Assignment No: 01

Submitted to:

Submitted by:

Sehrish Kanwal Janjua

ID: 0000341745
Semester –
Spring 2024

Allama Iqbal Open University

(Islamabad)
Q.1 Scientific method is a systematic way to identify and solve problems.
Discuss.
The scientific method is a process of systematic inquiry that helps you test
hypotheses, analyze data, and draw conclusions. It can also help you solve
problems in various domains, such as business, education, or personal life.
1 Identify the problem

The first step of the scientific method is to define the problem you want to solve.
You need to be as specific and clear as possible about what the problem is, why it
matters, and what your desired outcome is. For example, if you are running a
restaurant and you want to increase customer satisfaction, you need to identify
what aspects of your service or product are causing dissatisfaction, how they
affect your revenue and reputation, and what level of satisfaction you aim to
achieve.

2 Research the problem

The second step of the scientific method is to gather relevant information and
evidence about the problem. You need to review existing literature, data, and best
practices that can help you understand the problem better and find possible
solutions. You also need to collect your own data, such as surveys, interviews, or
observations that can provide insights into the problem and its causes. For
example, if you are running a restaurant and you want to increase customer
satisfaction, you need to research what factors influence customer satisfaction in
the food industry, what your competitors are doing, and what your customers
think and feel about your service or product.

3 Formulate a hypothesis

The third step of the scientific method is to propose a tentative explanation or

solution for the problem based on your research. You need to state your
hypothesis as a clear and testable statement that can be either supported or
rejected by your data. You also need to identify the variables and indicators that
you will use to measure the effects of your hypothesis. For example, if you are
running a restaurant and you want to increase customer satisfaction, you might
hypothesize that offering a loyalty program will increase customer retention and
referrals, and you will use the number of loyalty cards issued, redeemed, and
shared as your variables.
4 Test the hypothesis

The fourth step of the scientific method is to design and conduct an experiment or
a trial that can test your hypothesis. You need to choose a suitable method and
sample that can provide reliable and valid results. You also need to control for
any confounding factors that might affect your outcome. You need to collect and
record your data carefully and objectively. For example, if you are running a
restaurant and you want to increase customer satisfaction, you might test your
hypothesis by offering a loyalty program to a random group of customers for a
certain period of time and compare their satisfaction levels and behaviors with a
control group that does not receive the loyalty program.

5 Analyze the data

The fifth step of the scientific method is to process and interpret your data using
appropriate statistical tools and techniques. You need to summarize your data
using descriptive statistics, such as mean, median, mode, frequency, or
percentage. You also need to test your data using inferential statistics, such as
correlation, regression, t-test, or ANOVA, to determine if your hypothesis is
supported or rejected by your data. You need to report your findings using tables,
graphs, or charts that can communicate your results clearly and accurately. For
example, if you are running a restaurant and you want to increase customer
satisfaction, you might analyze your data by calculating the average satisfaction
scores, retention rates, and referral rates of the loyalty program group and the
control group, and comparing them using a t-test to see if there is a significant
difference between them.

6 Draw conclusions

The sixth and final step of the scientific method is to draw conclusions and
implications from your data analysis. You need to state whether your hypothesis
is confirmed or disproved by your data, and explain why and how. You also need
to discuss the limitations and strengths of your research, and suggest areas for
improvement or further investigation. You need to relate your conclusions to the
problem you identified in the first step, and recommend actions or solutions that
can help you solve the problem. For example, if you are running a restaurant and
you want to increase customer satisfaction, you might conclude that offering a
loyalty program is an effective way to increase customer satisfaction, retention,
and referrals, and that you should implement it in your restaurant.
Q.2 Discuss importance and scope of Statistics with reference to a teacher
and researcher.

Educational statistics
The word statistics generally means accumulated numerical statements, as also
the theory of statistics. the science of statistics is now quite and has been defined
in a number of ways. Bowley defined statistics as ''Numerical statements of facts
in any department of enquiry placed in relation to each other. '' Webster defined it
as 'classified facts respecting the condition of the people in a state.
Statistics are aggregates of fact numerical expressed, that they are responsible
accurate, they are collected in a systematic manner and are influenced by a
number of facts.

Nature of educational statistics

The foundation of statistical methods is provided by mathematics. The

mathematical theory of statistics has in fact achieved recognition as an area of

specialization the general field of higher mathematics. No longer is it possible to

qualify as statistical expert and be relative ignorant mathematically. It means

possible, never the less to acquire some very useful information regarding the

application and interpretation of certain important statistical techniques without

studying their mathematical bases now statistics is the independent field of study.

Statistics is now used in many fields, because our knowledge and decisions with

regard to everything depend on the facts and data available for psychologists and

educationists statistics is used in test construction, experiments and research.

Statistics has now become fundamental in education and psychology.

Educational statistics deals with the data associate with education.

The studies of statistical treatment always involve empirical or observed evidences

or data but not all studies involving empirical data are statistical. factual

information about an individual is not statistical information. a statistical problem

always relates to a sample or group of individuals rather than to a single individual.

the group or sample is the frame of reference in statistical analysis and

interpretation. the numerical data and statistics are interpreted with reference to a

group.

Definition of statistic education.

Statistics is a science which deals with the method of collecting, classifying,

identifying and interpreting numerical date which throw some light on any sphere

of enquiry and investigation.

the term statictics has been defined widely some important definitions has been

provided here.

According to M.G Kendall-

''statistics is the science collecting, analysing and interpreting numerical data.''

English and English-

''The statistics is science as well as art that gathers and coordinates mathematically

so that the numerical relation among these facts may be established clearly and

free from anomalies and to chance factors.''

G.Simpson and F.Kofika-

''the word statistics today refers either to quantitative information or to method

dealing with quantitative information of qualitative information.''

George A. Ferguson-

''statistics is a branch of scientific methodology. it deals with collection,

classification , analysis and interpretation of data obtained by conducting of

experiments, observation and surveys its essential purpose is to draw inferences

about the properties of population.''

The definition of Ferguson indicates one types statistics i.e inferential or

parametric statistics. the main focus of the definition is to infere about

characteristics of population. it is known as the process of generalisation. the group

or sample observation are not confined to the group but are used to estimate

properties of the population from which the sample has been deawn. it does not

cover the whole concept of statistics.

Statistics are the measures or indexes of a group or a sample, e.g. mean, standard

deviation and correlation coefficients. the sample measures are known as statistics

and population measures are known as parameters.''

Another meaning of ''statistics is the data of certain observations and phenomenon.

the school statistics means number of teachers (science and arts) enrollment of the

student, number of classrooms etc.

Now the ''statistics'' is the independent field of study or academic discipline. it has

wide application in behaviour science and social science.

Meaning of statistics education-

Educational measurement or educational statistics deals with the date associate

with education. statistics has been very widely used in education and psychology.

as for example- in the scaling of mental test and other psychology data for

measuring the reliability and validity of test score, for determining the I.Q., item

analysis and factor analysis vast application of statistical theory has given rise to a

new disciple called psychometry and education.

Considering education as a whole, there are two aspects of educational statistics-

1. Pedagogical aspect-
It involves the entire process of teaching and learning connected by the context of

subject matter taught.

2. Evaluation aspect-

Evaluation is a continuous and comprehensive assessment of achievement and

progress of a pupil.

Examination is one of the tools of evaluation of the achievement done through

some type of test and the result is usually in two ways-

a. By rank order giving a serial position in the group i.e -1st 2nd, 3rd etc or by

ranks only like O,A,B,C etc. however, this does not provide an enact measurement

of achievement.

b. By awarding marks or scope.

Scope of educational statistics.

The following are the characteristics of education statics-

1. Basically the term statistics is used for the indexes or measures of an individual

and statistics are the quantitative description of a group or a sample.

2. statistics is the independent field of study or a academic discipline which deals

with collection, classification, analysis and interpretation of data to draw the

inferences.

3. statistics is the empirical science. the data are collected by conducting an

experiments, observation and survey.

4. statistical methods are the techniques, used to facilitate in the analysis and the

interpretation of numerical data. it makes the raw data meaningful.

5.The foundation of statistical methods is provided by mathematics, but now it has

achieved recognition.

6. statistics are used to draw inferences about the properties of population on the

basis of sample statistics or observation.

Q.3 Elaborate probability sampling techniques.

Ans: When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The
sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how
you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods that
you can use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make

strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in

the methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached
minimizing research bias in your work.

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample,
and identify the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data
from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or

many other characteristics.

It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want to make inferences about
the whole adult population of your country; maybe your research focuses on
customers of a certain company, patients with a specific health condition, or
students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose

and practicalities of your project.
If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically
dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of
a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can lead to
several research biases, particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is
not part of that population).

Example: Sampling frameYou are doing research on working conditions at a

social media marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees of the
company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the
names and contact details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research
design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on
what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of

1000 employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to
every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random
number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals.

Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in

alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting
point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected
(6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden
pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database
groups employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority,
there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in
a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called
strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range,
income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random
or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200
male employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance
of the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then
you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which
gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is
more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really
representative of the whole population.

Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the

country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You
don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use
random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random
criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population
are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more
limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a
broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-
researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to
tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.
Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student
support services in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your
fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to
gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at
the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public
online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection
bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at
your university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give
you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to
be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you
can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the
purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences,
or where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample
must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a
number of students with different support needs in order to gather a varied range
of data on their experiences with student services.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in

your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability
sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows
in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata)
and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share
specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim
of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce

delivery service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the
population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of
1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a
quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily
compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of
200 participants for each subgroup.
Q.4 Explain ‘scatter plot’ and its use in interpreting data.

Scatter plot Graph

A scatter plot is also called a scatter chart, scattergram, or scatter plot, XY graph.
The scatter diagram graphs numerical data pairs, with one variable on each axis,
show their relationship. Now the question comes for everyone: when to use a
scatter plot?

Scatter plots are used in either of the following situations.

 When we have paired numerical data

 When there are multiple values of the dependent variable for a unique
value of an independent variable
 In determining the relationship between variables in some scenarios, such
as identifying potential root causes of problems, checking whether two
products that appear to be related both occur with the exact cause and so
on.

Scatter Plot Uses and Examples

Scatter plots instantly report a large volume of data. It is beneficial in the

following situations –

 For a large set of data points given

 Each set comprises a pair of values
 The given data is in numeric form
The line drawn in a scatter plot, which is near to almost all the points in the plot is
known as “line of best fit” or “trend line“. See the graph below for an example.
Scatter plot Correlation

We know that the correlation is a statistical measure of the relationship between

the two variables’ relative movements. If the variables are correlated, the points
will fall along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the closer the points will
touch the line. This cause examination tool is considered as one of the seven
essential quality tools.

Types of correlation

The scatter plot explains the correlation between two attributes or variables. It
represents how closely the two variables are connected. There can be three such
situations to see the relation between the two variables –

1. Positive Correlation
2. Negative Correlation
3. No Correlation

Positive Correlation

When the points in the graph are rising, moving from left to right, then the scatter
plot shows a positive correlation. It means the values of one variable are
increasing with respect to another. Now positive correlation can further be
classified into three categories:

 Perfect Positive – Which represents a perfectly straight line

 High Positive – All points are nearby
 Low Positive – When all the points are scattered
Negative Correlation

When the points in the scatter graph fall while moving left to right, then it is
called a negative correlation. It means the values of one variable are decreasing
with respect to another. These are also of three types:

 Perfect Negative – Which form almost a straight line

 High Negative – When points are near to one another
 Low Negative – When points are in scattered form
No Correlation

When the points are scattered all over the graph and it is difficult to conclude
whether the values are increasing or decreasing, then there is no correlation
between the variables.

Scatter plot Example

Let us understand how to construct a scatter plot with the help of the below
example.

Question:

Draw a scatter plot for the given data that shows the number of games played and
scores obtained in each instance.

No. of games 3 5 2 6 7 1 2 7 1 7

Scores 80 90 75 80 90 50 65 85 40 100

Solution:

X-axis or horizontal axis: Number of games

Y-axis or vertical axis: Scores

Now, the scatter graph will be:

Note: We can also combine scatter plots in multiple plots per sheet to read and
understand the higher-level formation in data sets containing multivariable,
notably more than two variables.

Scatter plot Matrix

For data variables such as x1, x2, x3, and xn, the scatter plot matrix presents all the
pairwise scatter plots of the variables on a single illustration with various
scatterplots in a matrix format. For the n number of variables, the scatterplot
matrix will contain n rows and n columns. A plot of variables x i vs xj will be
located at the ith row and jth column intersection. We can say that each row and
column is one dimension, whereas each cell plots a scatter plot of two
dimensions.

Q.5 Discuss ‘normal curve’ with special emphasis on its application in

educational.
In probability theory and statistics, the Normal Distribution, also called
the Gaussian distribution, is the most significant continuous probability
distribution. Sometimes it is also called a bell curve. A large number of random
variables are either nearly or exactly represented by the normal distribution, in
every physical science and economics. Furthermore, it can be used to approximate
other probability distributions, therefore supporting the usage of the word ‘normal
‘as in about the one, mostly used.

Normal Distribution Definition

The Normal Distribution is defined by the probability density function for a

continuous random variable in a system. Let us say, f(x) is the probability density
function and X is the random variable. Hence, it defines a function which is
integrated between the range or interval (x to x + dx), giving the probability of
random variable X, by considering the values between x and x+dx.

f(x) ≥ 0 ∀ x ϵ (−∞,+∞)

And -∞∫+∞ f(x) = 1

Normal Distribution Formula

The probability density function of normal or gaussian distribution is given by;

Where,

 x is the variable
 μ is the mean
  σ is the standard deviation

Normal Distribution Curve

The random variables following the normal distribution are those whose values
can find any unknown value in a given range. For example, finding the height of
the students in the school. Here, the distribution can consider any value, but it will
be bounded in the range say, 0 to 6ft. This limitation is forced physically in our
query.

Whereas, the normal distribution doesn’t even bother about the range. The range
can also extend to –∞ to + ∞ and still we can find a smooth curve. These random
variables are called Continuous Variables, and the Normal Distribution then
provides here probability of the value lying in a particular range for a given
experiment. Also, use the normal distribution calculator to find the probability
density function by just providing the mean and standard deviation value.

Normal Distribution Standard Deviation

Generally, the normal distribution has any positive standard deviation. We know
that the mean helps to determine the line of symmetry of a graph, whereas the
standard deviation helps to know how far the data are spread out. If the standard
deviation is smaller, the data are somewhat close to each other and the graph
becomes narrower. If the standard deviation is larger, the data are dispersed more,
and the graph becomes wider. The standard deviations are used to subdivide the
area under the normal curve. Each subdivided section defines the percentage of
data, which falls into the specific region of a graph.

Using 1 standard deviation, the Empirical Rule states that,

 Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the
mean. (i.e., Between Mean- one Standard Deviation and Mean + one
standard deviation)
  Approximately 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations of the
mean. (i.e., Between Mean- two Standard Deviation and Mean + two
standard deviations)
 Approximately 99.7% of the data fall within three standard deviations of
the mean. (i.e., Between Mean- three Standard Deviation and Mean +
three standard deviations)

Thus, the empirical rule is also called the 68 – 95 – 99.7 rule.

Normal Distribution Table

The table here shows the area from 0 to Z-value.

Z-Value 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359

0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753

0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517

0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879

0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224

0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549

0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852

0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133

0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389

1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621

1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830

1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015

1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177

1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319

1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441

1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545

1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633

1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767

2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817

2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857

2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890

2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916

2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936

2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952

2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964

2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974

2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981

2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986

3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

Normal Distribution Problems and Solutions

Question 1: Calculate the probability density function of normal distribution

using the following data. x = 3, μ = 4 and σ = 2.

Solution: Given, variable, x = 3

Mean = 4 and

Standard deviation = 2
By the formula of the probability density of normal distribution, we can write;

Hence, f(3,4,2) = 1.106.

Question 2: If the value of random variable is 2, mean is 5 and the standard

deviation is 4, then find the probability density function of the gaussian
distribution.

Solution: Given,

Variable, x = 2

Mean = 5 and

Standard deviation = 4

By the formula of the probability density of normal distribution, we can write;

f(2,2,4) = 1/(4√2π) e0

f(2,2,4) = 0.0997

There are two main parameters of normal distribution in statistics namely mean
and standard deviation. The location and scale parameters of the given normal
distribution can be estimated using these two parameters.

Normal Distribution Properties

Some of the important properties of the normal distribution are listed below:

 In a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are equal.(i.e., Mean
= Median= Mode).
 The total area under the curve should be equal to 1.
 The normally distributed curve should be symmetric at the centre.
 There should be exactly half of the values are to the right of the centre and
exactly half of the values are to the left of the centre.
 The normal distribution should be defined by the mean and standard
deviation.
 The normal distribution curve must have only one peak. (i.e., Unimodal)
 The curve approaches the x-axis, but it never touches, and it extends
farther away from the mean.

Applications

The normal distributions are closely associated with many things such as:

 Marks scored on the test

 Heights of different persons
 Size of objects produced by the machine
 Blood pressure and so on.