Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
City of San Fernando, La Union

Thermodynamics 1
(MEFC 102)

HECTOR K. PINTOR
2nd Sem 2020 -2021
 Course Outline

in

THERMODYNAMICS 1
(MEFC 102)

 COURSE DESCRIPTION

A course dealing with the thermodynamic properties of pure substances, ideal and
real gases and the study and application of the laws of thermodynamics in the analysis of
processes and cycles. It includes introduction to vapor and gas cycles.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should have been able to have:

1. Identify the different properties of pure substance, ideal gas and real gas
2. Apply thermodynamic concepts and principles in analyzing and solving problems.
3. Apply the laws of thermodynamics in analyzing problems.
4. Evaluate the performance of thermodynamic cycles.

 COURSE REQUIREMENTS

1. Attend google class as required

2. Have active class participation during google meetings if necessary.
3. Submit the required activities as scheduled and;
4. Take and pass the required periodical examination
 GRADING SYSTEM

Module Exercises and Summative Test - 60%

Midterm/Final Examination - 40%

Total 100%

 COURSE CONTENT

Module I: Introduction

Lesson 1: Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Lesson 2: Units and Dimensions
Lesson 3: Thermodynamic Properties
Lesson 4: Law of Conservation of Mass

Module II: First Law of Thermodynamics

Lesson 1: Work, Power and Energy

Lesson 2: Work in Thermodynamic Processes
Lesson 3: Law of Conservation of Energy
Lesson 4: Entropy and Enthalpy

Module III : Ideal Gas

Lesson 1: The Ideal Gas Laws
Lesson 2: The Ideal Gas Equation
Lesson 3: Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas
Lesson 4: Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy of an Ideal Gas
Module IV : Processes of Ideal Gas

Lesson 1: Isometric Process

Lesson 2: Isobaric Process
Lesson 3: Isothermal Process
Lesson 4: Isentropic Process
Lesson 5: Polytropic Process

Module V: Pure Substance

Lesson 1: Properties of Pure Substance

Lesson 2: Processes of Pure Substance

Module VI: Introduction to Cycle Analysis

Lesson 1: Second Law of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2: Gas and Vapor Cycles
Lesson 3: Real Gases

 REFERENCES

1. Baltazar, Conrado., Basic Engineering Thermodynamics. Central

Book Supply Inc. 2008

2. Cengel, Yunus A. and Boles, Michael A. Thermodynamics: An

Engineering Approach, 7th Edition. The Mc Graw Hill Companies
Inc. 2011

3. Rajput R.K., Engineering Thermodynamics. Third edition. Jones

and Barlett Publishers International, Barb House, Barb Mews,
London United Kingdom. 2010.

4. Riesel, John P. Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics.

Cengage Learning, USA, 2016
 5. Shapiro and Moran. Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics, 6 edition, John Wiley Sons, 2007
th

6. Sonntag and Van Wylen. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 7 th

edition, John Wiley Sons, 2008.

Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

HECTOR K. PINTOR MELCHOR A. MEANA, PME HARRISON R. FLORES, PME

Instructor/Professor Program Chair Dean/Director
Date Date: Date:
 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION

Lesson 1: Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Lesson 2: Units and Dimensions
Lesson 3: Thermodynamic Properties
Lesson 4: Law of Conservation of Mass
 Module 1
Basic Principles, Concepts and Definitions

Introduction

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics and an engineering science that is very

important in this field. The study and understanding of the fundamental principles, concepts
and definition of thermodynamics which includes the physical and chemical behavior of
matter and energy and extends to the study of systems in which how these quantities interact
with their surrounding are basic in the study of this science.
Mechanical engineers use thermodynamics to study the flow of energy in systems
such as automotive engines, turbines, heat exchangers, bearings, gearboxes, air conditioners,
refrigerators, nozzles and diffusers.
Electrical engineers use thermodynamics to deal with electronic cooling problems,
increasing the energy efficiency of large-scale power generation, and the development of
new electrical energy conversion technologies such as fuel cells.
All engineering fields utilize the conversion and use of energy to improve human
condition.
This module will introduce the basic principles, concepts and definitions of terms that will
be very important in the study of thermodynamics

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Define thermodynamics and its branches.

2. Define system and its types.
3. Differentiate phase and pure substance
4. Identify the different systems of units used.
5. Define the different thermodynamic properties.
6. Understand the Law of conservation of mass
7. Solve problems involving the above basic concepts
 Lesson 1 – Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the relationship of various
forms of energy and matter. The word thermodynamics comes from the Greek words
“therme”, meaning heat and “dynamis”, meaning power. The term “thermodynamics”
was coined by James Joule in 1849.
Thermodynamics is also that branch of physical sciences that treats of various
phenomena of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of
transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice versa.

Branches of Thermodynamics:
Classical Thermodynamics is the branch of thermodynamics that concern with
the states and properties of energy and with the laws of thermodynamics without the
atomic interpretation.
Statistical Thermodynamics is the classical thermodynamics considering the
atomic and molecular interpretation of the states and properties of energy.
Chemical Thermodynamics is concern with the interpretation of the states and
properties of energy with chemical reactions.
Systems
Thermodynamic System (or simply a system) refers to the quantity of matter
or anybody or region of space which is to be considered and analyze. This may be in
a form of a simple body or as combinations of a body that is enclosed within a defined
volume.

Everything that is external to the system is defined as the surrounding,

environment or universe. The system and the surrounding is distinguished by a
boundary that serves as the borderline between the two.

Types of Thermodynamic Systems:

An isolated system is any system in which neither mass nor energy crosses the
system boundary.
A closed system is defined as a system in which the particular amount of
matter is under study. The system contains that amount of matter and there is no
transfer of mass across the system’s boundary. This is also called as control mass.
Isolated system is a type of closed system that does not interact with its surroundings
and neither mass nor energy crosses the systems’ boundary.
 An open system is defined as a system in which mass flows through the system
across its boundary. In an open system, heat, work and matter may cross the
boundary. This is also called as control volume.
Other kinds of systems are: steady flow system, matter enter and leaves at the same
rate; and diathermic system, the energy crosses the system’s boundaries

Phase and Pure Substance

Phase refers to the quantity of matter that that is homogeneous throughout in
both the physical structure and chemical composition. This matter can be in a form of
solid, liquid or gas. A system can contain one or more phases. For example, a system
of boiling water; the system contains two phases, the liquid water and the water
vapor (steam). These phases are separated by phase boundaries. Also, some
examples are gases, nitrogen and oxygen can be mixed in any proportion to from a
single phase. Some liquids such as water and alcohol are miscible, means; they can be
mixed to form a single phase. Water and oil are immiscible, means, they cannot be
mixed and form two liquid phase.
Pure substance refers to the one that has a uniform chemical composition and
can exist in more than one phase but its chemical composition must be the same in
each phase. For example, a system of water and water vapor in a system is a pure
substance since their combination does not react and each phase contains the same
composition. Also, some mixture of gases that does not react with each other is
considered to be a pure substance.

Lesson 2 – Units and Dimensions

Units and Dimensions

In thermodynamics, you determine the energy of a system in its many forms
and master the mechanism by which the energy can be converted from one form to
another. A key element in this process is the use of consistent set of dimensions and
units. A calculated engineering quantity always has two parts, the numerical value
and the associated units. The result of analysis must be correct in both categories : It
must have the correct numerical value and it must have the correct units.
Units provide us with the numerical scale whereby we can carry out a
measurement of a quantity. Units are used in measurements that indicate specified
magnitudes of dimensions. This gives number a particular meaning
 We call each measurable characteristic of a quantity a dimension of that
quantity. If the quantity exists in the material world, then it automatically has three
spatial dimensions (length, width and height), all of which are called length (L)
dimensions. If the quantity changes in time, then it also has a temporal dimension
called time (t).
There are two common systems of units that are used: the SI abbreviation for
Systeme International d’Unites (International System of Units) and the English
Engineering System.

The SI is the legally accepted systems used in many countries. The SI base units
are the following:
 The English Engineering System is also used. The English base units are the
following:

Also listed are the names arbitrarily given to the various derived units.

1 Newton = 1 kg-m/s2
1 dyne = 1 g-cm/s2
1 poundal = 1 lbm-ft/s2
1 slug = 1 lbf-s2/ft

Below are some common conversions

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:
Convert 340 cm2 to m2
Solution:
1𝑚
340 cm2 x (100 𝑐𝑚)2 = 0.034m2

Example 2:
Convert 980m to ft.
Solution:
3.281 ft
980 m x = 3215.38 ft
1𝑚

Example 3:
Convert 65 mi/hr in m/s
Solution:
mi 1.609 km 1000 m 1 hr
65 hr x ( )x ( ) x( 3600 s) = 29.05 m/s
1 mi 1 km
  EXERCISE 1.1

Name: ________________________________________________________________________ Score: _______________

Year and Section: ___________________________ Date: ________________
Convert the following:
1. 1,250 m to km, yards and miles.

2. 250 km2 to m2, ft2 and ha

3. 1,500 m3 to cm3, L and ft3.

4. 500 kph to m/sec, mi/sec and km/sec

5. 3x108 m/sec to kph, mi/sec and km/sec

 1

Lesson 3 – Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic Properties
A thermodynamic property is any characteristic of a system whose numerical value
depends only on the thermodynamic equilibrium state of the system and is dependent of how
the state was attained.

Thermodynamic property (or simply property) refers to any measurable characteristic

of a system. There are two classes of thermodynamic properties: extensive and intensive.
Extensive property refers to the properties of a substance that depends on the amount of
the substance. Some examples are mass, volume, area, energy etc.
Intensive property refers to the properties of a substance that do not depend on the
amount of substance. Some examples are temperature, pressure, density, etc.

1) Force (F)
Force is any influence that tend to change the state at rest or in motion of the body.
The SI unit of force is Newton(N).

According to the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, “the force acting on a body is
proportional to the product of mass and acceleration”.
Mathematically,

F α ma
𝑚𝑎
F= , where k is a proportionality constant
𝑘

When the constant of proportionality is equal to unity, thus it can be expressed as,

F = ma

where m is the mass in kilograms, and a is the acceleration in m/s 2

The relation between kilogram force (kgf ) and Newton (N) is

1kgf = 9.8066 N
Since 1 kg force accelerates 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

In English system, the relationship between pound mass (lbm) and slug is

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

A poundal is a unit of force that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass.

1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Example:
Determine the force in Newtons of an object whose mass is 2,000 kg.

Given: m= 2,000 kg

Required: mass in Newtons (N)

Solution:
 2

F = ma

The standard value of acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface is 9.8066 m/s 2 or
simply 9.81 m/s2, thus,

F = 2,000 kgf or

F = 2000 kgm (9.81m/s2)

F =19,620 N or 19.62KN

2. Weight (W) and mass (m)

The force acted by the body with respect to the earth’s surface is the weight.

The mass of a body refers to the absolute quantity of matter in it while the weight of the body
refers to the force of gravity on the body.
Mathematically,

W = mg
where, m is the mass in kg and g is the acceleration due to gravity equal to 9.81 m/s 2 (in
SI units).
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:
What is the weight of the man of 60 kg mass at standard condition?
Given:

m = 60 kgm
Required:

Solution:
W = mg

= 60 kgm (9.81 m/s2)

W = 588.6 N or

W = 60 kgf
Example 2:

What is the weight of the man 145 lbm at standard condition?

Given:
m = 145 lbm

Required:
W

Solution:
W = mg
In English system, a mass should be in pound mass (lb m) and g is 32.17 ft/s2 to obtain a unit of
poundal, thus,
 3

W = 145 lbm (32.174 ft/s2)

W = 4,665.23 poundal or
W = 145 lbf

3. Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit volume.

Mathematically,
𝑚
ρ =
𝑉

where, ρ is the density in kg/m3, m is the mass in kg and V is the volume in m3

Specific volume (𝜈) is the volume of a unit mass.

𝑉 1
𝜈= =
𝑚 ρ

Weight density / specific weight (ɣ) of any substance is the force of gravity on unit volume.
𝑊
𝛾= 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉

where γ is the specific weight in N/m3, W is the weight in N and V is the volume in m3

Specific gravity is the density of the substance relative to that of water. This is also known as
relative density. Water is considered the standard substance which has a maximum density at
40C. Mathematically,

density of substance
specific gravity =
density of water

The specific gravity of water at its dense condition (40C) is exactly 1.000
Density of water at standard condition = 1000 kg/m 3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:

How many kilograms of air are in your room? Assume your room is 10m x10mx 3m. The
density of air at sea level is about1.3 kg/m3.

Given: V = 10m x 10m x 3m = 300 m 3

ρ = 1.3 kg/m3

Required: m
𝑚
Solution: ρ =
𝑉

m = ρV
m = 1.3 kg/m3 (300 m3)

m = 390 kg
 4

Example 2:

How much is the mass of a 2Liter of gasoline whose density is 800 kg/m 3?
Given:
V = 2Liter
1000 𝑐𝑚3 1𝑚
= 2 Liter x x( )3
1 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 100 𝑐𝑚

= 2x10-3 m3
ρ = 800 kg/m3
Required: m

Solution:
m = ρV

m = 800 kg/m3 (2x10-3 m3)

m = 1.6 kg

4. Pressure (𝜬)

Pressure is the force exerted over an area and is measured in Pascals (Pa).
F
𝛲=
A

where;
𝛲 = pressure
F = force
A = area

Other units of Pressure

1 atm = 101.325 KPa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in. Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
= 1.01325 bar
= 1.033 kg/cm2

Pressure in Fluids

As the depth of a material in a fluid increased, the pressure in the fluid also increased.

Supposing a container with an altitude of h and cross-sectional area A is filled with a fluid with a
density ρ. The volume of the tank is V=Ah and the weight of the fluid it contains is,
W = mg = ρVg = ρgAh
The pressure of the fluid it exerts on the bottom of the tank is,
 5

𝐹 𝑊
𝛲𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = = ρgh
𝐴 𝐴

The total pressure within a fluid will be the sum of the pressure of the fluid and the

pressure of the environment, thus,

P = P external + ρgh

The pressure discussed above is absolute pressure. Pressure measuring devices indicate
the difference between the absolute pressure of the system and the absolute pressure of the
atmosphere outside the measuring devices. The magnitude of the difference is called the gage
pressure or the vacuum pressure. When the gage pressure is applied to the system it is greater
than the atmospheric pressure,

Pgage = Pabs - Patm

When the atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure of the system, the vacuum
pressure is used.

Pvacuum = Patm – Pabs

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:

Convert 100 psig to psia and atm.

Given:
P = 100 psig

Required:
P in psia and atm
Solution:
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
Since Patm = 14.7 psi, then
Pabs = 14.7 psi +100 psi
Pabs = 114.7 psi
Solving for P in atm
1 atm
Pgage = 100 psig x 14.7 psi = 6.80 atm

Example 2:
Convert 15 inHg vacuum to inHg abs and to psia.

Given:

P = 15 in Hg vacuum
Required:
 6

P in Hg abs and psia

Solution:
Pvacuum = Patm – Pabs
15 in Hg = 29.92 in Hg -Pabs

Pabs = 14.92 in Hg abs

In psia,
14.7 psi
Pabs = 14.92 in Hg x29.92 in Hg = 7.33 psia

5. Temperature
Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and therefore a
measure of the intensity of heat.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that, “If two thermodynamic systems are
separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.” It is assumed from this law that if we want to know the temperature of the two bodies
separately in thermal equilibrium with each other, it is necessary for it to be in thermal
equilibrium with the third body. This third body is usually a thermometer.

The four Temperature Scales

1. Celcius or Centigrade - named after Swedish astronomer, Anders Celcius.
The freezing point is 00C and the boiling point is 1000C of water.

2. Fahrenheit - named after German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit.

The freezing point is 320F and the boiling point is 2120F of water.

3. Kelvin - named after British mathematician Lord Kelvin also known as Sir
William Thomson Kelvin. He introduced the concept of absolute zero at 0K, the

lowest possible temperature and that is the zero of his scale.

4. Rankine -named after the British engineer and physicist William J. M. Rankine
Conversion Formulas:
9
t0F = 𝑡0C + 32, degrees Centigrade
5

5
t0C = (t0F-32), degrees Fahrenheit
9

T0R = t0F + 460, degrees Rankine

TK = t0C +273, Kelvin

Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.

Absolute temperature will be denoted by T

 7

Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) and degrees Centigrade (0C) indicate temperature reading (t).
Fahrenheit degrees (F0) and Centigrade degrees (C0) indicate temperature change or difference
(Δt).
5
1 F 0 = C0
9
9
1C0 = F0
5

It follows that,

1 F0 = 1 R 0 and
1 C0 = 1 K0

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1:

Convert 300C in 0F
Solution:
9
t0F = t0C + 32
5
9
t0F = (30) +32
5

t0F = 86 0F

Example 2:
Convert 280C in K

Solution:
TK = t0C +273

TK = 28 +273

TK = 301 K
 8

Lesson 4 – Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible. Mass (m 1) entering the
system is equal to the sum of the stored mass (Δm) and the mass (m 2) that leaves the system.
m1 = m2 + Δm

Δm = m1 – m2

For steady flow system, Δm =0

ṁ1 = ṁ2

Volume flow rate (V̇)

Volume flow rate is the rate at which volume of a certain fluid flows per unit time.
V
V̇ =
t

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula;

V̇= A ν

Mass flow rate (ṁ)

Mass flow rate is the rate at which a certain quantity of mass flows per unit time.
m
ṁ=
t

Ṽ Aν
ṁ= = =ρAν
v v

where V̇= volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area

ν = average speed
v = specific volume

ṁ = mass flow rate

ρ = density

For a fluid flowing in a pipe with varying cross-sectional areas, the mass flow rate is constant at
any section along the pipe. Applying the law of conservation of mass,

ṁ1 = ṁ2
ρ1 A1 ν1 = ρ2 A2 ν2
 9

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:
Two cubic meters of water flow out of a tank within 8 minutes. What is the volume flow rate in;

a) cubic meters per minute

b) liters per second

Solution:

Let V = volume of water

= 2m3

t = time interval

= 8 minutes
a) for volume flow rate in m3/min
V
V̇ =
t

2m3
V̇ = = 0.25 m3/min
8 min

b) for volume flow rate in Li/s

In order to get the volume in Li/s, the volume and time should be converted to
appropriate units.
1000L
V = 2m3 x ( ) = 2,000 L
1m3
60 sec
t = 8mins x ( ) = 480 sec
1 min

therefore, the volume flow rate is,

2,000L
V̇ =
480 s

V̇ = 4.17 L/s

Example 2:

Four hundred fifty kg of water flow from the outlet of a tank every 10 minutes. What is the
mass flow rate in;

a) kg/min

b) g/s
Solution:

Let m = mass of water

= 450 kg

t = time interval

= 10 minutes
a) mass flow rate in kg/min
m
ṁ=
t
 10

450 kg
ṁ=
10 min

ṁ = 45 kg/min
b) mass flow rate in g/s
In order to get mass flow rate in g/s, convert the mass into grams and time in seconds.
1000 g
m = 450 kg x ( )
1 kg

m = 450,000 g
60 sec
t = 10 min x ( )
1 min

t = 600 sec
therefore, mass flow rate in g/s is,
m 450,000 g
ṁ= =
t 600 s

ṁ = 750 g/s
 Module 2
Conservation of Energy

Introduction
Conservation of energy plays a very important role in the study of physical sciences. The first
law of thermodynamics is the expansion of the law of conservation of energy. It introduces the
concept of internal energy in which for every change in the heat and mechanical work in a system,
there is also a corresponding change in its internal energy. The sum of the heat, mechanical work and
internal energy of the system should be equal to zero and thus, this explains the law of conservation
of energy.

This module deals with the first law of thermodynamics that serves as an important tool in
the study and analysis of thermodynamic systems and processes.

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Define work, power and energy.

2. Identify the kinds of energy.
3. Define work in thermodynamic processes.
4. Define internal energy
5. Explain the first law of thermodynamics.
6. Define entropy and enthalpy.
 Lesson 1 – Work, Power and Energy

Work refers to the quantity that exists whenever force acting upon a body causes a
displacement. Work is in transition; that is, it exists only when a force is “moving through a distance”.

Work is a form of energy. Work is done when a force acting on a body moves the body through
a distance. If the action of the force is parallel to the direction of motion, the amount of work done is
equal to the product of the force and the distance through which the force acts.
Mathematically,

W = F (cos ϴ) d

where F is the force, d is the displacement and ϴ (theta) is the angle between the force and
the displacement.
Units of Work
1 Joule = 1 Newton- meter

1 J =1 N-m

In English system, ft -lb,

Example 1:

A man pushes a 30 Newtons crate to a distance of 5 meters, how much work did the man do?
Given: F = 30N

d = 5m
Required: W

Solution: W = F (cos ϴ) d

Since, the man pushed the crate horizontally, there is no angle formed between the force and
distance, therefore, ϴ is zero.

W =30N (cos 0) (5m)

W = 150 N-m or Joules

Example 2:

A man pulls a 500 N cart with a rope that makes an angle of 30 0 with the ground. How much
work does he do in moving the cart 20 meters?

Given: F = 500N
ϴ = 300
D = 10m
 Required: W

Solution:

500
sin 300 =
Ft

F = 1000 N

Substitute F in the equation:

W = F (cos ϴ) d
= 1000N (cos 30) (20m)

= 17,320. 51N

Power is the amount of work done per unit time.

Mathematically,
W
P=
t

where, W =work

T = time

Units of Power:
1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec

1 KW = 1KJ/sec
The horsepower (HP) is another unit of power. Horsepower derives from the experiment by
James Watt in which he measures that a horse could do 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute.

1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min
= 746 watts

= 550 ft-lb/sec
= 2545 BTU/hr
= 42.4 BTU/min
Example 1:

A horse pulls a 500 kg cart to a distance of 2 km for 30 minutes. How much power is used by
the horse in watts and in HP?

Given: m =500 kg
d = 2 km

t = 30 minutes

Required:
P in Watts, and in HP
W Fd
Solution: P = = , since ϴ =0
t t
9.81m 1000m
500 kg( )x 2km x
sec2 1km
P= 60 sec
30 min x
1 min

P = 5450 Watts
in HP,
1 HP
P = 5450 Watts x746 Watts

P = 7.31 HP
Example 2:
The output power of an electric motor is 35kilowatts that provides power for the elevator of
a ten storey building. What is the minimum time needed for an elevator to rise 70 m from the ground
floor to the top floor if the mass of the loaded elevator is 1,500 kg?

Given: P = 35 KW
h = 70m
m = 1,500kg

Required: t
W
Solution: P = , since W = mgh, therefore:
t
mgh
P= and solving for t, you have;
t

mgh 1500 kg ( 9.81 m/s2 )( 70m)

t= =
P 35,000 W

t = 29.43 seconds
Energy refers to the ability to do work. In order to do work, energy is necessary, and the body
possesses energy if it has the capacity to do work. The amount of energy required to do a given
amount of work is equal to the amount of work done. Consequently, the quantity of energy that a
body can possess is always equal to the quantity of work that the body can generate.
Energy can be external or internal. External energy is the mechanical energy of a body due to
its motion and position (or configuration) with reference to some conditions. Internal energy is the
energy of a body resulting from the velocity and position (or configuration) of the molecules that
make up the body

There are two kinds of energy. Potential energy is the energy that is stored and waiting to be
used and kinetic energy is energy in movement.

Potential Energy (PE) (also referred as gravitational potential energy) is the energy that a
body possess due to its vertical position or elevation.
PE = mgz = Wz

where;
PE = potential energy

m = mass
g = gravitational constant

z = elevation of the body above a certain datum or reference plane

W = weight

Example 1:
How much potential energy exists if you lift a 25 kg object 1.5 meter from the ground?
Given: m = 25kg
z = 1.5m

Required: PE
Solution: PE = mgz
= 25 kg (9.81 m/sec2) (1.5m)

PE = 367.88 Joules
Example 2:

What is the potential energy of a1.5 kg ball placed at a top of a 50 m high building?
Given: m= 1.5 kg

z = 50m
Required: PE

Solution: PE = mgz

= 1.5 kg (9.81m/sec2) (50m)

= 735.75 Joules

Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy in motion. The external kinetic energy is the energy of a
body due to its motion or velocity.

Three types of kinetic energy:

1. Vibrational is the energy due to vibrational motion.
2. Rotational is the energy due to rotational motion.

3. Translational is the energy due to motion from one location to another.

The amount of kinetic energy that a body may possess depends on the mass and velocity and
can be computed using the equation below:
1
KE = m𝜈 2
2

where, m = mass
ν = velocity

Example 1:

If you throw an object with a mass of 2 kg at 10 meters per second, how much kinetic energy
exists?

Given: m =2 kg
ν = 10 m/sec

Required: KE
1
Solution: KE = m𝜈 2
2
1
KE = (2kg) (10m/sec)2
2

KE = 100 Joules
Example 2:

A 30 g bullet travels at a speed of 200 m/s. What is the kinetic energy existing?
1 kg
Given: m= 30g x = 0.03 kg
1000g

𝜈 = 200 m/s

Required: KE
1
Solution: KE = m𝜈 2
2
1
KE = (0.03𝑘𝑔)(200𝑚/𝑠)2
2

KE = 600 Joules
Work and Kinetic Energy
Energy is the ability to do work and thus work is related to energy. The amount of work
(W)done on an object is equal to its change in kinetic energy. The units of energy and work are just
the same.

W =ΔKE and W = Fd
Fd = ΔKE = KEfinal – KEinitial
1 1
Fd = ( m𝜈 2 )final – ( m𝜈 2 )initial
2 2

Example:

The maximum force that a certain bulletproof vest can absorb is about 45 KN. If a 25-g bullet
traveling at an average velocity of 250 m/s hits a soldier’s vest, how far will it go through the
body armor?
1000N
Given: F = 45 KN x = 45,000N
1KN

1 kg
m = 25 g x = 0.025 kg
1000g

ν = 250 m/s
Required: d

Solution: Fd = ΔKE = KEfinal – KEinitial

1 1
KEinital = ( m𝜈 2 )initial = (0.025kg) (250𝑚/𝑠)2
2 2

= 781.25 Joules
KEfinal = 0, since the bullet final velocity is zero.

Fd = KEfinal – KEinitial
Fd = 0 – 781.25 Joules
 45,000N (d) = -781.25 N-m

Therefore, d = -0.017m
❖ The bullet will penetrate the vest up to 0.017m

Transformation of Kinetic and Potential Energy

Potential Energy = Kinetic Energy
1
mgz = m𝜈 2
2

ν = √2𝑔𝑧

Example:
A concrete block 2 KN is to be lift by a crane. If the crane breaks at an altitude of 30 meters,
how fast would be the block is moving right before it hits the ground?
Given: W = 2KN

Z =30m
Required: velocity
1
Solution: mgz = m𝜈 2
2

ν = √2𝑔𝑧

𝑚
ν = √2(9.81 2)30𝑚
𝑠

ν = 24.26 m/s
 Lesson 2 – Work in Thermodynamic Processes

Work (W) is the product of the displacement of the body and the force applied in the direction
of the displacement.

Work = Force x Displacement

W = Fs
Where, W = work

F = force
s = distance or displacement

Work in a closed system

You shall now study, the work done in a closed system (also known as nonflow work, Wn).

The work in a closed system is the area under the process path if drawn on the pV plane. This
area is represented by the shaded region and is equal to the integral of the product of the
instantaneous pressure p and the elemental volume dV.
2
Wn = ∫1 pdV

The area under the curve of this process on the pV plane represents the work done during
the nonflow reversible process.
Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)

Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy)

Example:

In a closed system, the absolute pressure of a gas remains constant at 50 KPa while its volume
changed from 20 cm3 to 50 cm3. Compute the work done.

Solution:
Let V1 =initial volume

= 20 cm3

= 0.02m3
V2 = 50 cm3

= 0.05m3
p = 50 KPa
2
The work can be calculated using the equation Wn = ∫1 pdV
2
Wn = ∫1 pdV
2
= ∫1 50𝑑𝑉

= 50 (V2-V1)
KN
= 50 (0.05-0.02) m3
m2

Wn = 1.5 KN-m or KJ
Work in an open system

The work in a system with a flowing fluid (also referred to as flow work, Wf) is defined as the
work done to drive a fluid across the system. Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a
fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of a system.

Wf = FL = pAL

Wf = pV
ΔWf = Wf2-Wf1 =p2V2 – p1V1

ΔWf = change in flow work

where, p1 = initial pressure

p2 = final pressure

V1 = initial volume
V2 = final volume
Heat (Q)

Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely because of
a temperature difference between the bodies or systems.

Q is positive when the heat is added to the body or systems.

Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.
Heat is the energy transferred that takes place from one body to another due to the
temperature difference between them.
The calorie (cal) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of water through a temperature change of 10C
The British Thermal Unit (BTU) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water through a temperature change of 10F
Units of Heat
1 cal = 4.187 J
1 BTU = 1.055 KJ
1 BTU = 778 ft-lb

Quantity of Heat

Q = mc ΔT
Q = mc (Tf – To)

where, Q is the heat lost or gained, m is the mass, c is the specific heat, ΔT is the change in
temperature, Tf is the final temperature and To is the initial temperature.

Specific heat (c)of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass through one degree.
heat (energy units)
c=
(mass)(change of temperature)

Specific heats of some common substances

Example 1:

How much heat must be added to 5 kg of water to increase its temperature by 200 C? The
specific heat of water is 1 cal/g0 C.

Given: m= 5 kg

ΔT = 200C

c = 1 cal/g- 0C

Required: Q

Solution:

Q = mc ΔT

Q = 5 kg (1 cal/g- 0C) (200C)

Q = 100 kcal

Example 2:
What is the temperature in 0C of 2 kg of glass at 300C after 500 cal of heat have been added?
The specific heat capacity of glass is 0.2 kcal/kg-0C.

Given: m = 2kg
To = 300C

Q = 500 cal = 0.5 kcal

c = 0.2 kcal/kg-0C

Required: Tf

Solution: Q = mc (Tf – To)

0.5 kcal = 2kg (0.2 kcal/kg-0C) (Tf -300C)

Tf = 31.25 0C
Example 3:

What is the initial temperature in 0F of a 5 L of water after 860 BTU of heat have been added
at

1400F?

Given: V = 5L
Q = 860 BTU

Tf = 1400F
Required: To
 Solution: Q = mc (Tf – To)
2.205 lb
860 BTU = 5kg x (1 BTU/lb-0F) (1400F - To)
1 kg

To = 62 0F
Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium occurs when two or more substances or materials reach a common
temperature through exchanging of heat. This happens when two or more substances are in contact
with each other and heat will flow from hotter to colder substance until they reach equal temperature
and heat will no longer flow and have thermal equilibrium.
Qlost = Qgained

Example 1:
A 0.3 kg copper block at 500C is dropped into a container of water with a mass of 2 kg at
300C and comes to thermal equilibrium. What is the final temperature of the water and
steel?
Given: mcu = 0.3 kg

To(cu) = 500C
mwater = 2 kg

Towater = 300C

Required: Tf
Solution: Qlost by copper = Qgained by water

mcu ccu ΔTcu = mwcw ΔTw

0.3kg(0.093 kcal/kg-0C)( 500C -Tf )= 2kg (1 kcal/kg-0C) )(Tf - 300C)

Tf = 30.275 0C
Example 2:
An aluminum bar with a mass of 200 g at 100C is dropped into a cup of water with a mass of
1.5 kg at 650C. What is the final temperature of the water and aluminum after it comes to
thermal equilibrium?

Given: mal = 200g

To(al) = 100C

mwater = 1.5 kg = 1500g

Towater = 650C
Required: Tf
Solution:

Qgained by aluminum = Qlost by water

mal cal ΔTal = mwcw ΔTw

200g(0.22 cal/g-0C)(Tf - 100C)= 1500g (1 kcal/kg-0C) )( 650C - Tf )

Tf = 63.432 0C
 1

Lesson 3 – Internal Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Internal energy (U, u) is energy stored within a body or substances by virtue of the activity and configuration
of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the molecules.
u = specific internal energy (unit mass) Δu = u2 – u1
U = mu = total internal energy (m is the mass) ΔU = U 2 -U1
Internal energy (U) is the sum of the energies of the entire particles in the system and all the potential
energies of interaction between these particles. The symbol for internal energy is U. For change in internal
energy, it is denoted by
ΔU = U2 – U1
Mathematically, the internal energy is.
ΔU = Q – W

The Q is the heat added and W is the work done by the system. If the work W is done on the system,
W will be negative and ΔU increases. Also, Q is positive for heat added to the system and negative
Q if heat leaves the system.

Conservation of Energy

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
The first Law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be transformed into another.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic processes
are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot be
created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to another and converted to and
from other forms of energy.
Steady Flow Energy Equation

Characteristics of steady flow systems:

1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.

2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.

3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.

Energy Diagram of a Steady Flow System

 2

Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system

PE1 + KE1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 +Wf2 + U2 + W

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W

(Steady Flow Energy Equation)

Lesson 4 – Entropy and Enthalpy

Entropy is the measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work. It is a measure of the
randomness of molecules in a system.
Entropy of a given mass of a material at any given condition is defined as the total energy transferred
to the material per degree of absolute temperature to bring the material to a certain condition from an
arbitrarily selected datum or reference point. This could be mathematically represented as:

𝒅𝑸
ΔS =
𝑻

where, Q is the heat

ΔS as the change in entropy and
T is the absolute temperature

Natural mechanical process such as friction increases the entropy of the system. As heat is added,
entropy continually increases and decreases when heat is removed.
Entropy can also be expressed on per unit mass basis, and referred to as specific entropy s:

𝐬
S=
𝐦

where S = total entropy

s = specific entropy
m = mass

Enthalpy is the thermodynamic function of a system equal to the sum of the internal energy of the
system plus the product of its volume multiplied by the pressure exerted on it by the surroundings.

H = U + PV

where, U is the internal energy, P is the absolute pressure and V is the volume.

The above equation represents the enthalpy of a given mass of matter. In some instances, it is
convenient to represent enthalpy per unit mass such that:

h = u +pv

where, h = enthalpy per unit mass or specific enthalpy

u = specific internal energy
p = absolute pressure
v = specific volume
 3

The specific enthalpy can be obtained by dividing the total enthalpy by the mass of the material:

𝐇
h = , where m is the mass of the material
𝐦

Example 1:

Steam flows into a turbine at a rate of 10 kg/s and 10 KW of heat are lost from the turbine. Ignoring
elevation and kinetic energy effects, Calculate the power output from the turbine. Note, h 1 = 2739 KJ/kg and
h2 = 2300.5 kJ/kg

Solution:
From the problem, the following were given:
m = 10 kg/s
Q = -10 KW (heat lost)
ΔPE = 0
ΔKE = 0

You are to calculate for the value of power output or the work of the turbine.
To solve this, use steady flow energy equation.

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W

Substituting the given values, your equation will become

-10 KW = 0 + 0 + ΔWf + ΔU + W
Take note that ΔWf = ΔPV and H = U + PV, thus your equation now will become

- 10 KW = ΔH + W

- 10 KW = m (h2 – h1) + W
- 10 KW = 10 kg/s (2300.5 – 2739) KJ/kg + W

W = 4375 KW
❖ The positive value of work means that the work is done by the system

Example 2:
The enthalpy of air is increased by 139.586 KJ/kg in a compressor. The rate of air flow is 16.42
kg/min. The power input is 48.2 KW. What is the heat loss in the compressor in KW?
Solution:

The following data were given:

Δh = (h2 – h1) = 139.586 KJ/kg
m = 16.42 kg/min

W = - 48.2 KW (negative because compressor work is work done on the system)

 4

From steady flow energy equation

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W

From the equation, ΔPE = ΔKE =0

Q = ΔH + W

Q = m (h2 -h1) + W
𝑘𝑔 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
Q = 16.42 x (139.586 KJ/kg) – 48.2 KW
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Q = -10 KW

❖ The negative value of Q means that heat is lost or rejected

Example 3:
A closed gaseous system undergoes a reversible process during which 25 BTU are rejected, the
volume changing from 5 ft3 to 2 ft3, and the pressure remains constant at 50 psia. Find the change of internal
energy.
Solution:

The following data were given:

Q = - 25 BTU (rejected)
V1 = 5ft3

V2 = 2 ft3
P is constant at 50 psia

To solve for the change in internal energy ΔU, use the steady flow energy equation.
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W
From the given data, ΔPE =0, ΔKE =0, and W = 0

Substitute now the given values

-25 BTU = ΔWf + ΔU

Solving for ΔWf = P (V2 – V1)

𝑙𝑏𝑓 144𝑖𝑛2
ΔWf = 50 x ( 2 – 5) ft3
𝑖𝑛2 𝑓𝑡 2

1 𝐵𝑇𝑈
ΔWf = - 21,600 ft-lb x
778 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏

ΔWf = -27.76 BTU

Substituting this value, you now will have
-25 BTU = -27.76 BTU + ΔU
ΔU = 2.76 BTU
 5

Example 4:

A compressor draws in 500 cubic feet per minute of air whose density is 0.079 lb/ft 3 and discharges
it with a density of 0.304 lb/ft3. At the suction, P1 = 15 psia at discharge P2 = 80 psia. The increase in the
specific internal energy is 33.8 BTU/lb and the heat transferred from the air by cooling is 13 BTU/lb.
Determine the work on air in BTU/min and in HP. Neglect change in kinetic energy.
Solution:

The following data were given:

V1 = 500 ft3/min

ρ1 = 0.079 lb/ft3

ρ2 = 0.304 lb/ft3
P1 = 15 psia

P2 = 80 psia
Δu = 33.8 BTU/lb

Q = -13BTU/lb
From the steady flow energy equation:

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W

From the given data, ΔPE =0, ΔKE =0 then,

-13BTU/lb = ΔWf + ΔU + W

Solve first using per unit mass

-13 BTU/lb = (P2v2 -P1v1) + Δu + W
1 1
From previous topics, you learned that ρ = , therefore v =
v 𝜌

𝑃2 𝑃1
-13 BTU/lb = ( - ) + Δu + W
𝜌2 𝜌1

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
80 2 15 2 144𝑖𝑛2 1𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
-13 BTU/lb = ( 𝑙𝑏 - 𝑙𝑏 )x x + 33.8 BTU/lb + W
0.304 3 0.079 3 1 𝑓𝑡 2 778 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡

W = -60.364 BTU/lb
Solve for the value of mass, m

m = ρV =
Using pt. 1, you will have m1= ρ1V1
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡3
m1 = 0.079 (500 )
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛

m1 = 39.5 lb/min

Substitute this value to get W in BTU/min and in HP

W = -60.364 BTU/lb x 39.5 lb/min
 6

W = -2388.4 BTU/min
1𝐻𝑃
W = -2388.4 BTU/min x
42.4 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑚𝑖𝑛

W = -56.24 HP
W = 56.24 HP

❖ The negative sign indicates that the work is done on the system

Example 5:

Steam enters the turbine with an enthalpy of 1292 BTU/lb and leaves with an enthalpy of 1098
BTU/lb. The transferred heat is 13 BTU/lb. What is the work in BTU/min and in HP for a flow of 2lb/sec?

Solution:
The following were given:

h1= 1292 BTU/lb

h2 = 1098 BTU/lb

Q = -13 BTU/lb (heat rejected)

m = 2 lb/sec
To solve for the turbine work, again you van use steady flow energy equation.

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔWf + ΔU + W

From the problem, consider ΔPE = ΔKE = 0

W = -ΔH - Q

W = -(h2 – h1) - Q
W = -(1098 – 1292) BTU/lb – 13 BTU/lb
60𝑠𝑒𝑐
W = 181 BTU/lb x 2 lb/sec x
𝑚𝑖𝑛

W = 21, 720 BTU/min

1 𝐻𝑃
W = 21, 720 BTU/min x
42.4 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑚𝑖𝑛

W = 512.3 HP
❖ Positive value of work indicates that the work is done by the system
 Module 3
Ideal Gas

Introduction
Gases expand to fill whatever the shape of container is. The volume of a gas depends very
much on the pressure as well as on the temperature. The relationship that determines the relations
between the volume, the pressure, the temperature and the mass of a gas is called the ideal gas
equation.
This module deals with the different gas laws and the ideal gas equation that examine the
behavior of an ideal gas.

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this module, you should be able to:
1. Enumerate the gas laws.
2. Define the different gas laws.
3. Solve problems on gas laws.
4. Define the ideal gas equation.
5. Solve problems using the ideal gas equation.
6. Determine the specific heats of an ideal gas.
7. Determine the internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of an ideal
gas.
 Lesson 1 – The Ideal Gas Laws

An ideal gas or a perfect gas, is one in which the volume of the individual atoms (or molecules)
is negligible compared to the total volume of container. Also, because the distance between atoms is
so great, there are no forces of attraction or repulsion; thus, one atom is not affected by other atoms.
The behavior of most gases approaches that of an ideal gas, especially the low densities resulting
from low pressures and/or high temperatures.
Due to their loose molecular structures, ideal gases have properties that are generally
affected by the addition or removal of energy. A gas may change its condition in a number of different
ways and there are certain fundamental laws governing the three primary gas properties such as
pressure, temperature and volume. These relationships are analyzed by subjecting the gas into
different processes whereby one property is held constant.
The ideal gas laws are:

1. Charles’ Law (Formulated by the French physicist, Jacques Charles)

“At constant pressure, the volume of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.” Mathematically,
T1 T2
=
V1 V2

where, T1 = initial temperature of the gas

T2 = final temperature of the gas

V1 = initial volume of the gas

V2 = final volume of the gas

Example 1:

During the daytime, a balloon has a volume of 2,000mL when the temperature is 32 0C. If the
temperature dropped to 200C at night time, what will be the volume of the balloon if the pressure
remains the same?
Given: V1 = 2,000mL

T1 = 320C + 273 = 305 K

T2 = 200C + 273 = 293 K

Required: V2
T1 T2
Solution: =
V1 V2

305 K 293 K
=
2,000mL V2

V2 = 1,921.31 mL
Example 2:

A gas is heated at constant pressure until its volume reaches 1.45m3. The volume and
temperature of the gas before heating were 0.6 m 3 and 350 K, respectively. What is the resulting
temperature of the gas after heating?
Given: V2 = 1.45m3

V1 = 0.6m3

T1 = 350 K
Required: T2
T1 T2
Solution: =
V1 V2

350 K T
= 2
0.6m3 1.45m3

T2 = 845.83 K

2. Boyle’s Law (Formulated by an Irish chemist, Robert Boyle)

“At constant temperature, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.”
Mathematically,
C
V= ; PV =C
P

P1V1 = P2V2
where P1 and P2 are the pressures in any units and V1 and V2 are the volumes in any
units.
Example 1:
A 100 L of helium gas at room temperature with a pressure of 2 atm is transferred to another
tank with a maximum capacity of only 50 L. If temperature is kept constant, what will be the pressure
of the tank after the transfer?
Given: V1 = 100L
P1 = 2 atm

V2 = 50L

Required: P2
Solution: P1V1 = P2V2

(2atm) (100L) = (P2) (50L)

P2 = 4 atm
Example 2:

A 2,500 ft3 container contains a hydrogen gas with a pressure of 900 psia. If it is required to
have a pressure of 750 psia, what is the required volume of a container to have this pressure?

Given: V1 = 2,500 ft3

P1 = 900 psia

P2 = 750 psia

Required: V2
Solution: P1V1 = P2V2

(900psia) (2,500ft3) = (750 psia) (V2)

V2 = 3,000 ft3

3. Gay-Lussac’s Law (Formulated by the French scientist, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac)

“At constant volume, the pressure of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.”
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

where P1 and P2 are the pressures in any units and T1 and T2 are the absolute
temperatures.

Example 1:
A certain gas has a pressure of 2,500 mmHg inside a tank is cooled from 390 0F to 700F. What
will be the resulting pressure in the tank?

Given: P1 = 2,500 mm Hg
T1 = 3900F + 460 = 8500R

T2 = 700F + 460 = 5300R

Required: P2
P1 P2
Solution: =
T1 T2

2,500 mmHg P
= 2
850 R 530 R

P2 = 1558.82 mmHg
Example 2:

What is the final temperature of a certain gas initially with a pressure of 200 kPa at 212 0F if
the pressure is to be doubled?

Given: P1=200 kPa

T1 = 2120F =1000C = 373K

P2 = 2P1 =2(200 kPa) = 400 kPa

Required: T2
P1 P2
Solution: =
T1 T2

200 kPa 400 kPa

=
373K T2

T2 = 746 K

4. Combined Gas Law

This law is the combination of the gas laws.

Mathematically,
P1 V1 P2 V2
= = C, a constant
T1 T2

where P1 and P2 are the pressures in any units, V1 and V2 are the pressures in any
units and T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures.

PV =mRT
Pv = RT, if unit mass
where, P = absolute pressure
V =volume

v = specific volume
m = mass

T = absolute temperature

R = specific gas constant or simply gas constant

Example 1:

The tire of a bike has a volume of 0.6m 3 and a pressure of 760 mmHg at 250C. If the bike is
used in the mountain where the pressure is 720 mmHg and the temperature is 20 0C, what will be the
volume of the tire?
Given: V1 = 0.6m3

P1 = 760 mmHg

T1 = 250C + 273 = 298 K

P2 = 720mmHg

T2 = 200C +273 = 293 K

Required: V2
P1 V1 P2 V2
Solution: =
T1 T2

(760mmHg)(0.6m3 ) (720 mmHg)(V2 )

=
298 K 293 K

V2 = 0.623 m3

Example 2:
A certain gas is confined in a 3.5 L container with a pressure of 3 atm at 20 0C. What is the
required temperature for it to be transferred to another container with a volume of 8.5 L and
pressure of 5.25 atm?

Given: V1 = 3.5L

P1 = 3 atm
T1 = 200C + 273 =293 K

V2 = 8.5L
P2 = 5.25 atm

Required: T2
P1 V1 P2 V2
Solution: =
T1 T2

( 3atm)(3.5L) (5.25atm)(8.5L)
=
293 K T2

T2 =1245.25K =972.250C
 Lesson 2 – The Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation applies to the situation wherein none of the three properties
(pressure, volume and temperature) remains constant. The equation was derived from the Perfect
Gas Law. The law states that when a gas goes through a process where all the three properties
(pressure, volume and temperature) change, the pressure varies directly with volume (and vice
versa), while both said properties vary inversely with temperature. Mathematically, it is written as:
P1 V1 P2 V2
= , it can also be written as,
T1 T2

PV
= C, where C is constant
T

The value of the constant C depends on the kind or amount of gas. When dealing with a
particular gas having a mass of one unit, then the total volume becomes specific volume. Denoting v
for the specific volume, then the equation van be written as;
Pv
=R
T
where v = specific volume of the gas

R = gas constant for a specific gas

Multiplying both sides by the mass, you get:
Pvm
= mR
T
Since V = mv then the equation becomes;
𝐏𝐕
=mR or PV =mRT
𝐓

This equation is the Ideal Gas Equation (sometimes called Perfect Gas Equation)

The ideal gas equation is also given by the equation;

̅T
PV =n𝐑
Where

P = absolute pressure

V = volume of the gas

n = no. of moles of gas

T = absolute temperature
 ̅ = Ideal Gas constant or Universal gas constant
R

R = gas constant for a specific gas

̅
R
R=
M

We can express the ideal gas equation in terms of mass of the gas. Using m = nM, where m is
the mass, n is the number of moles and M is the molecular mass. Substituting in the ideal gas
equation we have;
𝐦
PV = ̅T
𝑹
𝐌

Specific Heats and Individual Gas constants

Example 1:

The volume of an air inside a tank is 300L and its temperature is 400C. If the gauge pressure
of the air is 700 kPa. What is the mass of the air?
Given:

V = 300L = 0.3m3
T = 400C +273 = 313K

P = 700 kPa + 101.325 = 801.325 kPa absolute

 Required: mass

Solution: PV =mRT
kN
PV 801.325 2 ( 0.3m3 )
m
m= = 0.287kN−m
RT (313K)
kg−K

m = 2.68 kg

Example 2:
A 700 g methane gas (CH4) is to be contained in a 1.5-liter tank to produce a pressure of 1,000
atm. What is the required temperature?

Given: m = 700g
V = 1.5 L

P = 1,000 atm
Required: T
Solution: For the methane gas (CH4), the number of moles is,
m 700g
n= =
M M

For molecular mass

g g
Carbon =1 x 12 = 12
mol mol
g g
Hydrogen =4 x 1 =4
mol mol
g
The molecular mass of CH4 is 16
mol

700g
Thus, the number of moles n = g
16mol

n = 43.75 mol
̅T
This time, using the equation PV =nR
L−atm
1,000 atm (1.5L) = 43.75mol (0.08206 )(T)
mol−K

T = 417.81K =144.810C
Take note of this table
 Lesson 3 – Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas

For constant volume specific heat (cv)

Qv = mcv (T2-T1)

For constant pressure specific heat (cp)

Qp =mcp(T2-T1)

Ratio of specific heats (k)

𝐜𝐩
k= > 𝟏
𝐜𝐯

Relation between cp and cv

cp = cv + R

𝐑
cv =
𝐤−𝟏

𝐤𝐑
cp =
𝐤−𝟏

̅
R
where R is the specific gas constant from which, R = , where R̅ is the universal gas constant and
M
M is the molecular mass of a gas.

Lesson 4 – Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy of an Ideal Gas

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

According to Joule’s Law, “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only
the temperature change.” Thus, the change in internal energy, ΔU is,

ΔU =mcv(T2-T1)

Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas

The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by, ΔH

ΔH =mcp(T2-T1)
Entropy
The change of entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering) heat is given by, ΔS

𝑑𝑄
ΔS = 𝑇
𝑑𝑄
ΔS = ∫ 𝑇
𝑇 𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑇
ΔS = ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
1

𝑇 𝑑𝑇
ΔS = 𝑚𝑐 ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
1

ΔS = [𝑚𝑐 𝑙𝑛𝑇] 𝑇𝑇2 = mc ln (T2-T1)

1

ΔS = mc ln (T2-T1)

Example 1:
Ammonia (NH3) has k = 1.304, determine R, cv and cp in kJ/kg-K and BTU/lb-0R

Given: k= 1.304
Required: R, cv and cp

Solution:

For ammonia (NH3), the molecular mass is 17.024 g/mol. (N = 14g/mol and H3 = 3x1.008 =
3.024g/mol, thus

a) solving for R
8.314𝐽
̅
R 𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾
R= =
M 17.024𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

R = 0.48836 J/g-K = 0.48836 kJ/kg-K

b) solving for cv
R 0.48836 kJ/kg−K
cv = =
k−1 1.304−1

cv = 1.606 kJ/kg-K
c) solving for cp
kR (1.304)(0.48836 KJ/kg−K)
cp = =
k−1 1.304−1

cp = 2.095 kJ/kg-K

In BTU/lb-0R, take note of the following conversion factor:

since 1 kJ/kg-K = 0.2388 BTU/lb-0R
 BTU
kJ 0.2388 0
lb R
a) R = 0.48836 x 1KJ
kg−K
kg−K

R = 0.1166 BTU/lb-0R

b)
BTU
kJ 0.2388 0
lb R
cv = 1.606 x 1kJ
kg−K
kg−K

cv = 0.3835 BTU/lb-0R
BTU
kJ 0.2388 0
lb R
c) cp = 2.095 x 1kJ
kg−K
kg−K

cp = 0.5 BTU/lb-0R

Example 2:
A cylindrical gas with a total capacity of 100Liters initially contains 800 g of an ideal gas
(R=280 J/kg-K)at a pressure of 650 KPa. A leak occurred in the tank that allowed 500 g of
the gas to escape. As a result of the leak, the temperature of the gas was decreased to 285K,
find: a) the initial temperature of the gas and b) the final pressure immediately after the leak.

Given: m1 =initial mass of the gas

= 800 g = 0.8kg

P1 = initial pressure of the gas

= 650 kPa

V1 = V2 = 100L
V1 = V2 = 0.1m3

T1 = initial temperature of the gas

m2 = final mass of the gas
P2 = final pressure of the gas

T2 = final temperature of the gas

= 285 K

R = 280 J/kg-K =0.28kJ/kg-K

Required: T1 and P2
Solution: PV =mRT

a) Considering the initial condition, P1V1=m1RT1

(650 kPa) (0.1m3) = 0.8kg(0.28 kJ/kg-K) T1
 T1 = 290.18 K

b) solving for the final pressure, P2

since there are 500 g of this gas that escaped during the leak, then m 2 = 300 g or 0.3kg

basing from the final condition, P2V2 = m2RT2 and V1=V2

(P2) (0.1m3) = 0.3kg (0.28kJ/kg-K) (285K)

P2 = 239.4 KPa

Example 3:

For a certain gas, R=0.32kJ/kg-K and cv=0.84kJ/kg-K a) Find cp and k. b) If 5 kg of this gas
undergo a reversible non-flow constant pressure process from V1 =1.133m3 and P1= 690 kPa
to a state where t2=5550C, find ΔU and ΔH.
Given: R=0.32kJ/kg-K

cv=0.84kJ/kg-K

m= 5kg
V1 = 1.133m3

P1 = 690 kPa
T2 = 5550C+273 = 828K

Required: a) cp and k

b) ΔU and ΔH
Solution:

a) solving for cp and k

cp = cv + R
= (0.84kJ/kg-K) +(0.32kJ/kg-K)
cp = 1.16 kJ/kg-K
R 0.32
k= +1 = +1
cv 0.84

k = 1.381
b) solving for ΔU and ΔH

ΔU = mcv(T2-T1)
Solving for T1 using P1V1=m1RT1
690 kPa(1.133m3) = 5kg (0.32kJ/kg-K) (T1)
 T1 = 488.61 K
ΔU = 5kg(0.84kJ/kg-K) (828-488.61) K
ΔU = 1425.44 kJ

ΔH = mcp(T2-T1)
= 5kg(1.16kJ/kg-K) (828-488.61) K
ΔH = 1968.46 kJ
 1

Module 4
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

Introduction

Gases undergo different processes. These processes include a process at constant volume (isometric
process), at constant pressure (isobaric process), at constant temperature (isothermal process) and a
process in which no heat is allowed to flow into or out of a system (adiabatic process) which include
isentropic and polytropic processes.
This module deals with all of these processes and determines the behavior of ideal gases at these
different thermodynamic processes.

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

1. Identify the different processes of an ideal gas.
2. Determine the behaviors of ideal gases at these thermodynamic processes.
3. Solve problems on the processes of an ideal gas.
 2

Lesson 1 – Isometric Process

Isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. This is also known as isovolumetric
process or isochoric process.

1. Relation between P and T

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

2. Nonflow Work , Wn
𝑉
Wn = ∫𝑉 1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
2

3. The change of internal energy, ΔU

ΔU = mcv ( T2 - T1)

4. The Heat transferred, Q

Q = mcv ( T2 - T1)
5. The change of enthalpy, ΔH

ΔH = mcp( T2 - T1)
6. The change of entropy
𝑇2
ΔS = mcv ln
𝑇1

7. Reversible steady flow constant volume.

Q = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔWf + Ws + ΔPE

For constant volume process, Q = ΔU then,

Ws = - (ΔWf + ΔKE + ΔPE)

Ws = -ΔWf = V(P1 – P2) if ΔPE =0 and ΔKE=0

Ws = V(P1 – P2)

8. Irreversible nonflow constant volume process

Q = ΔU + Wn
 3

❖ For reversible nonflow, Wn = 0

❖ For irreversible nonflow, Wn ≠ 0
❖ Wn = nonflow work
❖ Ws = steady flow

Example 1:
A constant volume process system contains 5 kg of methane gas (cv = 1.6187 KJ/kg-K) at 750C
undergo process in which the pressure is change from 385 kPa to 960 kPa. What are (a) the final
temperature, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change of
enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?

Given:
m = 5 kg

T = 750C + 273

= 348 K
P1 = 385 KPa
P2 = 960 KPa
Required:
a. T2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
P1 P
a. = T2
T1 2

385 KPa 960 𝐾𝑃𝑎

=
348 K T2

T2 = 867. 74 K

b. For isometric process, Wn = 0

c. ΔU = mcv (T2 – T1)

= 5 kg (1.6187 KJ/kg-K) (867.74 – 348) K

ΔU = 4206.52 KJ
d. Q = mcv (T2 – T1)

Q = 4206.52 KJ
e. ΔH = mcp (T2 – T1)

For methane cp = 2.1377 KJ/kg-K

 4

ΔH = 5kg (2.1377 KJ/kg-K) (867.74 – 348) K

ΔH = 5555. 24 KJ

𝑇2
f. ΔS = mcp ln
𝑇1

867.74 𝐾
ΔS = 5 kg (1.6187 KJ/kg-K) ln
348 𝐾

ΔS = 7.4 KJ/K

Example 2:
Thirty cubic feet of air at 750 psia and 200 0 F is heated to 7400F at constant volume. What are (a)
the final pressure, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change
of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?

Given:
V1 = V2 = 30ft3 since volume is constant

P1 = 750 psia

T1 = 2000F + 460
T1 = 660 0R

T2 = 7400F + 460
T2 = 12000R

Required:
a. P2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
P1 P
a. = T2
T1 2

750 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 P 2
= 1200
660

P2 = 1363.63 psia
b. Wn = 0

c. ΔU = mcv ( T2 - T1)
Solve first for the value of mass from PV = mRT
 5

𝑃1 𝑉1
Using point 1: m =
𝑅𝑇1

For air, R = 53.34 ft-lbf/lbm -0R

cv = 0.1714 BTU/lb -0R
cp = 0.24 BTU/lb -0R
144 𝑖𝑛2
750 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 ( )( 30𝑓𝑡 3 )
1 𝑓𝑡2
m= 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
53.34 𝑙𝑏𝑚−𝑅( 660 𝑅)

m = 92.03 lbm

ΔU = 92.03 lb (0.1714 BTU/lb -0R) ( 1200 – 660) 0R

ΔU = 8517.93 BTU

d. Q = mcv ( T2 - T1)
Q = 8517.93 BTU

e. ΔH = mcp( T2 - T1)

= 92.03 lb (0.24 BTU/lb -0R) ( 1200 – 660) 0R

ΔH = 11927.09 BTU
𝑇2
f. ΔS = mcp ln
𝑇1

1200
= 92.03 lb (0.1714 BTU/lb -0R) ln
660

ΔS = 9.43 BTU/0R
 6

Lesson 2 – Isobaric Process

Isobaric Process is an internally reversible constant pressure process.

1. Relation between V and T

𝑇2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑉1

2. Nonflow Work
𝑉
Wn = ∫𝑉 2 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1

Wn = P (V2 – V1)

3. The change of internal energy

ΔU = mcv (T2 – T1)

4. The heat transferred

Q = mcp (T2 – T1)

5. The change of enthalpy

ΔH = mcp (T2 – T1)

6. The change of entropy
𝑇2
ΔS = mcp ln
𝑇1

7. Steady flow isobaric

Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH + Ws

Ws = -ΔKE if ΔPE = 0
Ws = -ΔKE
 7

Example 1:

For a constant pressure of 200 kPa, air expands from 650 cm 3 and 300C to 1,250 cm3 . What are (a)
the final temperature, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change
of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?

Given:
P1 = P2 = 200 KPa since constant pressure process

V1 = 650 cm3 = 0.00065 m3

T1 = 300C +273

T1 = 303 K

V2 = 1250 cm3 = 0.00125 m3

Required:
a. T2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
𝑇2 𝑉2
a. =
𝑇1 𝑉1

𝑇2 1250
=
303 650

T2 = 582. 68 K

b. Wn = P (V2 – V1)
= 200 KN/m2 (0.00125 m3 -0.00065 m3)
Wn = 0.12 KJ

c. ΔU = mcv (T2 – T1)

Solving for m from PV = mRT
𝑃1 𝑉1 200 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 ( 0.00065𝑚3 )
m= =
𝑅𝑇1 𝑅(303 𝐾)

Air properties
R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K
cp = 1.0062 KJ/kg-K
cv = 0.7186 KJ/kg-K
𝑃1 𝑉1 200 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 ( 0.00065𝑚3 )
m= = 𝐾𝐽
𝑅𝑇1 0.287𝑘𝑔−𝐾(303 𝐾)
 8

m = 1.5 x10-3 kg

ΔU = 1.5 x10-3 kg (0.7186 KJ/kg-K) (582. 68 K - 303 K)

ΔU = 0.301 KJ

d. Q = mcp (T2 – T1)

= 1.5 x10-3 kg (1.0062 KJ/kg-K)( 582. 68 K - 303 K)

Q = 0.422 KJ

e. ΔH = mcp (T2 – T1)

ΔH = 0.422 KJ
𝑇2
f. ΔS = mcp ln
𝑇1

582.68
= 1.5 x10-3 kg (1.0062 KJ/kg-K) ln
303

ΔS = 9.87 x10-4 KJ/K

Example 2:

An ideal gas at a constant pressure of 24 psia has c v = 0.435 BTU/lb- 0R and R =0.015 BTU/ lb- 0R
expands from 0.5 ft3 and 1000F to 1.5 ft3 . What are (a) the final temperature, (b) the work, (c) the change of
internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?

Given:
P1 = P2 = 24 psia

cv = 0.435 BTU/lb- 0R
R =0.015 BTU/ lb- 0R
V1 = 0.5 ft3
T1 = 1000F + 460
T1 = 560 0R

V2 = 1.5 ft3
Required:
a. T2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
𝑇2 𝑉2
a. =
𝑇1 𝑉1
 9

𝑇2 1.5𝑓𝑡 3
=
560 𝑅 0,5𝑓𝑡 3

T2 = 1680 0R

b. Wn = P (V2 – V1)
𝑙𝑏 144 𝑖𝑛2
= 24 x ( 1.5 – 0.5)ft3
𝑖𝑛2 1𝑓𝑡 2

1 𝐵𝑇𝑈
= 3456 ft-lb x
778 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏

Wn = 4.44 BTU
c. ΔU = mcv (T2 – T1)

Solve first the value of m using PV = mRT

𝑙𝑏 144 𝑖𝑛2
24 𝑥 ( 0.5𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑃𝑉 𝑖𝑛2 1𝑓𝑡2
m = = 𝐵𝑇𝑈 778 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝑇 0.015𝑙𝑏−𝑅 𝑥 1 𝐵𝑇𝑈 (560 𝑅)

m = 0.264 lb

ΔU = 0.264 lb (0.435 BTU/lb- 0R)(1680 – 560)0R

ΔU = 128.62 BTU

d. Q = mcp (T2 – T1)

Solve first for the value of cp, using cp = cv + R

cp = 0.435 BTU/lb- 0R + 0.015 BTU/ lb- 0R

cp = 0.45 BTU/ lb- 0R

Q = 0.264 lb (0.45 BTU/ lb- 0R) (1680 – 560)0R

Q = 133.06 BTU
e. ΔH = mcp (T2 – T1)
= 0.264 lb (0.435 BTU/lb- 0R)(1680 – 560)0R

ΔH = 133.06 BTU
𝑇2
f. ΔS = mcp ln
𝑇1

1680
= 0.264 lb (0.435 BTU/lb- 0R) ln
560

ΔS = 0.126 BTU/0R
 10

Lesson 3 – Isothermal Process

An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a substance.

1. Relation between P and V

P1V1 = P2V2

PV = C

2. Nonflow work
2 2 𝐶𝑑𝑉
Wn = ∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = ∫1
𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Wn = PV ln ( 2) = P1V1 ln ( 2) = mRT ln ( 2)
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1

3. The change of internal energy

ΔU = 0

4. The heat transferred

Q = ΔU + Wn since ΔU = 0 then
𝑉 𝑉
Q = Wn = P1V1 ln ( 2) = mRT ln ( 2)
𝑉1 𝑉1

5. The change of enthalpy

ΔH = 0

6. The change of entropy

𝑉
𝑄 𝑚𝑅𝑇 ln(𝑉2 ) 𝑉 𝑃
ΔS = = 1
= mR ln( 2) = mR ln( 1)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑉1 𝑃2
 11

Example 1:

In an isothermal process, a 6 kg of air at 20 0C and 850 kPa drops to 640 kPa. What are (a) the final
volume, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change of enthalpy
and (f) the change of entropy?
Given:
m = 6kg
T1 = 200C + 273
T1 = 293 K
P1 = 850 KPa
P2 = 640 KPa
Required:
a. V2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
a. P1V1 = P2V2
First you solve for V1 using the formula P1V1 = mRT1
𝐾𝐽
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 6𝑘𝑔 (0.287𝑘𝑔−𝐾)(293 𝐾)
V1 = = 𝐾𝑁
𝑃1 850
𝑚2

V1 = 0.594m3

(850 KPa) (0.594m3) = (640 KPa) (V2)

V2 = 0.789m3
𝑉
b. Wn = P1V1 ln ( 2)
𝑉1

𝐾𝑁 0.789𝑚3
= 850 (0.594m3) ln
𝑚2 0.594𝑚3

Wn = 143.33 KJ

c. ΔU = 0
d. Q = Wn

Q = 143.33 KJ

e. ΔH = 0
𝑄
f. ΔS =
𝑇
143.33 𝐾𝐽
=
293 𝐾

ΔS = 0.489 KJ/K
 12

Example 2:

The pressure on the 0.5 ft3 of air drops from 50 psia to 35 psia on an isothermal process at
750F. What are (a) the final volume, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the heat
transferred, (e) the change of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?

Given:
V1 = 0.5 ft3

P1 = 50 psia
P2 = 35 psia

T1 = T2 = 750F + 460

T1 = T2 = 5350R
Required:
a. V2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
a. P1V1 = P2V2
(50 psia) (0.5 ft3) = (35psia) (V2)
V2 = 0.71 ft3
𝑉
b. Wn = P1V1 ln ( 2)
𝑉1
𝑙𝑏 144𝑖𝑛2 0.71𝑓𝑡 3
= (50 𝑥 ) (0.5 ft3) ln ( )
𝑖𝑛2 1𝑓𝑡 2 0.5𝑓𝑡 3
Wn = 1262. 36 ft-lb
Wn =1.62 BTU

c. ΔU = 0

d. Q = Wn
Q = 1.62 BTU

e. ΔH = 0

𝑄 1.62 𝐵𝑇𝑈
f. ΔS = =
𝑇 535 𝑅
ΔS = 0.003 BTU/0R
 13

Lesson 4 – Isentropic Process

Isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic process is a process in which no heat
transfer into or out of the system.

1) Relation among P, V and T

a. Relation between P and V

P1𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 = C

b. Relation between T and V

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
from P1𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 and = 22
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
= and =
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑘 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉2

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑘−1

𝑇2 𝑉
= ( 1 )𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2

c. Relation between P and T

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
from P1𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 and = 22
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑉1 𝑃 1
= ( 2 )𝑘
𝑉2 𝑃1

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉2

𝑇2 𝑃 𝑘−1
= ( 2) 𝑘
𝑇1 𝑃1

2. Nonflow Work

From P𝑉 𝑘 = C
𝐶
P= = C𝑉 −𝑘
𝑉𝑘
𝑉 𝑉
Wn = ∫𝑉 2 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 2 𝐶𝑉 −𝑘 𝑑𝑉
1 1
 14

𝑃𝑉 𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1𝑉1
Wn = [ ] =
1−𝑘 𝑉1 1−𝑘

𝑚𝑅 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
Wn =
1−𝑘

3. The change of internal energy

ΔU = mcv (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

4. The heat transferred

Q=0

5. The change of enthalpy

ΔH = mcp (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
6. The change of entropy

ΔS = 0

Example 1:
A 1.5 m3 oxygen gas undergoes an isentropic process. The pressure of 850 kPa at 120 0C
changes to 540 kPa. What are (a) the final volume and temperature, (b) the work, (c) the change of
internal energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy?
Given:

V1 = 1.5m3
P1 = 850 KPa

T1 = 1200C + 273

T1 = 393 K
P2 = 540 KPa

Required:
a. V2, T2
b. Wn
c. ΔU
d. Q
e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:

a. P1𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘
1
𝑉1 𝑃
= ( 2 )𝑘
𝑉2 𝑃1
For oxygen, k = 1.395
cp = 0.9198 KJ/kg-K
cv = 0.6595 KJ/kg-K
R = 259.9 J/kg-K
 15

1.5𝑚3 540 𝐾𝑃𝑎 1

=( )1.395
𝑉2 850 𝐾𝑃𝑎

V2 = 2.08 m3

𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑃
= ( 2) 𝑘
𝑇1 𝑃1
𝑇2 540 𝐾𝑃𝑎 1.395−1
=( ) 1.395
393 𝐾 850 𝐾𝑃𝑎

T2 = 345.62 K

𝑚𝑅 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
b. Wn =
1−𝑘
Solve first for the value of mass m using P1V1 = mRT1
𝐾𝑁
𝑃1 𝑉1 850 2 ( 1.5𝑚3 )
𝑚
m= = 𝐾𝐽
𝑅𝑇1 0.2599𝑘𝑔−𝐾 (393 𝐾)

m = 12.48 kg

𝐾𝐽
12.48 𝑘𝑔(0.2599𝑘𝑔−𝐾 )( 345.62−393)𝐾
Wn =
1−1.395

Wn = 389.06 KJ

c. ΔU = mcv (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 12.48 kg (0.6595 KJ/kg-K) (345.62 – 393) K
ΔU = - 389.96 KJ

d. Q = 0
e. ΔH = mcp (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 12.48 kg (0.9198 KJ/kg-K) (345.62 – 393) K
ΔH = - 543. 88 KJ

f. ΔS = 0

Example 2:

Air (k = 1.4, R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K) at 340 K and 800 KPa enters a throttle (an adiabatic
expansion process, hence isentropic) and leaves at 140 KPa.

Given:

k = 1.4
R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K

T1 = 340 K
P1 = 800 KPa
 16

P2 = 140 KPa

Required:
a. Final temperature

b. specific volume at the entrance

c. specific volume at the exit

d. change in specific enthalpy

Solution:
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑃
a. = (𝑃2 ) 𝑘
𝑇1 1

𝑇2 140𝐾𝑃𝑎 1.4−1
= (800𝐾𝑃𝑎) 1.4
340 𝐾

T2 = 206.64 K

b. Using ideal gas equation, compute for the specific volume at the entrance v1
𝑅𝑇1
v1 = 𝑃1
𝐾𝑁−𝑚
0.287 (340 𝐾)
𝑘𝑔−𝐾
v1 = 800 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2

v1 = 0.122 m3/kg
c. specific volume at exit, v2

P1𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑘

800KPa(0.122m3/kg)1.4 = 140 KPa (𝑣2 1.4 )

𝐯𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟑m3/kg
d. change in specific enthalpy, Δh

Δh = cp (T2-T1)

Solve first for the value of cp

0.287𝐾𝐽
𝑘𝑅 1.4( 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 )
cp = =
𝑘−1 1.4−1

cp = 1.0045KJ/kg-K
Δh = 1.0045KJ/kg-K (206.64 – 340) K

Δh = - 133.96 KJ/kg
 17

Lesson 5 – Polytropic Process

Polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which P𝑉 𝑛 = C and 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛

1. Relation among P, V and T

a. Relation between P and V

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛
b. Relation between T and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
From 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛 and = 22
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑛 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
= and =
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑛 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑛−1
=
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑛−1

𝑇2 𝑉 𝑛−1
= ( 1)
𝑇1 𝑉2

c. Relation Between T and P

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
From 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛 and = 22
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑛 𝑉 𝑛
= = ( 2)
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑛 𝑉1

1
𝑉 𝑃 𝑛
( 2) = ( 1)
𝑉1 𝑃2

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1

𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃 𝑛
= ( 2)
𝑇1 𝑃1

2. Nonflow work
 18

3. The change of internal energy.

ΔU = mcv (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
4. The heat transferred
Q = ΔU + Wn

Q = mcn (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘−𝑛
cn = cv ( ), Cn is the polytropic specific heat
1−𝑛

5. The change of enthalpy

ΔH = mcp (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
6. The change of entropy
𝑇
ΔS = mcn ln( 2)
𝑇1

Example 1:

Five cubic meters of air undergoes a polytropic process and changes state from 40 atm and
800C to 100 atm and 2400C. What are (a) the final volume, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal
energy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the change of enthalpy and (f) the change of entropy
Given:

V1 = 5m3
101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
P1 = 40 atm x
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

P1 = 4053 KPa

T1 = 800C + 273
T1 = 353 K
101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
P2 = 100 atm x
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

P2 = 10132.5 KPa
T2 = 2400C + 273
 19

T2 = 513 K

Required:
a. V2

b. Wn

c. ΔU
d. Q

e. ΔH
f. ΔS

Solution:
1
𝑉 𝑃 𝑛
a. ( 2 ) = ( 1)
𝑉1 𝑃2

Solve first for the value of n, from the P and T relation

𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃 𝑛
= ( 2)
𝑇1 𝑃1

𝑛−1
513 𝐾 100 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑛
= ( )
353 𝐾 40 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛−1
1.45 = (2.5) 𝑛

n = 1.68
1
𝑉2 40 𝑎𝑡𝑚 1.68
= ( )
5𝑚3 100 𝑎𝑡𝑚

V2 = 2.9 m3
𝑚𝑅 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
b. Wn =
1−𝑛

Solve first for the value of mass m, from PV = mRT

𝐾𝑁
4053 (5𝑚3 )
𝑚2
m= 𝐾𝐽
0.287𝑘𝑔−𝐾 (353 𝐾)

m = 200 kg
𝐾𝐽
200 𝑘𝑔 (0.28708𝑘𝑔−𝐾)(513−353)𝐾
Wn =
1−1.68

Wn = - 13, 505.88 KJ

c. ΔU = mcv (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 200 kg (0.7186 KJ/kg-K)(513 – 353)K

ΔU = 22,995.2 KJ
 20

d. Q = mcn (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘−𝑛
where cn = cv ( )
1−𝑛

1.4−1.68
cn = 0.7186 KJ/kg-K ( )
1−1.68

cn = 0.296 KJ/kg-K
Q = 200 kg (0.296 KJ/kg-K)(513 – 353)K

Q = 9472 KJ/kg
e. ΔH = mcp (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

= 200 kg (0.1.0062 KJ/kg-K)(513 – 353)K

ΔH = 32,198.4 KJ
𝑇
f. ΔS = mcn ln( 2)
𝑇1

513
= 200 kg (0.296 KJ/kg-K) ln
353

ΔS = 22.13 KJ/K
 21

Example 2:

An ideal gas (R=0.19 KJ/kg-K, cp = 0.8 KJ/kg-K) with a mass of 4.5 kg undergoes a polytropic
process that changed its state from 135 KPa and 280 K to 825 KPa and 445 K.

Given:

R= 0.19 KJ/kg-K
cp = 0.8 KJ/kg-K

m = 4.5 kg
P1 = 135 KPa

T1 = 280 K

P2 = 825 KPa
T2 = 445 K

Required:
a. Polytropic exponent, n

b. Change in internal energy, ΔU

c. Change in enthalpy, ΔH

d. Change in entropy, ΔS

e. Heat transferred, Q
f. Non-flow work, Wn

g. Flow work, Wf if (ΔPE =ΔKE=0)

Solution:
𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃 𝑛
a. = ( 2)
𝑇1 𝑃1

𝑛−1
445 𝐾 825 𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑛
=( )
280 𝐾 135 𝐾𝑃𝑎

n = 1.34

b. Change in internal energy, ΔU

ΔU = mcv (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Solve first for the value of cv

cv = cp -R

= (0.8 - 0.19) KJ/kg-K

cv = 0.61 KJ/kg-K
ΔU = 4.5 kg(0.61 KJ/kg-K) (445-280)K

ΔU = 452.93 KJ
 22

c. Change in enthalpy, ΔH

ΔH = mcp (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 4.5 kg (0.8 KJ/kg-K) (445-280)K

ΔH = 594 KJ

d. Change in entropy, ΔS
𝑇
ΔS = mcn ln( 2)
𝑇1

𝑐𝑝 0.8
k= = = 1.31
𝑐𝑣 0.61

𝑘−𝑛
cn = cv ( )
1−𝑛

1.31−1.34
cn = 0.61KJ/kg-K ( )
1−1.34

cn = 0.054 KJ/kg-K
445
ΔS = 4.5 kg(0.054 KJ/kg-K) ln( )
280

ΔS = 0.113 KJ/K
e. Heat transferred, Q

Q = mcn (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 4.5 kg ( 0.054 KJ/kg-K) (445-280)K

Q = 40.095 KJ/kg
f. Non-flow work, Wn
𝑚𝑅 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
Wn =
1−𝑛
𝐾𝐽
4.5 𝑘𝑔(0.19𝑘𝑔−𝐾)(445−280)𝐾
=
1−1.34

Wn = -414.926 KJ

g. Flow work, Wf if (ΔPE =ΔKE=0)

Wf = nWn

Wf = 1.34 (-414.926KJ)
Wf = -556 KJ
23
 1

Module 5
PURE SUBSTANCE

Substance can exist either as a solid, a liquid or a gas. But at a particular temperature and pressure, a
substance can exists at these three phases. Water is an example. At 00C or 273 K, water can exist as vapor in
the atmosphere, as a liquid in the ocean or as a solid like an iceberg. This module deals with the study of the
different phases of pure substances and the phase change processes of pure substances. This includes also
the concepts of saturation temperature and saturation pressure, phase equilibrium and triple point.

Upon completion of this module, the students will be able to:

1. Define pure substance.
2. Identify the different phases of a pure substance.
3. Determine the phase change processes of pure substances.
4. Define saturation temperature and saturation pressure.
5. Define phase equilibrium.
6. Define triple point
 2

Lesson 1 – Properties of Pure Substance

Pure substance refers to the one that has a uniform chemical composition and can exist in more than
one phase but its chemical composition must be the same in each phase. For example, a system of water and
water vapor in a system is a pure substance since their combination does not react and each phase contains
the same composition. Also, some mixture of gases that does not react with each other is considered to be a
pure substance.

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance such as water, air,
and nitrogen.

A pure substance does not have to be of a single element or compound. A mixture of two or more phases of
a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same.

Phases of a Pure Substance

Pure substance normally has three phases, solid, liquid and gas. The more specific phases of the pure
substances and the phase change processes are the following.

1. Solid. In this phase, the substance does not take the shape of a container.

2. Compressed Liquid or Subcooled Liquid. It is the phase at which the liquid is non-saturated, means
any liquid that it is not about to vaporize. Any addition of heat increases only the temperature of the
liquid but does not cause any change of its phase.

3. Saturated Liquid. In this phase, any addition of heat causes some liquid to vaporize leading to a
mixture of saturated liquid and vapor.

4. Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture. In this phase, further addition of heat causes more liquid to
evaporate to form more vapor.

5. Saturated Vapor. In this phase, the vapor has absorbed more heat than necessary to vaporize it
and convert all liquid into vapor.

6. Superheated Vapor. In this phase, all liquid had converted to vapor and any addition of heat will
lead only to hotter vapor.

7. Ideal Gas. In this phase, a highly superheated vapor behaves in accordance with the ideal gas law.
8. Real Gas. In this phase, the gas does not behave in accordance with the ideal gas law.
 3

9. Gas Mixtures. In this phase, two or more gases mixed together freely.

10. Vapor/Gas Mixture. In this phase, two or more gases mixed freely with water vapor.

Property Tables

For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too complex to be expressed
by simple equations. Thus, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables. The subscript “f” is used
to denote properties of a saturated liquid and “g” for saturated vapor. Another subscript, “fg”, denotes the
difference between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same property.

For example:

vf = specific volume of saturated liquid

vg = specific volume of saturated vapor

vfg = difference between vg and vf ( vfg = vg – vf)

Enthalpy: is a property defined as H = U + PV (kJ) or h = u + Pv (kJ/kg) (per mass unit).

Enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat): represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure increase,
and becomes zero at the critical point.

1. Saturated Liquid‐Vapor Mixture

During vaporization, a mixture of part liquid part vapor exists. To analyze this mixture, you need to
know the proportions of the liquid and vapor in the mixture. The ratio of the mass of vapor to the
mass of the total mixture is called quality, x

Saturated liquid‐vapor mixture is treated as a combination of two sub‐systems (two phases). The
properties of the “mixture” are the average properties of the saturated liquid‐vapor mixture.
 4

The relative amounts of liquid and vapor phases (quality x)

are used to calculate the mixture properties.

Similarly,

Note: pressure and temperature are dependent in the saturated mixture region.
 5

The Quality Region, also referred to as the Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture Region, is the area enclosed
between the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapor line. At any point within this region the quality of
the mixture (sometimes referred to as the dryness factor) is defined as the mass of vapor divided by the
total mass of the fluid.

2. Superheated Vapor
Superheated region is a single-phase region (vapor only), temperature and pressure are no longer
dependent. If T>> Tcritical or P≪ Pcritical, then the vapor can be approximated as an “ideal gas”.

3. Compressed (or Sub‐cooled) Liquid

The properties of a liquid are relatively independent of pressure (incompressible). A general
approximation is to treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid at the given saturation temperature.

The property most affected by pressure is enthalpy. For enthalpy use the following approximation:
 6

Lesson 2 – Processes of Pure Substance

Consider a process where a pure substance starts as a solid and is heated up at constant pressure
until it all becomes gas. Depending on the prevailing pressure, the matter will pass through various phase
transformations.

1. Solid
2. Mixed phase of liquid and solid

3. Sub‐cooled or compressed liquid (means it is not about to vaporize)

4. Wet vapor or saturated liquid‐vapor mixture, the temperature will stop rising until the liquid is
completely vaporized.

5. Superheated vapor (a vapor that is not about to condense).

 7

❖ At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the saturation
temperature, Tsat.

❖ Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the
saturation pressure, Psat.

❖ During a phase‐change process, pressure and temperature are dependent properties, Tsat = f (Psat).

❖ The critical point is the point at which the liquid and vapor phases are not distinguishable

❖ The “triple point” is the point at which the liquid, solid, and vapor phases can exist together. On P‐v
or T‐v diagrams, these triple‐phase states form a line called the triple line.

Vapor Dome

The general shape of a P‐v diagram for a pure substance is very similar to that of a T‐v diagram.
 8

The P‐T or Phase Change Diagram

This is called phase diagram since all three phases are separated from each other by three lines. Most
pure substances exhibit the same behavior.
❖ One exception is water. Water expands upon freezing

There are two ways that a substance can pass from solid phase to vapor phase 1) it melts first into a
liquid and subsequently evaporates, 2) it evaporates directly without melting (sublimation).
❖ the sublimation line separates the solid and the vapor.
❖ the vaporization line separates the liquid and vapor regions
❖ the melting or fusion line separates the solid and liquid.
❖ these three lines meet at the triple point.
 1

Module 6
Cycle Analysis

Natural processes proceed continuously in one direction and never the opposite. Heat flows from a hot
body to a colder body but never the reverse. This process is called irreversible process. In a car or
automobile, mechanical energy can be converted completely into heat but never the reverse. There are
no such engines that can convert heat completely into mechanical energy, only some but not all.

This module deals with the second laws of thermodynamics that explains the direction of
thermodynamic process and the thermal efficiencies of different engines.

Power systems needs to accomplish a desired engine that is capable for the types of energy conversion.
Such engines employ desired electrical and mechanical power production. An important consideration
for choosing desired cycles used for engines are the thermal efficiencies

Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this module, the students will be able to:

1. Explain the different formulation of the second law of thermodynamics.
2. Define heat engine.
3. Determine the thermal efficiency of the different types of engines.
4. Identify the different kinds of gas and vapor cycles.
5. Describe internal combustion engine.
6. Understand Real Gases
.
 2

Lesson 1 – Second Law of Thermodynamics

First Formulation: Entropy

“The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value.”

Second Formulation: Heat Formulation or Clausius Statement, formulated by Rudolf Clausius

“Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at lower temperature to a material at
higher temperature.

”
Third Formulation: Heat Engine Formulation or Kelvin-Plank Statement, formulated by Lord Kelvin

“It is impossible to convert heat completely into work in a cyclic process.”

Fourth Formulation: Caratheodory Statement, formulated by the Greek mathematician Constantin

Caratheodory
“In the neighborhood of any equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system, there are equilibrium
states that are adiabatically inaccessible.”

Direction of Thermodynamic Processes

Natural processes in occurs in a process that proceed continuously in one direction but not the
reverse. This process is called irreversible process. A good example if irreversible process is the direction
of the flow of heat that always proceed from flowing into a hot body to the colder body and never its
reverse.

There are such systems that undergo reversible process. This process is very close to
thermodynamic equilibrium. Any change of state can be reverse by making a much small change in the
condition of the system. Say for example, an ice at 00 C can make heat flow into the ice to melt it or make
heat flow out of water to refreeze it. This can be done by making small change in the temperature by
raising or lowering it.

Reversible process is an equilibrium process since the system is always in thermodynamic

equilibrium. A small change in the condition in a system keep the system very close to equilibrium states,
thus reversible process is called as quasi-equilibrium process
 3

Heat Engine

Heat engine or Thermal engine is any device that transforms and converts heat partially into
mechanical energy or work. It is a closed system that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding
and that operates in cycles.

The elements of a thermodynamic heat engine:

1. Working substance. This is the matter inside the engine that undergoes inflow and outflow of
heat, expansion and compression and sometimes changes of phase.

2. Heat Source. This is also called as a hot body, a heat reservoir or just a source. This gives the
working substance large amounts of heat at constant temperature without changing its own
temperature.

3. Heat Sink. This is also called as a receiver, cold body, cold reservoir or just sink. This absorbs
large amounts of discarded heat from the engine at a constant lower temperature.

4. The engine. This is where the working substance may do work or have work done on it.

The net heat Q absorbed per cycle is,

Q = QH + QC = |𝑸𝑯 | − |𝑸𝑪 |
 4

The Carnot Cycle

Carnot engine is an idealized engine that has the maximum possible efficiency. It is not subject to
any practical difficulties such as friction or heat loss by conduction or radiation but that obeys all physical
laws. This hypothetical, idealized heat engine was developed by the French engineer Sadi Carnot (1796-
1832) and was considered to be the “Father of Thermodynamics”. The cycle of this engine is called the
Carnot cycle, the most possible efficient cycle.

Figure: The Carnot Cycle

Analysis of the Carnot cycle

Heat Absorbed (QA)

QA = T1 (S2 – S1)

Heat Rejected (QR)

QR = T3 (S4-S3)

= -T3(S2 – S1)
Net Work (Wnet)
Wnet = QA - QR

Wnet = T1 (S2 – S1)- T3(S2 – S1)

Wnet = (T1-T3) (S2 – S1)

Cycle efficiency (e) – defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic cycle
that is converted to work.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑇1 −𝑇3 )−(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
e= =
𝑄𝐴 𝑇1 (𝑆2 −𝑆1 )

(𝑇1 −𝑇3 )
e=
𝑇1

Heat – Temperature Relations

𝑄𝑅 𝑇
=𝑇2
𝑄𝐴 1
 5

Work from the TS plane

𝑉2
QA = mRT1 ln
𝑉1

𝑉4 𝑉3
QR = mRT3 ln = - mRT3ln
𝑉3 𝑉4

From process 2-3,

𝑇3 𝑉 𝑘−1
= [ 2]
𝑇2 𝑉3

From process 4-1

𝑇4 𝑉 𝑘−1
= [ 1]
𝑇1 𝑉4

but T4 = T3 and T1 = T2
𝑉 𝑘−1 𝑉 𝑘−1
therefore, [ 2 ] = [ 1]
𝑉3 𝑉4

𝑉3 𝑉2
then, =
𝑉4 𝑉1

𝑉2
QR = - mRT3ln
𝑉1

Wnet = QA - QR
𝑉2 𝑉2
= mRT1 ln - mRT3ln
𝑉1 𝑉1

𝑉2
Wnet = mR ln (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )
𝑉1

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
e=
𝑄𝐴

𝑉
𝑚𝑅 𝑙𝑛 𝑉2 (𝑇1 −𝑇3 )
1
e= 𝑉
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 𝑉2
1

(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟑 )
e=
𝑻𝟏

Mean effective pressure (pm or mep)

𝑊
pm =
𝑉𝐷

where,

VD = displacement volume
= volume swept by the piston in one stroke

pm = mean effective pressure

= is the average constant pressure that, acting through one stroke, will do on

the piston the net work of a single cycle.

Ratio of expansion, Ratio of compression

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
Expansion ratio =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑽𝟐
Isothermal expansion ratio =
𝑽𝟏
 6

𝑽𝟑
Isentropic expansion ratio =
𝑽𝟐

𝑽𝟑
Overall expansion ratio =
𝑽𝟏

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

Compression ratio =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑽𝟑
Isothermal compression ratio =
𝑽𝟒

𝑽𝟒
Isentropic compression ratio rk =
𝑽𝟏

𝑽𝟑
Overall compression ratio =
𝑽𝟏

❖ The isentropic compression ratio rk is the compression ratio most commonly used
➢ Note: Carnot Cycle efficiency can be increased by increasing T 1 and lowering T2

Example 1:
A heat engine is operated between temperature limits of 1370 0C and 2600C. Engine is supplied
with 14, 142 KJ/KW-hr. Find the Carnot cycle efficiency in percent.

Solution:
(𝑇1 −𝑇3 )
e=
𝑇1

Where:
T1 = 1370 + 273

T1 = 1643 K
T3 = 260 + 273

T3 = 533 K
Thus,
1643−533
e= x 100%
1643

e = 67.56%
Example 2:

A Carnot engine receives 130 BTU of heat from a hot reservoir at 700 0F and rejects 49 BTU of
heat. Calculate the temperature of the cold reservoir.

Solution:
(𝑇1 −𝑇3 ) 𝑊 𝑄𝐴 −𝑄𝑅
e= = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑇1 𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐴

T1 = 700 + 460 = 1160 0R

(𝑇1 −𝑇3 ) 𝑄 −𝑄
= 𝐴 𝑅
𝑇1 𝑄𝐴

(1160−𝑇3 ) 130−49
=
1160 130

T3 = 437. 230R
t3 = - 22.77 0F

Lesson 2 – Gas and Vapor Cycles

 7

Internal Combustion Engine

Internal combustion engine is a heat engine deriving its power from energy released by the
explosion of a mixture of some hydrocarbon, in gaseous or vaporized form, with atmospheric air.
It is an engine where the generation of heat is affected inside the work producing unit. The
combustor and the work producing unit are the same and the products of combustion eventually become
the working fluid.

I. Spark-Ignition (SI) or Gasoline Engine

In spark-ignition engine, a mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark plug.

Otto Cycle is the ideal prototype of spark-ignition engines commonly known as gasoline engine.
The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes in series;

Spark-ignition engines can provide power up to 225 kW. They are relatively light and
lower in cost that is suited for use in automobiles.

Analysis of OTTO cycle:

a. Heat Added (QA)

QA = mcv (T3 – T2)

b. Heat Rejected (QR)

QR = mcv (T1 – T4)

 8

= - mcv (T4 – T1)

c. Net Work Done (Wnet)

Wnet = QA - QR

d. Cycle Efficiency (e)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
e=
𝑄𝐴

Thermal Efficiency of an OTTO cycle:

𝟏
e =1 -
𝒓𝒌 𝒌−𝟏

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟒
where rk = = , the isentropic compression ratio and 𝒌 is ratio of specific heats.
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑

For cold-air standard, 𝒌 = 1.4 For hot-air standard, 𝒌 < 1.4

e. Percentage clearance (c)

1
c=
𝑟𝑘 −1

f. Volume Displacement (VD)

VD = V1 – V2

g. Clearance Volume (VC)

VC = cVD

h. Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
Pm =
𝑉𝐷

II. Compression-Ignition or Diesel Engine

Diesel cycle is an ideal or air-standard cycle for compression-ignition engine (Diesel Engine)

In diesel engine, heat is transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure.

 9

Process 1 - 2: isentropic compression

Process 2 – 3: isobaric heat addition

Process 3 – 4: isentropic expansion

Process 4 – 1: isometric heat rejection

Analysis of Diesel Cycle:

a. Heat Added (QA)

QA = mcp (T3 – T2)

b. Heat Rejected (QR)

QR = mcv (T1 – T4)

c. Net Work Done (Wnet)

Wnet = QA - QR

d. Cycle Efficiency (e)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
e=
𝑄𝐴

Thermal efficiency of Diesel Cycle

1 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 −1
e=1- 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑟𝑘 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 −1)

where:

𝑉
rk = 1, compression ratio
𝑉2

𝑉
rc = 3, cutoff ratio
𝑉2

Point 3 is called the cutoff point

e. Expansion ratio (re)

𝑉4
re =
𝑉3

f. Percentage clearance (c)

1
c=
𝑟𝑘 −1

g. Clearance Volume (Vc)

Vc = cVD
 10

h. relation between rk, rc and re

rk = r c re

III. Dual Combustion Engine

Dual combustion cycle is a constant volume and constant pressure combustion cycle. It is called
as limited-pressure cycle.

The cycle of dual combustion engine comprises of the following processes:

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

Process 2-3: Constant-volume addition of heat

Process 3-4: Constant-pressure addition of heat

Process 4-5: Isentropic expansion

Process 5-1: Constant-volume rejection of heat

Analysis of Dual Combustion Cycle

a. Heat Absorbed (QA)

QA = mcv (T3 -T2) + mcp (T4 -T3)

b. Heat Rejected (QR)

QR = mcv (T1 – T5)

= - mcv (T5 – T1)

c. Net Work Done (Wnet)

Wnet = QA - QR

d. Cycle Efficiency (e)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
e=
𝑄𝐴
 11

The thermal efficiency of this cycle lies between that of the ideal Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle.

1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 −1
e=1- 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑝 −1+ 𝑟𝑝 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 −1)

where:

𝑃3
rp = , the pressure ratio during the constant volume portion of combustion
𝑃2

𝑉1
rk = , the compression ratio
𝑉2

𝑉4
rc = , the cutoff ratio
𝑉3

Example 1:

An OTTO engine has a clearance volume of 7%. It produces 300 KW of power. What is the amount
of heat rejected in KW?

Solution:

Wnet = QA - QR

Solving for QA

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 1
QA = and e =1 -
𝑒 𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1

1+𝑐 1+0.07
rk = = = 15.286
𝑐 0.07

1
e =1 -
15.2861.4−1

e = 0.664

300 𝐾𝑊
QA =
0.664

QA = 451. 807 KW

Therefore,

300 KW = 451.807 KW - QR

QR = 151.807 KW
 12

Example 2:

The compression ratio in a Diesel engine is 13 to 1 and the ratio of expansion is 6.5 to 1. At the
beginning of compression, the temperature is 320C. Assuming adiabatic compression and expansion,
calculate the ideal thermal efficiency taking the specific heats at constant pressure and volume as 1.005
KJ/kg-K and 0.718 KJ/kg-K respectively.

Solution:

1 𝑟 𝑘 −1
e=1- [ 𝑐 ]
𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 −1)

𝑉1 13
rk = = = 13
𝑉2 1

𝑉3 13
rc = = =2
𝑉2 6.5

k for air = 1.4

1 21.4 −1
e=1- [ ]
131.4−1 1.4(2−1)

e = 0.5804

e = 58.04%

Example 3:

An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.65 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the
air is at 100 KPa, 450C. Determine the volume at the end of compression if net work is 300 KJ and
mean effective pressure is 700 KPa

Solution:

VD = V1 – V2

Solving for VD

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
Pm =
𝑉𝐷

300𝐾𝐽
700 KPa =
𝑉𝐷

VD = 0.429 m3

Solving for V1

P1V1 = mRT1

T1 = 45 + 273 = 318 K and R for air = 0.287 KJ/kg-K

 13

(100 KPa) (V1) = 0.65 kg (0.287KJ/kg-K) (318 K)

V1 = 0.593 m3

VD = V1 – V2

0.429 m3 = 0.593 m3 – V2

V2 = 0.164 m3

Vapor Power Systems

I. Rankine Cycle

It is the simplest vapor power cycle. It is an idealized cycle in which friction losses in the four
components (boiler, pump, turbine and condenser) are neglected.

PV and TS Diagram
The four ideal processes are:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression in the pump

Process 2-3: Constant-Pressure heat addition in a boiler

Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion in a turbine

Process 4-1: Constant-Pressure heat extraction in a condenser

 14

II. Superheat and Reheat Cycle

They are often used to prevent liquid droplet formation on the turbine blades that can corrode
the metals and causing a decrease in the turbine efficiency and an increased need for maintenance since
most metals cannot withstand temperatures about 600 0C.

III. Regenerative Cycle

This cycle is another commonly used cycle for increasing the thermal efficiency of vapor power
plants

IV. Binary Vapor Cycle used two working fluids, one with good high temperature characteristic and
another with good lower temperature characteristics.
 15

Lesson 3 – Real Gases

A real gas is a gas that does not behave as an ideal gas due to interactions between gas molecules. A real
gas is also known as a nonideal gas because the behavior of a real gas in only approximated by the ideal
gas law.

When Real Gases Differ from Ideal Gases

Usually, it's fine to use the ideal gas law to make calculations for gases. However, the approximation
gives considerable error at very high pressure, near the critical point, or near the condensation point of
a gas. Unlike ideal gases, a real gas is subject to:

• Van der Waals forces;

• Compressibility effects;
• Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects;
• Variable specific heat capacity; and
• Variable composition, including molecular dissociation and other chemical reactions.
Real Gas Example
While cool air at ordinary pressure behaves like an ideal gas, increasing its pressure or temperature
increases the interactions between molecules, resulting in real gas behavior that cannot be predicted
reliably using the ideal gas law.

The behavior of real gases usually agrees with the predictions of the ideal gas equation to within 5% at
normal temperatures and pressures. At low temperatures or high pressures, real gases deviate
significantly from ideal gas behavior. ... It also assumes that the force of attraction between gas molecules
is zero.
 16

Difference Between Ideal Gas and Real Gas

The three states of matter that are recognized by their characteristics are solids, liquids and gases. Solids
have definite mass and shape due to the strong molecular attraction. In liquids, the molecules are moving
so they result in taking the shape of the container. In gases, the molecules are free to move anywhere in
the container. Two types of gases exist. Real gas and Ideal gas. As the particle size of an ideal gas is
extremely small and the mass is almost zero and no volume Ideal gas is also considered as a point mass.
The molecules of real gas occupy space though they are small particles and also has volume.

Ideal gas:
An ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys gas laws at all condition of pressure and temperature. Ideal
gases have velocity and mass. They do not have volume. When compared to the total volume of the gas
the volume occupied by the gas is negligible. It does not condense and does not have triple point.

Real gas:
A real gas is defined as a gas that does not obey gas laws at all standard pressure and temperature
conditions. When the gas becomes massive and voluminous it deviates from its ideal behavior. Real gases
have velocity, volume and mass. When they are cooled to their boiling point, they liquefy. When
compared to the total volume of the gas the volume occupied by the gas is not negligible.

To make you understand how ideal gas and real gas are different from each other, here are some of the
major differences between ideal gas and real gas:

Difference between Ideal gas and Real gas

IDEAL GAS REAL GAS

No definite volume Definite volume

Elastic collision of particles Non-elastic collisions between

particles

No intermolecular attraction force Intermolecular attraction force

Does not really exists in the environment and is a It really exists in the environment
hypothetical gas

High pressure The pressure is less when compared to

Ideal gas

Independent Interacts with others