26 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES 4.

Members of a homologous series have similar

homologous series is a group of organic chemical properties. For example : Methane
ampowndshaving a similar structure and similar reacts with chlorine to form methyl chloride.
chemical properties in which the successive
campoundsdifer by a CH, group. CH, +CI, ’ CH,Cl+HCI.
Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes. Similarly, ethane reacts to form ethyl chloride
Ry adding CH, group (known as methylene C,H, +Cl, ’ C,H,Cl + HCI.
group)
)in agiven hydrocarbon, another hydrocarbon
higher number of carbon atoms (higher 5. All the members of a homologous series can be
with a
homologue)is obtained, e.g. prepared by using the same general method of
CH, +CH, ’ C,H. preparation.
Methane Ethane
For example : Alcohols are prepared by alkyl
Similarly, by removing CH, group from a halides.
hydrocarbon, another hydrocarbon with a lesser CH,Br + KOH boil, CH,OH + KBr.
number of carbon atoms (lower homologue) is
(aqueous)
obtained, e.g.,
C,H,Br + KOH boil ’ C,H,0H + KBr.
CHo ’ CH, + CH,
Butane Propane (aqueous)

26.1 Characteristics of a homologous Examples of Homologous Series.

series 1. ALKANE:
Molecular formula
Gen. formula [C,H2n+2
L All members of a homologous series share Sasi
the general formula. (Same elements and same 291 Methaneomod odt to CH,o
functional group).
For example, the general formula for alkane is I9dsT WC,H,, o
510 Butane
C, H2n2 alkene is C Hzn alkyne is CHn2
Pentane C,H2
2. Each member of the series differs from the
preceding one by the addition of CH, group and CH4
by molecular mass of 14 a.m.u. Heptane C,Hj6
Octane CHis
3. The physical properties of the members change Nonane CGHzo
gradually i.e. show gradation in properties as the
number of carbon atoms per molecule increases,
Decane CoHyz
i.e., as nmolecular mass increases. 2. ALKENE:
Molecular formula
For example, melting point, boiling point and the
Gen. formula [C,H,]
density of the successive members of the Ethene C,H,
homologous series increase with the increase in Propeneieon Scoo C,H
molecular mass. Buteneamoo cpoto eac CH
: i o zolu Sit otgbnouoA
s Examples Pentene

Alkane Molar mass Boiling point Physical state Hexene CçHË2

16hy-161.4°C
(i) Methane
gas
C,H4
(ii) Ethanes 3 0 e -88.3°C gas Octene CgH6
(ii) Propane 44 D44.5°C gas Nonenee
0°C gas
(iv) Butane 58 en Decenepo o eniteno
(v) Pentane72 36.2°C liquid
187
 3. ALKYNE: compounds
7. Why are organic studied
Gen. formula [C,H, branch of chemistry ?
Molecular formula
8. What are hydrocarbons ? Compare
BthyneC,H,
Propyne
unsaturated hydrocarbons?
saturated a
C,H, Give reason for the existence of
Butyne C,H,
9.
organic compounds.
the large nu
Pentyne CH 10. Give at least one example in each case to
Hexyne C,H0 structure of isomers of :
Heptyne C,H2 (a) single bond compound,
Octyne (b) double bond compound,
(c) triple bond compound.
4. ALCOHOLS :
11. Name a compound of each type and draw
Gen. formula [C,H,.,OH)
n Molecular formula (a) Cyclic compound with single bond. the ioure
Methanol
CH,OH (b) Cyclic compound with triple bond
EthanoltOD od C,H,OHH 12. Give the name of one member of each of
Propanol C,H,OH (a) saturated hydrocarbons, the folowing
Butanol (b) unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Pentanol CsH,OH 13. Define substitution and addition
Hexanol CçHi,OH example for each. reactions. Give an
Heptanol C,H,OH
Octanol CGH,,OH 12.7 NOMENCLATURE

12.6.2 Significance of the homologous series Nomenclature is the system of

(i) The nature of any member of that family of
names to organic compounds. ass1gnment
compounds can be ascertained, if the properties System of nomenclature are Trivial system a
of the first few members of that series are IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Anlie
known. Chemistry) system.
(ü) It helps to predict the properties of even those In the early days, the name of a compound
members of the series that are yet to be depended on the source from which it was obtaied
prepared. For example, CH, was named marsh gas, since i
(ii) Knowledge of homologous series is useful for was obtained from marshy places. Acetic aci
the systematic study of organic chemistry, since (Latin : acetum = vinegar) was obtained fron
it saves learning time. vinegar, methyl alcohol (methus = spirit, hue
= WOod) was obtained from wood, and citric anil
Intext Questions from the botanical source citrus. Such names ar
called common names or trivial names.
1. (a) What are organic compounds?
(b) What is vital force theory? Why was it discarded? However, the nomenclature was systemaizd
2. (a) Name a few sources of organic compounds. by the chemists of IUPAC in 1957.
(b) Give the various applications of organic chemistry.
According tothe rules of this system, the nat
3. Organic chemistry plays a key role in all walks of life. of an organic compound consists of three pars:
Discuss.
4. Carbon shows some unique properties, name them. (i) root word,
5. Explain the following: (ii) suffix,
(a) tetravalency, (b) catenation.
(ii) prefix.
6. Write any four properties of organic compounds that
distinguish them from inorganic compounds.
 word:ltdependssuponthe number of carbon
12.8 ALKYL GROUP
removing one
An alkyl group is obtained by
Root
9 presentinthe longest carbon chain selected
atoms molecule.
(Table12.4), atom of hydrogen from an alkane
Table 12,2
Table 12,4: Alkyl radicals
Root Word (Greek name) Structural
carbon atoms Alkane AlkylMolecular Abbreviated
Numberof formula
Meth radicall formula formula
Onecarbonatom
H
Twocarbonatoms C, Eth Methane Methyl -CH, -CH,
(CH,) -C-H
Threecarbonatoms C Prop
But
Fourcartbonatoms
C4
Fivecarbonatoms Pent H H
Hex Ethane Ethyl -CH, CH,
Sixcarbonatoms C6 (C,H)
-C-C-H
Seven carbon atoms Hept
H H
Oct
Eightcarbonatoms C&
Non H H H
Ninecarbonatoms Co Propane Propyl C,H, -CH,-CH,-CH,
Dec -C-C-C-H
Tencarbon atoms Cio (C,H)
H H H

The root word is followed by an

()Suffix :
H HH H
nature
appropriate suffix, which represents the Butane Butyl C,H, CH, CH,-CH,UHi| !
carbon-carbon atom iie.
of the bond in a H
Alkanes : C C[single bond] -ane H H H
olscslost
Alkenes : C=C[double bond] -ene
Alkynes : CEC[triple bond] yne CHn+ 2 -H, be
-CHzn+ 1
Alkylia 5a t
Table 12.3
ot Alkaneo ioiorle
Sutfix General General Examples -CHn+1
Nature of
name formula Thus general formula of alkyl is
bond
Single bond - ane Alkane C,Hn42 CH, Methane -H -CH,(
CH, Bthane
(C-C) CzH, Propane
Methane Methylu
replacing the
named by
Alkene C,H,CH, Ethene Srls An alkyl group is with the suffix yl. Al
Double bond ene suffix ane of the alkane
C,H, Propene an unpaired
(C=C) CH, Butene members of the alkyl group have no symbol with
electron, which is indicated by a line
Thiple bond - yne Alkyne C,Hn-2CH, Ethyne attached.
C,H, Propyne
(C=C) CHH, Butyne 12.9 FUNCTIONAL GROUP
an atom or
The functional group is defined as
Prefix : It denotes the substituent., alkyl or a specific manner which
group of atoms joined in characteristic
(iii) the carbon chemical
functional group and its position in is responsible for the
properties of the organic compounds.
1 2 3 4 5
CCcCC
For example, hydroxyl group (-0OH), aldehyde
group (-CHO), carboxylic acid group (-COOH).
CH, OAlkanes do not contain any functional group.
attached to second C)
2-Methyl (because methyl is The functional group of alkenes is considered as
additional substituent or
Prefix also indicates for double bond > C=C<while in alkynes it is
tetra-, are used
functional group. Di-, tri-, triple bond C=C. For other examples refer
groupS of the same type
two, three andfour fsrodtnane)
table 12.3.
respectively. 189
 groupshacsst
Table 12.5: Some commonfunctional
O bssdo aou Rrepresents the alkyl group (-C, H2n +1)
common names ma
Functional group General formulae Types of Organic compounds Suffix Examples with
CHCI
EtC,hHyl,Cchl)oride
Halide - X ane
R-X Haloalkanes Methyl chloride
(F, CI, Br, I) Chloromethane

Hydroxyl - OH R-OH Alcohols ol CH,OH

Methanol C,ChlEthHoanolr,oOcthHane
al HCHO
Aldehyde -CHO
H
RC=0 Aldehydes Methanal CH,FthanalCHO
oic acid CH,COOH
Carboxyl - COOH

RR
Carboxylic acids
Ethanoic acid

CH,COCH,
CH,PropanoiCHCOHc acid
C,HCOCH,
Ketones one
Keto C
Propanone DiPentanone
ethyl ketone
CH 0CH, CH
Ethers -coc ROR Ethers Oxy
Dimethyl ether
Ethyl met0cCH,
hyl ether
Methoxy methane
Methoxy ethane
H H H HO sT
12.9.1 Characteristics of funcBional groups: Structural
formula H C CCCH
() The chemical properties of the compounds HH H H
containing the same functional group are
similar. Therefore, the compounds of the A molecule having the bigger structural fomi
same functional groups are identified using isoften cumbersome. We represent it by abbreviat
the same type of tests. formula.
Abbreviated or Condensed formula of butane
(ü) The physical and chemical properties of the CH; CH, CH, CH,
compounds of different functional groups are Astructure that shows only the linking of catn
different. atoms in a molecule is called the carbon skeleton.
(i11) There exists a homologous series of Carbon skeleton of butane
compounds containing a particular type of CCCC
functional group. For example, the Rules of nomenciature of organic compouns
homologous series of alcohols is CH,OH, 1. Selection of carbon chains : The longes
D C,H,OH and C,H,OH.t d io uem continuous chain of 'C atoms, known as pare
chain, is selected.
Note : In an organic compound the alkyl group
determines mainly the physical properties, whereas (i) 1 2 3 4 5
CCCCC
the functional group is responsible for the chemical
properties or reactivity of the compounds. 10 The longest chain is of5 carbon atoms so rdt
od word is 'pent'. a bns quog
12.10 STRUCTURE (1) The longest chain need not be straight. tu
Hydrocarbons are usually represented by their example :
structural formula.nbl 1 2 3
The formula that shows how atoms of different CCCCo
elements are linked together in a molecule is known
as structural formula. 10 i004de tonoiibbs. 2s145 67 atoms
carbon
For example :Butane (CHo) can be represented in Here, the longest chain is of 7 carbonaton
the following way : root word is 'hept', The remaining
(unnumbered) is considered a branch.
190
 branch chains are considered to be in such a way that the functional group gets the
The
ubstituents,andtheir positions are indicated by
2 smallest possible number.
numberof carbon atoms to which they are For example :
the
atached. For example : 5 4 3 2 1
CH,
CH, CH, CH, CH CH,
cCCC CC OH
5 6 7 Pentan-2-ol Right
12 3 4
methyl is attached to third Carbon)
3-Methyl(because 1 2 3 4
carbon atoms of the longest chain are CH, CH,CH, CH CH,
3.The
numbered in such a way that the alkyl groups OH
(substituents) getthe smallest possible number. Pentan-4-ol Wrong
Forexample:
23 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 1CH,OH
CCCCC CH,CH,CH-CH,CH,-CH,
2 3 4 5
CH,i Jo--CH, 2-ethylpentan -1-ol
2-Methyl 4-Methyl
alkane is replaced by
Right Wrong Note : In nomenclature, 'e' of position.
the
suffix of functional group indicatingsubstituents
indicated by
4. The position(s) of alkyl group(s) are alkyl group 7. In case, different types of
are
the
writing the position and name ofhydrocarbon. arranged and
attached to the chain, they are
just before the name of parent named alphabetically.DO-D
2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3
CH, CH, CH CH, CH, CH, CH CH, CH CH, CH,
4
CH, CH 6CH, CH, Br CI
2-Bromo 4-chloro hexane
3-ethyl heptane
Examples of IUPAC names
Example 1:
l sln CH,CH, Word Root : Prop

1d2 3 l4 5
CH,-ÔH H, Suffix : -ane
Prefix : 2 methyl
CH,-CH, CH,-CH,
CH, CH, CH3-ethyl CH, IUPAC name : 2-methyl propane
heptane
Example 2:
alkyl groups are labelled with the Greek 3 1 Word Root : But
5. Multiple di' for two, 'tri' for
4
CH,-CH Suffix: -ane
numerical prefixes such as Prefix : 2, 3-dimethyl
'penta' for five.
three, 'tetra' for four, carbon atom, CH, CH,
IUPAC name : 2, 3-dimethyl
are on the same butane
Iftwo alkyl groups Example 3:
repeated.
the numeral is nk 1 2 3 4 5

CH,CH, CH CH, CH CH, CH,

CH
CH, CH, CCH, CH, CH,
CH, C CH,-CH, The longest chain is of 5 carbon atoms so root
CH,
MOST ACH, 3-ethyl,3-methyl pentane word is Pent. The nature of carbon chain is
2, 2-dimethyl butane
C-C[single bond] - Suffix -ane and the
functional group is also present in substituent is an (alkyl) methyl-CH, group. Thus
6. In case, any carbon atoms are
numbered
the chain, then the name of compound is :3-methyl pentane.
191