CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

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 CELL

The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.

Organization of human body
 Organization of human body

The human organism has several levels of organization.

1. Cells
The most basic parts of the human machine are cells
Cells are the basic units of structure and function in the
human body.
Many human cells are specialized in form and function
 CONSTITUENTS
Different substances that make a cell are collectively called
Protoplasm.

Protoplasm is composed of :-
1)Water - 70-80% Water is present in cell.

2)Carbohydrates

3)Lipids 4)Protein

5)Electrolyte - Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Calcium

(Ca2+), Phosphate , Chloride (Cl-), and Bicarbonate (HC03 - ).
 SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURES

Major Structures Present in a cell are :-

Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm and its Organelles
Nucleus
 CELL MEMBRANE
Thin pliable elastic outermost
structure which envelops the
cell.

It consists of bilipid layer with

embedded proteins that are-

i)Integral Proteins

ii)Peripheral proteins
 FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
Protective:- Forms outermost boundary of the cell organelles.

Digestive:- Takes in food and excretes waste products.

Selective Permeability:- a)Non-Polar Molecules- Gases (like O2 ,CO2, N2
), Lipids,Steroid Hormones, Alcohols can dissolve in the non –polar regions
of the membrane and move rapidly across the membrane.

b)Polar molecules:- H2O soluble ions , Glucose, urea etc. have much
lower solubility . Therefore Penetrate the membrane much more slowly.
b)Chemical and Physical Properties of membrane control the free passage
of ions in and out of cell. This property helps in maintaining components in
ICF and ECF.
Links adjacent cells together by junctional complexes to
form tissues.

Insulating Properties:- It acts as dielectric material (poor

conductor of electricity) of a charged condenser, thus cell
membrane have very high insulating value.
 CYTOPLASM
AND
ITS ORGANELLES
 CYTOPLASM
Thick, gel-like semitransparent fluid that is found in both plant and
animal cell.

The constituent parts of cytoplasm are

cytosol, cell organelles and
cytoplasmic inclusions.

Bounded by the plasma membrane, and

contains many organelles in a eukaryotic
cell (cell containing

membrane bounded nucleus).

 CYTOSOL
The cytosol, the aqueous part of the cytoplasm outside all of the organelles,
also contains its own distinctive proteins.

It accounts for almost 70% of the total cell volume.

Gelatinous substance consisting mainly of cytoskeleton filaments,

organic molecules, salt and water.

Chemically, the cytoplasmic matrix is composed of many chemical

elements in the form of atoms, ions and molecules.
 ORGANELLES
Following organelles are present in the Cytoplasm:-
i)Mitochondria ii)Endoplasmic Reticulum
iii)Lysosomes iv)Golgi Appartus

v)Peroxisomes vi)Vacuole

Each organelle is bounded by a lipid membrane and has specific

functions.
 MITOCHONDRIA
The mitochondria were first observed by Kolliker in 1850 as
granular
structures in the striated muscles.

Mitochondria are called the 'powerhouse of the cell'.

STRUCTURE-

Length- 5-12µm
Diameter- 0.5-1µm

Filamentous or globular in shape.

 Components of Mitochondria are -
i) Outer Membrane ii) Inner

Membrane

iii) Intermediate Space- space between outer and inner membranes

iv) Cristae-In foldings of inner membrane

v) Matrix- The space enclosed by inner membrane

The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins

 Outermost Membrane-

a) It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called Porins.

These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons or less to pass.

b) Studded with enzymes concerned with biological oxidation .

Interior (Matrix) of the Mitochondria contains

enzymes concerned with ‘citric acid cycle’ and
‘respiratory chain oxidation’.

Major metabolic pathways involved in

oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids and part of special biosynthetic
pathways involving urea and heme synthesis are located in inner matrix.
Inner Membrane :
It contains ATPase and other enzymes concerned with synthesis
and metabolism of ATP.

Contains enzymes of Electron Transport Chain.

The ultimate purpose of these mechanisms is oxidative

phosphorylation and synthesis of ATP.

Mitochondria has some protein synthesised by Mitochondrial

DNA.
 FUNCTIONS

Power generating units of the cells.

Important to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the

various compartments of the cell.

Energy transduction through respiration.

Responsible for thermogenesis.

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm.

An extensive network of closed,

flattened membrane-bounded sacs
called cisternae .

Space inside the tubules

is filled with Endoplasmic Matrix.
 TWO TYPES-

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

▪ Ribosomes absent ▪Contains ribosomes

▪Site of synthesis of lipid and ▪Site of protein
steroid hormones. synthesis,processing and
▪Mainly present in lipid forming cells packaging.
such as adipocytes, interestitial ▪Mainly present in protein forming
cells of testis, glycogen storing cells cells such as pancreatic acinar
of liver, adrenal cortex cells, muscle cells ,Goblet cells
cells, leucocytes etc. ,antibody producing plasma
cells, Nissl’s granules of nerve
cells etc.
 FUNCTION

Synthesis of proteins.

Protein segregation.

Unsaturation of fatty acid.

Muscle contraction.
ER is commomly known as Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in
muscle fibers.
 GOLGI BODIES
Golgi Bodies is a collection of membrane enclosed sacs composed of four or
more stacked layers of thin, flat enclosed vessels lying near the side of the
nucleus.
Consist of multiple discrete
compartments.
Consist of four functionally
distinct regions:

i) The cis Golgi network

ii) Golgi stack –which is divided into
- a) The medial and
-b) Trans sub compartments iii)The

trans Golgi network.

 FUNCTION
Wrapping and Packaging department of the cell.
Produces secretion granules i.e. membrane enclosed complexes, which store
hormones and enzymes in the protein secreting cells, it packages proteins.

Site of formation of lysosomes i.e. large irregular structures surrounded by

membrane which are present in the cytoplasm.

It adds certain carbohydrates to form glycoproteins, which play an important

role in the association of the cells to form tissues
 LYSOSOME
S
Diameter- 250 -750nm

These are the irregular structures

surrounded by the unit membrane.

More acidic than rest of the cytoplasm

and external bacteria as well as worn
out cell components
are digested in them.

The interior is kept acidic(near pH

5.0) by the action of proton pump or H+ or
ATPase.

Lysosomes are cell hydrolases and they function best at the acidic pH.
 FUNCTIONS
Acts as a form of digestive (lytic ) system or the cell, because
enzymes present in it can digest essentially all macromolecules.

Engulf worn out components of the cells in which they are located.

Engulf exogenous substances e.g. bacteria and degrade them.

When a cell dies ,lysosomal enzymes causes autolysis of the remanant .

Thats why lysosomes are called as Suicidal Bags.
 PEROXISOMES
Diameter- 0.5µm

A lipid bilayer membrane surrounds

which regulates what enters or exits the
peroxisomes.

Urate oxidase crystalline core.

Structure is similar to that of the

lysosomes but with a different chemical
composition .

Peroxisomes can be formed by the budding of ER, or by

division
 CONTD.

Contains oxidases that produces H2O2.

Catalases degrades hydrogen peroxide to yield water and oxygen

Proteins are directed to the Peroxisomes by a unique signal

sequence with the help of protein chaperones, Peroxins.
 FUNCTION
H2O2 metabolism and detoxification

Helps in Photorespiration in plants

Biosynthesis of lipids .

Cholesterol and dolichol are synthesized in animals.

Synthesis of bile acids in liver.

Synthesis of plasmalogens ( myelin sheath).

 CYTOSKELETON
System of fibers that not only maintains the structure of the cell but also
permit it to change shape and move.

The cytoskeleton is made up primarily

of:- i)Microtubules

ii) Intermediate Filaments

iii) Microfilaments
along with protein that anchor
and
tie them together.
Microtubules- These are long hollow structures approx. 25nm in diameter.
Determine shape of the cell, role in the contraction of the spindle and
movement of chromosomes and centrioles as well as in ciliary and flagellar
motion.
Intermediate Filaments- They are 8-14nm in diameter and are made up
of various subunits. They form a flexible scaffolding or cell and help it
resist external pressure.
In their absence cell ruptures more easily and when they are abnormal in
human, blistering in common.
The proteins that makeup intermediate filament are cell types specific and
are thus frequently used as cellular markers.
Microfilaments- They are long solid fibers 4-6 nm in diameter. They
comprise the contractile protein actin and are responsible for the cell
motion.
 Intermediate
Filaments

Intermediate filaments (IF) are composed of fibrous

protein polymers that provide structural support to
membranes of the cells and scaffolding for attachment
of other cellular components.
Each IF subunit is composed of a long rod-like alpha
helical core.
STUCTURE OF Intermediate Filaments

The alpha-helical segments of two subunits coil around

each other to form a coiled coil
Then combine with another dimer coil to form a
tetramer.
The tetramers join end to end to form protofilaments
Approximately eight proto filaments combine to form
filaments.
 FUNCTION
They are involved in the:-

Movement of the chromosomes

Cell movement

Processes that move secretion granules in the cell

Movement of proteins within the cell membrane.

NUCLEUS
 THE NUCLEUS
The nucleus contains chromatin, RNAs, and nuclear proteins move freely
in aqueous solution.
Nucleus has an internal structure

that organizes the genetic material

and localizes nuclear functions.

A loosely organized matrix of

nuclear lamins extends from the

nuclear lamina into the interior of

the nucleus.
 CONTD.

These lamins serve as sites of chromatin attachment and

organize other proteins into functional nuclear bodies.

Chromatin within the nucleus is organized into large loops of

DNA, and specific regions of these loops are bound to the lamin matrix by

lamin-binding proteins in the chromatin.

 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
Complex structure consisting of two nuclear membranes, an underlying

nuclear lamina, and nuclear pore complexes.

Two concentric membranes, called the

inner and outer nuclear membranes .

The outer membrane is continuous with the

endoplasmic reticulum, so the space between

the inner and outer nuclear membranes is

directly connected with the lumen of the

endoplasmic reticulum.
 CONTD.

Nuclear membrane is permeable only to small nonpolar

molecules.

Underlying the inner nuclear membrane is the nuclear lamina, a

fibrous meshwork that provides structural support to the nucleus.

 FUNCTION
Serves both as the repository of genetic information and as the cell's
control center.

The presence of a nucleus thus allows gene expression to be regulated by

posttranscriptional mechanisms, such as alternative splicing.

The nuclear envelope provides novel opportunities for the control of gene
expression at the level of transcription.
 SUMMAR
COMPARTMENTS
Y MAJOR FUNCTIONS

Plasma Membrane Transport of ions and molecules

Cytosol Metab. of carbohydrate, lipids and
amino acids

Mitochondria Energy production

Endoplasmic Reticulum Synthesis of proteins and lipids

Golgi apparutus Modification and sorting of proteins

Lysosomes Cellular digestion

Peroxisomes Utilisation of H2O2

Cyotoskeleton Cell Morphology and cell motility

Nucleus DNA synthesis and Repair