In order to mitigate problems like hydrate formation and wax deposition, which can impede the flow
of hydrocarbons, flowlines must be buried (Manfield et al., 2007). Additionally, because of the
increased outer surface temperature during the burying process, flowline coatings may deteriorate
more quickly, emphasising the importance of careful material selection and design considerations
(Melve, 2002). Because it can use the thermal characteristics of the seabed soils as an affordable
form of insulation for subsea flowlines, the burial of flowlines also affects how they interact with
seabed soils (Young & Osborne, 2001).
To understand the complexity of the Oil extraction, transportation and flow assurance it is
essential to illustrate how oil is extracted and transported in the industry. Subsea oil and gas
infrastructure consists of a series of underwater equipment that operate to perform different
functions. Equipment like trees, manifolds , Blowout valves, risers and gathering systems are
responsible for operations like stopping the oil from leaking from the well, subsea oil
separation and forming connections after the drilling and extraction.to transport a dense fluid
like oil the equipment use high pressure to deliver to onshore facilities and themselves are
subjected to high pressure high temperature environments (Xie et al., 2020).
Moreover, there are several risks associated with transporting oil in subsea environments,
such as the possibility of oil spills due to pipeline malfunctions, tanker crashes, and subsea
well blowouts (Pan et al., 2023). Subsea pipeline integrity is essential for ensuring the safe
transportation of hydrocarbon fluids, particularly in high-risk subsea operations, and it must
be able to handle the difficulties these operations present (Syuryana et al., 2022).
Furthermore, hydrate formation and wax precipitation may result from the high pressure and
low temperature that are common in subsea flow lines, adding to the transportation process'
complexity (Wang et al., 2020).
This is where a field of engineering has come up which involves countering these risks and
issues in subsea oil production and transportation, "flow assurance" refers to the collection of
strategies and tools used to guarantee the effective and secure transfer of hydrocarbons from
the reservoir to the facilities for processing. It includes handling a range of issues that can
obstruct the flow of gas and oil in subsea pipelines, including hydrate formation, wax
deposition, scale formation, and slugging (Denniel et al., 2004; Khurana et al., 2017; Hegde
et al., 2015).
Flow assurance is a crucial task during oil and gas production in such environments because
these challenges are especially common in deep-water or cold weather (Denniel et al.,
2004).Subsea processing equipment, subsea control systems, and multiphase flow modelling
are some of the technologies and approaches used to address flow assurance challenges
(Shobowale et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2019; Al-lababidi et al., 2012). Even under difficult
operating circumstances, these technologies are essential to guaranteeing the steady and
effective flow of hydrocarbons from the reservoir to the production facilities. Additionally,
data loggers and acoustic emission monitoring are two examples of monitoring systems used
in flow assurance management that are used to identify and minimize possible disruptions in
flow.
Understanding changes in fundamental production parameters, such as the evolution of
temperature and pressure, flow rate, Gas–Gas-oil ratio (GOR), fluid properties, Basic
Sediment and Water (BS & W), sand production, etc., is necessary for an effective production
surveillance system. The evolution of temperature and pressure among these variables tells us
a lot about what's going on along flowlines or down-hole. If properly examined, this data can
offer timely insight into emerging oilfield issues for management's benefit. However, because
of the intricate multiphase flow that is typical of oilfield operations, it is challenging to
predict temperature and pressure with any degree of accuracy.
Wax and asphaltene deposition, hydrate formation, heat loss multiphase flow, corrosion, and
sand ingress are among the flow assurance targets or areas of interest in industrial oil
production. These are caused by temperature and pressure drops, (carduuci et al.,2015) and
they frequently obstruct or malfunction production machinery when producing or
transporting hydrocarbons normally. The paraffin solubility in oil is high enough to
completely dissolve the wax molecules in the oil at reservoir conditions, which involve high
temperatures (70–150 °C) and high pressures (50–100 MPa). The low-viscosity crude oil
behaves as a Newtonian fluid. Additionally, hydrocarbons and water may form hydrates to
obstruct fluid flow when the temperature of the production fluid inside the flowline drops too
low due to heat loss. In addition, if the fluid temperature drops too much, wax starts to
precipitate and settles on the flowline wall.
To get more oil for the growing energy market, the oil business has to go to places that are
harder to get to. The low temperatures, high water cuts, high pressures, and longer transfer
times that exist below the surface of the water make it a great place for hydrates, wax, and
other things to form. These are the main problems that make it hard to get gas and oil through
long-distance underwater pipes. In offshore oil drilling wells that are distant from platforms,
crude oil usually needs to be sent through underwater pipes over long distances. As the oil
moves through the tunnel, heat from the ocean around it moves through the walls and cools it.
If the pipes aren't protected, the temperature can drop quickly and cause issues.
Wax formation in subsea pipelines can cause several serious issues that can affect the
efficient and safe movement of oil. Wax precipitation can lead to the formation of wax-oil gel
blockages, which can cause problems with flow assurance and pipeline blockages, especially
in highly paraffinic crude oils. (Zheng et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2007). The solubility of waxes
is an
important factor in wax deposition, particularly in field-scale pipelines where the oil's
temperature fluctuates a lot along the pipe, which promotes the accumulation of wax
deposits (Huang et al., 2011). In the petroleum industry, wax deposition in subsea oil
pipelines is a major financial issue that results in decreased oil production, pipeline
closures, higher operating costs, and environmental, health, and safety risks. Wax
dissolved in the crude oil gradually develops and can accumulate on the pipe wall
when the pipeline operating temperature drops below the wax appearance
temperature (WAT), resulting in pipeline plugging and decreased throughput (Song
et al., 2020). Certain components of crude oil can crystallize in pipelines and form
wax deposits, which can impede oil flow and possibly cause blockages in the
pipeline (Senra et al., 2007). Wax deposition can also decrease the cross-sectional
area accessible for fluid transportation, which raises the possibility that pipelines,
and process equipment will become clogged (Ma et al., 2019).
Crystal complexes known as natural gas hydrates are created when water molecules and
hydrocarbon liquids like methane, ethane, propane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide physically gather.
Hydrates are essentially produced when water is present in a hydrocarbon gas at high
pressure and relatively low temperature. Hydrates may seem ordinary in offshore natural gas,
water, and the right amount of compression and temperature. The water temperature at the
subsea reaches about 8 degrees Celsius when the depth of the water exceeds 1000 meters, and
temperature variations can be incredibly tiny. In this case, asphaltenes and paraffin wax may
settle to the bottom and hydrates may form. Gas hydrates form in production plants and pipes
when temperatures drop, and pressures rise. They stop pipelines, cost a lot to remove, and
pose risks to the environment. Offshore gas and oil transport operations are subject to certain
temperature
and pressure conditions that can because gas hydrates to form and cause major flow security
issues in pipes and other facilities. It is not good for oil and gas pipes for gas hydrates to
form, so they need to be stopped when they do.
Four things must be present for safe hydrate crystals to be created in oil and gas production
systems: water; a source of molecules that can make hydrates, such as N2, C2H8, H2S, CO2,
CH4, and further hydrocarbon molecules; and high pressure and low temperature. Often,
strategies for hydrate reduction and repair change one or more of these parts to make the
hydrate less stable and get rid of the problem. Several researchers have come up with
different ways to control hydrates. These include changing the pressure outside the hydrate
envelope; changing the temperature by active or passive insulation (like Direct Electrical
Heating - DEH); cutting off the flow of water via dehydration or separation; cutting off the
store of hydrate-forming substances by gas-liquid split; and adding chemical inhibitors like
ethanol and methanol.
The intricate blend of organic compounds known as asphaltenes, which are present in crude
oil, are known to pose serious problems for flow assurance in subsea pipelines. According to
Sandoval et al. (2019), asphaltenes are naturally occurring surfactants and stabilizers of
water-in-oil emulsions that lower surface tension and prevent drop coalescence. On the other
hand, asphaltenes in crude oil can cause a few problems for subsea pipelines. The tendency of
asphaltenes to deposit in reservoirs, flow lines, and other manufacturing facilities is one of
the main issues they cause in subsea pipelines. This can result in significant production losses
because it can restrict oil flow or cause damage to equipment and instruments along the flow
lines. (Kurup et al., 2011). Asphaltenes can contribute to flow assurance issues and perhaps
cause pipeline obstructions by forming coke-like particle deposits that are flocculated by
alkanes (Thawer et al., 1990). The upstream oil and gas industry is very concerned about
asphaltene deposition because it can result in lower production rates and higher operating
costs (Babu & Vargas, 2019).
Once underwater pipes are set up, they need to be managed on an ongoing basis to make sure
they don't leak or break. Some of the problems that integrity management must deal with are
rust, erosion, and damage from outside forces like weather and ship anchors. Pipelines need
to be checked often for damage and rust, and fixes need to be done right away to stop leaks
and other problems.
Corrosion is a big problem for underwater pipes because seawater can quickly break down
things like steel used in pipelines. Pipelines are often treated with special materials that stop
rust to reduce this effect. Putting an electric current through the cable is another way that
cathodic protection systems keep it from rusting. This stops the seawater from corroding it.
For this current, the pipeline becomes negatively charged.
Erosion is one of the big challenges in the sector of subsea pipelines. The fluid flow within
the pipeline can cause erosion in the pipeline as well. The velocity level of the fluid will
cause more erosion in the pipeline. These things need to be reduced, and for that reason,
different coating levels are required. The coats do not let the fluid erode in the pipeline. It
also helps to reduce the velocity of the fluid in the pipeline.
To control temperature and avoid problems like hydrate formation and wax deposition, active
technology in subsea pipe heat management refers to the use of systems that actively generate
and apply heat to subsea pipelines. The safe and effective movement of hydrocarbons in
subsea environments depends on this technology. For subsea deepwater fields, active heating
systems like electrical trace heating and direct electrical heating are thought to be cost-
effective solutions Fisher et al. (2012) Pattee & Kopp, 2000; Nysveen et al., n.d.). According
to Nysveen
et al. (n.d.), these systems offer a way to actively supply heat to the pipeline, which prevents
the formation of hydrates and guarantees the continuous flow of hydrocarbons.
Additionally, compared to conventional solutions, active heat management technology offers
a fundamentally different and easier way to manage hydrates in deepwater subsea oil
flowlines with electrical heating systems to subsea pipelines (Pattee & Kopp, 2000).
Furthermore, hydrate formation is a well-known issue in subsea oil and gas production
systems, and a technology to prevent it has been developed for subsea pipelines via direct
electrical heating (Nysveen et al., n.d.).
To tackle a variety of issues active heating can be of Different types depending on variables
like pressure temperature water depth flow speed water properties. Some of these are
combined with other forms of heat management methods. Currently most active heating
methods fall into one of these categories.
1. Electrical Trace Heating: To actively supply heat and stop the development of hydrates and
wax deposition, electrical heating elements are installed along the subsea pipeline. Fisher et
al., 2012; Pattee & Kopp, 2000; Thant et al., 2011).
2. Direct Electrical Heating (DEH): By applying electrical heating directly to the subsea
pipelines, DEH systems successfully stop the formation of hydrates and guarantee the
continuous flow of hydrocarbons (March et al., 2003).
3. Pipe-in-Pipe (PIP) Heating: In this technique, a heating medium is circulated via the
annulus that separates the inner and outer pipes to maintain the inner pipe's temperature
(Wang et al., 2019).
4. Heat Pipe Technology: By directing heat to areas of the subsea pipeline, heat pipes help
regulate temperature and stop the formation of hydrates (Chen et al., 2021; Riffat & Ma,
2007).
5. Subsea Line Heaters: These are made to use resistive heating to directly heat subsea
pipelines, avoiding hydrate formation and guaranteeing flow assurance (Park et al., 2014).
6. Hot Water Heated Bundle: According to Brown et al. (1999), this idea uses hot water
heated bundles to keep paraffin and hydrate from forming in subsea tiebacks and to guarantee
flow assurance in subsea pipelines.
Although Active heating is widely used in the industry there certainly some disadvantages for
their application because they could cause thermal stresses as well as strains in the pipeline's
material, which could compromise the pipeline's structural integrity. This can result in
problems like lateral and upheaval buckling, which endanger the mechanical stability and
dependability of the pipeline. (Wang & Heijden, 2020; Ning et al., 2021; Sharifi et al., 2019;
Wang et al., 2018). The implementation of active heating systems may have an impact on the
environment, particularly regarding heat dissipation and energy consumption. Furthermore,
the utilization of heating systems might complicate the insulation and thermal characteristics
of seabed soils, which could influence the environment around them (Young & Osborne,
2001). For active heating systems to provide efficient heat management, close monitoring
and management are necessary. The heating systems' operational reliability may be impacted
by snap-back fluctuations and hysteretic snap behaviour brought on by the cyclic thermal
loading brought on by intermittent start-ups and shutdowns (Wang & Heijden, 2020).
Significant expenses may be incurred during the installation and upkeep of active heating
systems. Long-term operational viability and cost-effectiveness must also be carefully
considered during the development and implementation of these systems (Brown et al.,
1999).
In subsea pipeline applications, passive insulation is essential, especially for heat insulation
and protection against hydrate formation and corrosion. To provide suitable thermal and
mechanical qualities in ultra-deepwater applications, advanced insulating materials, and
coatings, including epoxy, polypropylene (PP), and polyurethane (PU), are being developed
for subsea use (Bouchonneau et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2023). Invar pipe materials and
vacuum systems for insulation are utilised to limit growth and differential stress in subsea
cryogenic pipelines, whereas syntactic foams or solid polymer insulation are currently the
industry standard for subsea completion equipment (Ruschau et al., 2010; Phalen et al.,
2007).
Epoxy, polypropylene (PP), and polyurethane (PU) are the conventional materials utilised for
passive insulation in subsea pipes (Ruschau et al., 2010). These materials are well-known for
having the right mechanical and thermal characteristics for use in extremely deep-water
applications. Furthermore, another common subsea wet insulation material is glass syntactic
polyurethane (GSPU) (Shukla & Labh, 2020). Moreover, the industry norm for subsea
completion equipment at the moment is syntactic foams or solid polymer insulation (Ruschau
et al., 2010). Due to their resilience and efficiency in offering corrosion protection and
thermal insulation in subaquatic settings, these materials have found widespread application.
When it comes to subsea pipes, passive insulation has many benefits over active heating
systems. First off, passive insulation systems—like heat pipes—offer dependable and
efficient heat transfer over extended distances without requiring extra energy input, which
lowers operating costs and has a smaller environmental impact. Zhang et al., 2021; Bodla et
al. (2013)). Furthermore, strong heat resistance and corrosion protection are provided by
passive insulating materials such solid polymers and syntactic foams, which guarantee the
durability and integrity of subsea pipelines (Janoff & Davalath, 2002). According to Jiang et
al. (2017), passive insulation systems are also renowned for their resilience and simplicity.
They require less maintenance and have fewer parts that could malfunction, which increases
system reliability.
On the other hand, active heating systems, like electrically heat-traced flowlines, might need
more sophisticated control mechanisms and greater power heating requirements, which could
result in higher energy consumption and certain operational difficulties (McDermott &
Sathananthan, 2014). Furthermore, according to McDermott and Sathananthan (2014), active
heating systems may be more prone to system failures and need ongoing monitoring and
maintenance, which could result in increased operational costs and safety risks. Therefore, in
comparison to active heating systems, the implementation of passive insulation in subsea
pipelines offers advantages including affordability, dependability, and simplicity.
In subsea pipelines, the terms "wet" and "dry" passive insulation describe how the insulating
material reacts to moisture. Wet insulation refers to the moisture that is present in the
insulation material as a result being subjected to a wet environment or water intrusion.
Conversely, dry insulation keeps the insulation material's structure and thermal performance
intact by not allowing any moisture to enter it. Because of the moisture present, wet
insulation can cause problems like increased heat conductivity and decreased insulation
efficacy. Ruschau et al., 2010; Cai and colleagues, 2014). The subsea pipeline system's
thermal performance may be impacted by moisture infiltration since it might reduce the
insulation's capacity to thwart heat transmission (Janoff & Davalath, 2002). Furthermore,
according to Kuverdynsky et al. (2006), wet insulation may need particular design elements
and materials to counteract the effects of moisture and preserve insulating performance in
subsea conditions. On the other hand, subsea pipeline integrity and thermal efficiency depend
heavily on dry insulation. According to Janoff and Davalath (2002), dry insulation materials
are made to withstand moisture intrusion and hold onto their insulating qualities in a variety
of environmental circumstances, such as contact with seawater and hydrostatic pressure. For
subsea applications to ensure long-term thermal performance and corrosion prevention,
insulating materials must be able to stay dry (Koverdynsky et al., 2006; Pojtanabuntoeng et
al., 2015). The importance of choosing and developing insulation materials that can
successfully control moisture ingress and preserve their thermal insulation capabilities in
demanding subsea conditions is generally highlighted by the contrast among wet and dry
insulation.
Flowline burial is the process of burying submerged flowlines beneath the mudline by
covering them with smaller rocks or seafloor material. For subsea pipes, this burial enhances
thermal insulation, lowers the risk of uplift, and offers physical protection. Sunday and others
(2021) Bai and others (2014). According to Lanan et al. (2008) and White & Bransby (2018),
the burying procedure is essential for safeguarding the flowlines from outside influences and
guaranteeing their stability in a range of environmental circumstances. Furthermore, for many
projects previously thought to be practicable only with pipe-in-pipe systems, it has been
discovered that subterranean flowlines have thermal qualities that make single-skin pipe
systems conceivable (Loch, 2000).
