of various types like

 Rewards
 Punishment
 Active participation
 Equipment and surroundings
 Teaching methods
 Audio-Visual aids
 Test-evaluations and competitions
 Teacher-pupil relationship

Techniques of Motivation
Various techniques of motivation are applied on sportspersons which can enable them to
achieve the top positions in the field of sports and games. These techniques of motivation are

1. Haying an Innovative Curriculum Many elementary skills basic to sports

development have already developed in most of the children by the time they reach
primary school age.
2. Knowing Your Athlete Each athlete comes from a different background with varied
experiences and having different degrees of maturity.
3. Teacher as a Motivator A teacher or coach who has participated in the sport himself,
who is highly skilled and can demonstrate and explain the skill more accurately and
can plan the next competition wisely, is a great asset in motivating the athletes.
4. Freedom to Beginners To motivate young beginners, they should be allowed a greater
degree of freedom in their early attempts.
5. Level of Aspiration/ Goal Setting As we know that achieving performance goals is a
sign of competence that affects motivation positively, it is necessary to set realistic
goals based on one’s own abilities.
6. Identifying Incentive Factors If an athlete perceives that any particular kind of
experiences are available to him in a given sport and he feels that these will be
 pleasant, enjoyable or satisfying, then he will choose to participate in that game or
sport and not any other.
7. Assigning Well-Defined Roles Assigning well-defined roles to athletes enhances their
perception of self-competence.

Exercise Adherence
Exercise adherence refers to maintaining an exercise regimen for a prolonged period of time
following the initial adoption phase. Exercise adherence is voluntary, self-regulated and
largely a psychological issue.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence

Following are the determinants of exercise adherence

1. Demographic Variables Education, income, gender, socio-economic status etc are some
of the demographic variables which determine the exercise adherence of people.
Educated people with high income are health-conscious and they are adherent with
their exercising habits.
2. Spousal Support It is critical to enhance adherence rates for people in exercise
programmes.
3. Group Exercising It generally produces higher levels of adherence than exercising
alone. Group exercising makes people exciting and interesting.
4. Early Involvement If people engage in sports and physical activity during childhood,
they are adherent to their exercising habits.

Reasons to Exercise
We all unconsciously know that exercise is good for us. It is fair to say that everyone wants
to be healthy. At the same time, it is probably equally fair to say that most of us are not
exercising enough. The main incentive that can make us start exercising is overall health
improvement.

Here is the list of powerful reasons to exercise

1. Longevity
People who are physically active live longer. Regular exercise habit reduces the risk of dying
prematurely.

2. Weight Control
Regular physical activity helps to reach and maintain a healthy weight. Exercises speed, up,
the rate of , energy use, resulting in increased metabolism. When metabolism increases
through exercise, the body weight remains under-control.

3. Bone Strength
An active lifestyle benefits bone density. Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone
formation, delays bone loss and may protect against osteoporosis (form of bone loss
associated with aging).

4. Strong Immune System

Regular exercise is beneficial for immune function. Exercise or physical activity may help
flush bacteria out of the lungs and airways. This increases the immunity of body and reduces
chance of getting a cold, flu or other illness.
5. Cholesterol Lowering Effect
Physical exercise favourably influences blood cholesterol levels in our body. Exercise
positively alters cholesterol metabolism by increasing the production and action of several
enzymes in the muscles and liver that function to convert some of the cholesterol to a more
favourable form.

Benefits of Exercise
Exercise is defined as any movement that makes body’s muscles work and requires body to
bum calories. There are many types of physical activity, including swimming, running,
jogging, walking, dancing etc. Being active has been shown to have many health benefits,
both physical and mental. Here is the list of scientifically proven health benefits the regular
exercise brings

 Exercise has been shown to improve our mood and decrease feelings of depression,
anxiety and stress. It produces changes in the parts of the brain that regulate stress and
anxiety.
 Exercise plays a vital role in building and maintaining strong muscles and bones.
Physical activity like weightlifting can stimulate muscle building when paired with
adequate protein intake.
 Regular exercise has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular fitness
and body composition, yet decrease blood pressure and blood fat levels.
 Exercise can provide antioxidant protection and promote blood flow, which can protect
skin and delays signs of aging.
 Exercise improves blood flow to the brain and helps health and memory. Among older
adults, it can help protect mental function.
 Exercise can help us to sleep better and feel more energised during the day.
 Exercise has favorable effects on the pain that is, associated with various conditions. It
can also increase.pain tolerance.
 Exercise is crucial to support a fast metabolism and for burning more calories per day.
 Exercise is also helpful in maintaining self-confidence.

Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise

The choice of whether of not to exercise is a daily decision Although a person’s risk of
dropping out of an exercise programme is lower when he/she has maintained participation for
six months or longer. Following should be strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise

 An individual should identify situations when he/she is likely to experience lapses in

his/her exercise programme. The most common situations include travel, holidays,
illness, stress, poor weather, and competing family obligations.
 People should use realistic plans that work with the exercise schedule and willingness.
 You should make your exercise fun, interesting, challenging and enjoyable.
 There should be adequate break during intensive exercise.
 Exercise should be scheduled with a group or club and isolated exercise habit should
be avoided.

Aggression in Sports
Aggression or aggressiveness means the intention to cause mental or physical harm to a
person. This is done by doing physical harm, showing unkind or nasty behaviour, abusing or
using cruel words. A person shows aggression due to stress, anger or even due to insecurity.
Aggression may come instantly or may build up over time. It can be positive as well as
negative. According to Baron and Richardsons, “Any form of behaviour towards the goal of
harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment is
aggression.”

Concept of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression is often seen in the field where players play aggressively. There is a
desire to excel which leads the players to play with high intensity. So aggression is positive
when players play within the rules of the game with high intensity and without harming other
players.

However aggression becomes negative when players have an intention to harm other players,
use abusive language or doing other such things which are not within the laws of the game.
For example, pushing another player over a game of football or using abusive language for
other players or teams.

Types of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression has been defined into two kinds or types. These are instrumental
aggression and hostile aggression.
1. Instrumental Aggression In instrumental aggression, the main aim is to achieve a goal by
using aggression. It is a positive form of aggression. Here the aim of the player is to excel in
the sport that he is playing through high intensity output and competitive spirit. For example,
a football player using aggression to tackle his opponent and win the ball. He is not harming
any player but only using his aggressiveness to gain the ball. Experienced players show
instrumental aggression on the field as they have greater self-control to manage their
aggression.

2. Hostile Aggression In hostile aggression, the main aim is to cause harm or injury to your
opponent. It is usually an unplanned, impulsive reaction towards a player who may have
become a threat in achieving the goal. However it may also be planned to cause injury to
intended player on the field. This kind of aggression often arises from insult, hurt, bad
feelings, jealousy and threat.

For example, a bowler throwing a bouncer to deliberately injure the batsman or to shake up
his concentration. In some extreme cases, hitting an opponent or deliberately obstructing his
path leads to his fall on the ground. This kind of aggression is usually seen in new players
who want to achieve success quickly. The difference between the two is that instrumental
aggression is positive where the aim is to excel by own efforts while hostile aggression is
negative. Here the aim is to excel by causing harm to others.
Chapter 12 Training in Sports
Sports Training
Training is a process of preparing an individual for any event, activity or job. Usually in
sports, we use the term sports training, which denotes the sense of preparing sports persons
for the highest level of performance. According to Mathew (1981), “Sports training is the
basic form of preparation of a sportsman.” Keeping in view the aim of sports training in
competitive sports, the following objectives of sports training may be set to reach the aim

1. Personality development
2. Physical fitness and development
3. Skill/Technique development
4. Tactical development
5. Mental Training

Strength
Strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force in single muscle contraction or it is the ability
to overcome resistance. Strength is an essential component of physical fitness.
Types of strength are

1. Maximum strength
2. Explosive strength
3. Strength endurance
4. Static strength

Training Methods for Improving Strength

Training methods for improving strength are
(i) Isometric Exercises
An isometric contraction occurs when there is tension on a muscle but no movement is made,
causing the length of the muscle to remain the same. These isometric exercises were first
introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953). Examples of these exercises are pressing or
pushing a wall, lifting a very heavy weight, holding a static position, pulling the rope in tug-
of-wall etc.
Advantages of isometric exercises are as follows

 Develops static strength.

 Need less time.
 Can be performed anywhere because no equipment is required.

Disadvantages of isometric exercises are as follows

 Muscles gain most strength at the angle used in exercise.

 Avoid if you have heart problems as they cause a rise in blood pressure due to a
drop in blood flow to the muscle during the contraction.
 Develops dynamic strength.

(ii) Isotonic Exercises

Isotonic exercise is a form of exercise which involves controlled contraction and extension of
muscles and mobilisation of the joints around those muscles. Examples include a push-up or
squat. These were developed by De Loone (1954). Isotonic exercises are of two types

 Concentric
 Eccentric

Advantages of isotonic exercises are as follows

 Strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion.

 Can be adapted easily to suit different sports. Disadvantages of isotonic
exercises are as follows
 Muscle soreness after exercise because of the high stress level.
 Muscles gain the dynamic strength when they are at their weakest point of
action.

(iii) Isokinetic Exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises were
developed by Perrine in 1968.
In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and
extensor muscles e.g. swimming, cycling etc.

Advantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

 They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength.

 These are effective for almost every game.

Disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

 They require special types of equipment.

 They must be performed under observation of a coach.

Endurance
Endurance is the ability to do sports movements with the desired quality and speed under
conditions of fatigue.
Types of endurance are

1. Aerobic Endurance Aerobic means ‘with oxygen’ During aerobic work, the
body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be met by
the body’s intake.
2. Anaerobic Endurance During anaerobic (without oxygen) work involving
maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and
fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored
reserves of fuel.
3. Speed Endurance Speed endurance is used to develop the coordination of
muscle contraction.
4. Strength Endurance Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete’s capacity
to maintain the quality of his muscles’ contractile force.
Advantages of endurance are as follows

 Needs only a small amount of easy to use, accessible equipment, if any.

 Good for aerobic fitness.
 Good for losing weight.

Disadvantages of endurance are as follows

 Can be boring.
 Does not improve anaerobic fitness, so it is not as good for team games like
football or hockey which involve short bursts of speed.

Training Method for Endurance Development

Methods for endurance development are

1. Continuous Training
2. Interval Training
3. Fartlek Training

Advantages of training method for endurance development are as follows

 It is good for increasing strength and cardio respiratory endurance.

 Several athletics can take part in the training programme at a time.
 It does not require any equipment and can be organised easily.
 This training method is not rigid; it is flexible in nature.

Disadvantages of training method for endurance development are as follows

 The trainee does very hard training which is sometimes difficult to see his/her
efforts making.
 Sometimes the athlete is likely to drop efforts.
 As it is not pre-planned so it may cause accidents.
 An appropriate check on trainees cannot be maintained.

Speed
It is the ability to cover distance in minimum possible time or the ability to perform
movement in the shortest possible time. It is the quickness of movement of body parts. Speed
used in endurance is called speed endurance. It is the ability to do work faster.
Different types of speed are

1. Maximum speed
2. Explosive speed (power)
3. Speed endurance

Training Methods for Speed Development

A speed development programme can be framed according to need, level and training state of
the players.
 1. Acceleration Run Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed
specially in attaining maximum speed from a stationary position.
2. Pace Races or Run Pace races mean running the whole distance of a race at a
constant speed. In pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform speed,
generally 800 m and above.

Flexibility and Its Methods

Flexibility is . the ability to perform a joint action through a range of movements. It is needed
to perform everyday, activities with relative ease. Flexibility tends to deteriorate with age.
Without adequate flexibility, daily activities are more difficult to perform. Being flexible
significantly reduces the chance of experiencing occasional and chronic back pain.
There are two types of flexibility

1. Passive flexibility
2. Active flexibility

Methods of flexibility development are as follows

1. Ballistic Method It is the oldest form of doing stretching exercises. This method
involves jerk in movement.
2. Slow Stretching Method In this method the muscle or joint involved is stretched
to the maximum possible limit using slow movement.
3. Slow Stretching and Holding Method It is the extension of slow stretching
method.
4. Post-Isometric Stretching This method of-flexibility development is based on
the principle of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

Coordination
Coordination is one of the main components of physical fitness. It is the ability to perform
smooth and accurate movements involving different parts of the body. It requires good
awareness of relative limb and body positions, and good integration between the senses and
muscles involved in the movement.
Different types of coordinative abilities are

1. Differentiation ability
2. Orientation ability
3. Coupling ability
4. Reaction ability
5. Balance ability
6. Rhythm ability
7. Adaptation ability

Circuit Training
It is a form of body conditioning or resistance training using high intensity aerobics. It targets
strength building and muscular endurance. Activities in circuit training are step ups, stomach
crunch, squat ups, jogging, skipping etc.
Impact of circuit training are
 Get maximum result in minimum time.
 Increases rate of metabolism.
 Enhances cardiovascular fitness.
 Enhances muscle endurance.
 Helps in strength training.