Theories of Learning

and Second Language

Learning
Framework for learning
Learners

What
(language)
Classroom
conditions
Wider social
context
 FIRE

1. Describe the process of fire.

Before fire appears, where is it?
2. What conditions lead to fire?
Fire >< Learning

Learning involves a process that

Fire is a process and result.
leads to gains in knowledge/skills.

Fire needs oxygen, Learning needs internal and external

temperature and others to set. conditions to take place.
 Think and share

What processes and conditions are engaged in

learning?
Learning involves…

 Sensory perception (hear, see, touch, smell…)

 Memorizing, recalling, forgetting (memory)
 Practice and reinforced practice
 Experiencing or acting upon things
 Prior knowledge
 Personal learning styles and strategies
 Learner emotions and feelings
Second Language Learning
(Kumaravadivelu, 2006)

Input
Input

Facilitating
conditions
Intake Output
A (language) learning theory explains…

1. What psychological processes happen in

learning?
2. What conditions are required for such
processes to occur?
(Brown, 2007)
Basic question of (Language) Learning
Theory

What are the principles of learning and

second language learning?
“ If teachers understand the psychological
processes and facilitating conditions for
second language learning, then they can

”
better facilitate the learning process.

Working assumption
Different approaches to learning and
second language learning

Behaviorism Constructivism

Cognitivism Humanism
Behaviorism
Pavlov’s classical conditioning

 Unconditioned stimulus: one

that naturally triggers a
response
 Unconditioned response: a
natural reflex/response
 Neutral stimulus: one that does
not trigger a response
 Conditioned stimulus: one that
triggers a conditioned response
 Principles of classical conditioning

• A response is Extinction • A conditioned response

established and sometimes recurs
gradually strengthened spontaneously after a
• A neutral stimulus and • A conditioned response rest period
response are associated disappears when a
conditioned stimulus is
no longer paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous
Acquisition
recovery

What implications for teaching?

Skinner’s operant conditioning
-Operant conditioning focuses on
voluntary goal-oriented actions.
-Operant conditioning uses
either reinforcement or punishment
to strengthen or weaken a behavior.
-An association is formed between
the behavior and the consequences
of that behavior
Differences

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

Association between an Association between a

involuntary response and a voluntary behavior and a
stimulus consequence
No reward or punishment Reward or punishment

Passive learning Active participation

Principles of operant conditioning

Continuous Partial/Intermittent
reinforcement reinforcement

-is used to teach new

behavior -is needed once a behavior is
learned
Rule: reinforce every
Rule: schedule reinforcement,
time a behavior i.e. after a fixed ratio of
occurs responses or a variable ratio of
responses
Summary

A behavioristic theory of learning focuses on

establishing a response/new behavior.
 A stimulus (sound/word/image) is associated with a
response, which is reinforced by positive feedback.

Learning a verbal behavior is assumed to occur in the

same way.
Discussion

 Watch a short clip on a teaching episode.

 Observe and explain the behaviorist
principle of learning in the episode.
Teaching cycle from the behaviorist
viewpoint
Reinforcement Model
(Feedback) (stimulus)

Practice Imitation
(Repetition) (response)
 Criticisms of behaviorism

 Impossible for every piece Example

of language spoken to be Child: Nobody don't like me
reinforced
Mother: No, say, "Nobody likes me."
 Imitation of inaccurate
models Child: Nobody don't like me.

 Impossible to attribute (Eight repetitions of this dialogue)

syntactic development to Mother: No, now listen carefully: say,
the imitation of multiple "Nobody likes me."
forms Child: Oh! Nobody don't likes me.
 Ignoring prior knowledge
Chomsky’s (1959) review of Skinner’s
Verbal Behavior (McNeil in The Genesis of Language,
1966)
 Cognitivism

 Learning involves a conscious and reasoned

thinking process and deliberate use of learning
strategies.
 Learning is determined by one’s cognitive growth.
 General psychological/cognitive processes involve
sensory perception, attention & noticing,
analyzing, and connecting to memory
Common theories and models

 Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

(1954)
 Information processing model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1972)
 Levels of processing model (Lockhart and Craik,1972)
 Connectionist model (McLelland, Rumelhart & Hinton,1986)
 Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)
1. Piaget’s cognitive development theory
(1954)

1. Vận động giảm giác

2. Tiền thao tác
3. Thao tác cụ thể
4. Thao tác chính thức
Two complementary processes

 Assimilation (Đồng hóa):

Integrating new information
into existing knowledge
 Accommodation (Thích nghi):
Changing pre-existing
cognitive schemas to fit into
new information.
-Cognition develops as
disequilibrium changes to
equilibrium.
-Assimilation and
accommodation contribute to
adaptation.
 2. Information processing model
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1972)

Information is processed through a sequence of stages before

being stored permanently in the brain.
 Sensory memory: through
five senses, information is
then held from less than a
second (visual info) to 3
seconds (auditory info)
(Schneider & Bjorklund, 1998)

Cited in Krause, Bochner &

Duchnesne (2007, pp.160-161)
Working memory is a
temporary storage
with a limited capacity,
i.e. about 7 items of
information at a time
(Miller, 1956)
Activity: Try to remember following
list in 10 seconds.

Vegemite, dental floss,

butter, nectarine, bread,
soap, toothbrush, mango,
pear
pear bread toothbrush
mango butter soap
nectarine vegemite dental floss

Classifying information in a meaningful group

helps memory.
Memory test
 Long-term memory (LTM)
is unlimited and
permanent.
 We retrieve information
from LTM for use.
 Rehearsaland elaboration
increases LTM.
 3. Surface-deep processing model
(Lockhart and Craik,1972)

Surface • Shallow, not fully attending  Levels of information

processing to information processing affect recall
ability.
 Processing levels
• Attending to
depend on types of
Deep information fully, tasks, types of
analyzing and
processing connecting information
information, relevance
for learners, time limit
Example

deeper
Which activities engage the deepest
processing?

 Listen and repeat a word.

 Listen, repeat, and write down a word.
 Listen, repeat, associate with a
situation, and use the word in a
sentence.
 4. Connectionist model
(McLelland, Rumelhart & Hinton,1986)

 Information is stored in
different locations or
processing units.
 The units are connected to
form neural networks, and
are distributed in parallel.
 Learning occurs as
connections become
strengthened by experience.
Why and how learners forget

 Forgetting in short-term memory

is due to various factors. What
are they?
 What causes forgetting in long-
term memory?
 Why and how learners forget
 Forgetting in short-term memory: Lack of
attention, limited capacity, lack of
motivation, and lack of memory skills
 Forgettingin long-term memory:
Interferences between memories
-> Cue dependence: one piece of
information cues another (Nuthall, 2000);
no right cues, difficult to recall
Principles
 Successful learning depends on the speed and level
of processing and the memory capacity.
 The working memory is the central processor which
controls information processing.
 Tasks which require learners to make conscious effort
and use strategies can lead to successful processing.
(Meadows, 1993).
 Memory strategies on principles of memory can
facilitate learning.
Loci

Loci is a method of
associating an item
of information with a
place.
Imagery
Rhyme
What psychological processes are required
for learning from a cognitive viewpoint?

 Attention and noticing

 Conscious effort to understand and commit
information to memory
 Repeat/rehearse/reencounter
(Opportunities for automatic processing)
Limitations of IP models

 How the brain/mind works is far more

complex than a computer’s memory.
 They ignore the environmental, personal
differences that may influence how
individuals process information.
 5. Social learning theory: socio-cognitive
learning
 Observation and modeling play a primary role
in this process.

"Fortunately, most human behavior is learned

observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions,
this coded information serves as a guide for
action.“
(Bandura, 1977, p.22)
Cited from
https://www.gilfuseducationgroup.com/soci
al-learning-theory-an-overview-of-
banduras-social-learning-theory/
Implications
Principles of cognitive Discussion
learning
1. Focus attention Based on the cognitive
2. Activate prior knowledge
principles of learning, discuss
and list instructional
3. Organize information
strategies/techniques that can
4. Use memory techniques be used in teaching English.
Implications
Principles Strategies/techniques
*Cue signals: Let’s concentrate
1. Focus attention
*Emphasis: This is a key point/idea

2. Activate prior
knowledge *Review, brainstorming, talk

3. Organize information *Logical sequence, chart/mind-map

4. Use memory *Classifying, elaboration (connect to prior

techniques learning), association (relate to
images/locations); visual aids, self-repetition
Cognitive theories in second
language learning
Overview
A cognitive approach to L2 learning is inspired
by Piaget’s idea that language development is
determined by cognitive development.
A cognitive approach to L2 learning is
concerned with the mind as the information
processor.
 1. UG (universal grammar) model

 Human beings possess innate capacity which

involves the principles of Universal Grammar (UG)
 UG principles allow all children to acquire L1 during
a critical period (critical age or biological stage)
 Language acquisition relies solely on the mind.
Klapper’s (2006) comments on UG

 L2 learning is equated to L1 acquisition.

 For L2 learners, their L1 parameters have
been set. This pre-setting automatically
influences their L2 learning.
 Learners reset them where the L1
parameters conflict with the L2.
Klapper’s (2006) comments

 UG emphasizes the role of linguistic

competence (mental grammar), ignoring
linguistic performance
 UG ignores psychological and social
aspects of language learning.
 It’s therefore not practical for teachers.
2. Krashen’s Model of SLA
 Influenced by Chomsky, Krashen proposed an
influential model in the 1970s, based on 5
hypotheses:
Acquisition/learning hypothesis
Monitor hypothesis
The natural order hypothesis
The input hypothesis
The affective filter hypothesis
-a bit beyond
learners’ level but
-Mostly understood
by learners Relevant
input
What conditions are required for L2
acquisition according to Krashen?

Comprehensible input
Low affective filter (e.g., motivated, relaxed,
not anxious)
3. Attention processing model (Mclaughlin, 1987)

Controlled Automatic
processing processing
The model explains the kinds of
attention to formal aspects of
• capacity- • manageable,
language (linguistic features,
limited and fast, effortless patterns) associated with
temporary • simultaneous information processing.
• conscious, attention to
focused many bits of
attention information
Two kinds of attention in information processing

 Every performing act involves both

peripheral and focal attention.
Ex: driving a car while texting on the
mobile
 Both controlled and automatic
processes occur with either focal or
peripheral attention to task
performance.
Attention to CONTROLLED processing: AUTOMATIC processing:
formal aspects Early stage: skill capacity is Later through practice: Skill
of language limited capacity is unlimited
FOCAL: • Explaining a grammatical • Monitoring oneself while
Intentional point speaking
• Defining a word • Scanning a text
• Doing discrete-point • Editing and peer-editing a text
exercises
PERIPHERAL: • Simple greetings • Open-ended group work
Unintentional • Memorizing a dialogue • Rapid reading, skimming
• Free-writing
Whether linguistic forms are attended to focally • Normal conversational
or peripherally depends on the task given. exchanges of some length
4. Skill acquisition theory

L2 learning means learning a complex cognitive

skill. Learning a language requires two processes

-The automatization of component sub-skills

-Constant restructuring as learners gain an
increasing control over internal representations
(McLaughlin 1987, p.133-134)
 Notice any
Pay attention
aspect/item of
to new items language

Stored in
long-term
memory/
restructuring
Become Practice the
automatic item

Second language learning is a process of skill building: knowing ‘what’ 

knowing ‘how’ by practice.
Reflection

To what extent did your English learning and

teaching experiences reflect a behaviorist view
and/or a cognitive view of learning?
Constructivism
 Cognitive/radical constructivist approach (Jean
Piaget)
 Social constructivist approach (Lev Vygotsky,
Bruner)
 Swain’s Output Hypothesis
 Long’s Interaction Hypothesis
 Socio-cultural theory
1. Radical/cognitive constructivism

A child constructs his in the

range of biological development
stages, and his language development
depends on the knowledge and
understanding acquired through this
development

(Piaget, 1954)
Conservation checking
 Stages of cognitive development and
language
Stages Characteristics related to language

Sensorimotor Language is used orally for

Preoperational The child can use proper grammar to express concepts, can use
to refer to the world.

Concrete operational The child can understand concrete concepts (space, time, quantity) and
related language.
Formal operational The child can use language to relate to abstract concepts, understand
concept relationships (e.g. can learn abstract concepts like noun, verb,
adjective, etc.)
To Piaget
 Learning depends on biological
stages/readiness of the child.
 As growing up, the child develops complex
cognitive frameworks, or schemas.
 The child uses his schemas to make sense of
new information.
 Cognitive processes

Assimilation Accommodation
He walked to the
door, and opened He walked to the
door, and opened it.
it.
He looked into the He looked into the
house, and seed a house, and saw a
dog. dog.

He runned
He ran away.
away.
Cognitive processes

Equilibration: process of cognitive development

Is it right? Now I see.

I am sure it’s
I have to
correct.
think it over.

Being happy Becoming aware of Sophisticated

with current shortcomings in thinking and
understanding understanding understanding

Equilibrium Cognitive conflict Stable equilibrium

2. Social constructivist approach

 Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and

language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

2.1. Jerome Bruner’s  Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The

development of higher psychological processes.
theory of cognitive Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

development
 Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In
R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton (Eds.), The collected
works of L.S. Vygotsky, Volume 1: Problems of
general psychology (pp. 39–285). New York:
Plenum Press. (Original work published 1934.)

2.2. Lev Vygotsky’s theory  Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard
Educational Review, 31, 21-32.
of cognitive development  Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in
language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle,
and W. J.M. Levelt (eds.) The Child's Concept of
Language. New York: Springer-Verlag.
2.1. Bruner’s theory of cognitive development

Ways of storing and

encoding information
0-1 year

2-6 years

7 years onward
Bruner’s theory of education

Discovery learning Scaffolding

The most effective way to '[Scaffolding] refers to the
develop a coding system is to steps taken to reduce the
discover it rather than being degrees of freedom in
told by the teacher. carrying out some task so
that the child can
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of concentrate on the
discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-
32.
difficult skill she is in the
process of acquiring'
(Bruner, 1978, p. 19).
Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle, and W. J.M. Levelt
(eds.) The Child's Concept of Language. New York: Springer-Verlag.
“ Every function in the child’s cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later,
on the individual level; first between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).
VYGOTSKY (1978, P.57)

2.2. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

”
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
The level of potential
development as
determined through
problem solving under
adult guidance or in
collaboration with more
capable peers
(Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) Source:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vyg
otsky.html

Social interaction is the foundation for

consciousness development
Vygotsky’s principles

 At any certain age, cognitive development

is limited to a certain scope.
 Socialization is the foundation to
determine full cognitive development.
 Differences
Piaget Vygotsky
 The child develops cognition by
 The individual is
interacting with knowledgeable others.
responsible for
(like Bruner)
constructing knowledge
alone.  Language and thought are initially
separated, and merged around 3 years-
 Language and thought are
old, shown in ‘private speech’
separate.
 Cultural tools (e.g. language, mind-map,
 Learning is determined by
computer) mediate cognitive
biological development.
development. (Like Bruner)
 Learning is guided and scaffold. (Like
Bruner)
2.3. Experiential learning theory
 David A. Kolb (1970)
 Learning occurs by doing and
reflecting on doing.
 Experiential learning may occur
without a teacher.
 Learners construct
understanding by themselves
through direct experience (E.g.,
doing projects, making inquiry)

Project-based learning and task-based language learning

Question

What are key principles of learning

according to a constructive learning
approach?
Principles of constructive learning
1. Learners actively participate in building their own knowledge.
2. Individuals construct their own understanding with support.
3. Social interaction with more knowledgeable persons is
essential for learning.
4. Scaffolding helps learners extend their ability.
5. Experience is the source of knowledge. Learning is by doing or
participating.
6. Learning new things is filtered by prior knowledge/belief or
experience.
What should be created to help learners
construct understanding?

 Activatinglearners’ prior knowledge and cognitive

ability/readiness
 Engaging learners in participation in discovery
learning activities
 Creatingspace for social interaction and
collaboration
 Structuring
and supporting learning by using
capable peers
Second language learning theories
1. Interaction theory
(Long, 1983, 1990, 1996)

Interaction is conversational exchange in which

interlocutors negotiate for meaning
(negotiation for mutual understanding)
 Negotiation processes in interaction
1. Confirmation check: Is that what you mean?
2. Comprehension check: do you understand? Do
you follow me?
3. Clarification requests: what? Huh? I don’t know
the meaning
4. Choice question: where did you relax?
………..did you relax out of town or in East
Lansing?
Example (Gass, 2002, p.174)

 NS: There’s just a couple of more things

 NNS: a… sorry? Couple?
 NS: Couple more things in the room only, just a
couple
 NNS: Couple? What does it mean couple?
Interaction theory
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1996)

Negotiation for meaning triggers interactional

adjustments.

Modifying input/output (slow down, emphasize,

speak deliberately, restate, repeat…)

Selective attention to gap in knowledge

Restructuring language -> Acquisition

Key point

Interaction creates context and conditions for

cognitive processes to happen: feedback,
noticing, and restructuring understanding
What conditions facilitate language
learning through interaction?

-Feedback
-Modification of linguistic input
-Noticing gaps in one’s own knowledge
2. Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1985)

Key points
 Language output/production (spoken and
written) is essential to SLA.
 Comprehensible output or pushed output
is necessary.
 Swain, 1985, p.249
 Learners
need to be “pushed toward delivery of
a message that is not only conveyed, but that is
conveyed precisely, coherently, and
appropriately”
 Output forces learners to move from semantic
processing to syntactic processing by struggling
to put words into order.
Functions of output in SLA
1. Testing what we know: Output is a chance to try out
new forms or structures.
2. Receiving crucial feedback to verify what we know:
Corrective feedback or negative evidence can help
learners reorganize knowledge.
3. Developing fluency and automaticity through
consistent and successful practice of grammar
4. Focusing on syntactic processing: Learners notice
deficiency in their output -> reassess it -> seek for
confirmation -> restructure grammar
 3. Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978)
Language develops when an
individual interacts with
others within his zone of
proximal development (ZPD)
- a situation where the
learner is capable of
performing at a higher level
with the support from the
more expert interlocutor.
 Mediation
 Mediation through material tools
 Mediation with other human beings.
 Mediation through psychological tools
(e.g. language)
=> Psychological tools mediate the
psychological processes of the human
mind.

Other-regulation Self-regulation

Assisted by Mature,
others independent
Language in Vygotsky’s theory

Social speech Private speech Inner speech

• 0-3 years • 7 years plus

• 3-7 years
• Using language for
• Speech for • Speaking out loud
inner thinking
social exchange what they think
• Using language for
• Not using • Using language to
communication
control own
language for publicly
behaviors
thoughts
“
Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech
- it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e.,
thought connected with words. But while in external
speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech

”
words die as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to
a large extent thinking in pure meanings.
(VYGOTSKY, 1962, P. 149)

Inner Speech
What are the principles of sociocultural theory of
L2 learning?

• Learners actively try to construct meaning.

• Learners need space (ZPD) for language growth.
• Learners internalize language from social interaction.
• Learners’language learning depends on the quality of
their experience with the language in communication.
• Learners
can co-construct language knowledge when
they work together.
To conclude
English language teaching needs to…
 consider how a second language is learned
 create
conditions that facilitate psychological
processes of L2 learning
Implications from different views
 Behaviorist: Training micro skills or behaviors that help
learners form habits and build up linguistic
performance.
 Cognitivist: Instructing learners to process, practice and
memorize and represent knowledge in the mind.
 Constructivist: Setting tasks and scaffolding learners to
learn through interaction.
Which view above do you support?
Discussion
Watch a lesson. Discuss and analyze the lesson
activities in terms of the following points:
1. The views on second language learning
manifested in the lesson actions.
2. Would you like to improve anything related to
the lesson?
 Humanistic Learning Theory
 Philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Freedom and choice
 Italian physician & educator Maria Montessori (1870-1952):
Montessori education
 American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908–1970): Hierarchy of
needs
 American philosopher, educator John Dewey (1859–1952):
Democracy in education, Experience
 American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902-1987): Self-concept and
student-centered learning
 American educator Malcolm Knowles (1913 – 1997): Andragogy
(learner-driven approach), self-directed learning based on learner
constructed contracts
 View
 The learner is not just a biological, mental, but also a
social and emotional being.
 The child’s needs are central to education (learner-
centred approach).
 The child’s unique characteristics and ‘educability’ are
focused.
 Personal values and self-concept are emphasized.
 ‘free school’, ‘open classroom’, and ‘progressive
education’ are encouraged.
1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 2. Self-directed learning theory
(Knowles, 1975)

In SDL, individuals take the initiative with or

without the help of others, in diagnosing their
learning needs, formulating learning goals,
identifying human and material resources for
learning, choosing and implementing appropriate
learning, and evaluating learning outcomes.
A shift from Pedagogy (content-driven) Andragogy (learner-driven)
Principles of SDL
 Learning is self-initiated and intrinsically motivated
instead of the teacher’s control and imposition.
 Self-directed learning involves
-> want to learn
-> decision to learn
-> planning to learn
-> decision on effective ways to learn
-> implementing and monitoring learning
-> evaluating and adjusting learning
3. Learner autonomy (LA) (Holec, 1980)
 Learners can take responsibility for their own
learning.
 Autonomous learners can
 set goals based on their own needs,
 choose strategies,
 monitor and adapt learning strategies,
 evaluate learning outcomes
 Central
to learner autonomy is choice of what
and how to learn something.
 Knowing how to learn is also part of LA.
4. Metacognition  Consciousness about one’s own
cognitive/thinking processes, self,
learning strategies

 Ability to monitor, control, and

organize our mental activities or
self-regulate thinking
(Flavell, Miller & Miller, 1993)
Characteristics of self-regulated learners

Analyze
 ………………the task and interpret task requirements
goals
 Set task-specific ……………… that aid successful task
completion.
 Monitor
…………… progress and provide ‘self-feedback’.
 ……..………
Adjust strategies and goals throughout the
process.
 Use self-motivated strategies to ensure task
completion.
(Krause, Bochner & Duchnesne, 2007, p.169)
Implications
 Learners need to take an active and conscious
approach to learning.
 Metacognitive strategies, esp. self-regulated
learning strategies are necessary.
 Teaching involves training learning
skills/strategies especially metacognitive
strategies.
Implications from different views
 Behaviorist: Training micro skills or behaviors that help
learners form habits and build up linguistic performance.
 Cognitivist: Instructing learners to process, practice and
memorize and represent knowledge in the mind.
 Constructivist: Setting tasks and scaffolding learners to
construct their own understanding through interaction.
 Humanist: Catering to learners’ needs/goals and training
learning skills to help fulfill their needs.
Behaviorist cognitivist Humanist
Focus on Focus on cognitive Focus on
and social part
physical whole
behavior constructivist person
Main references
 Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th
ed). Longman
 Krause, K., Bochneer, S. & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology
for learning and teaching (2nd ed). Thomson
 Pritchard, A. & Woodlard, S. (2010). Psychology for the classroom.
London, Routledge (pp.1-19)
 Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding language teaching. Erbraum
Lawrence, pp.3-24
 Klapper, J. (2006). Understanding and developing good practice. CILT